halictidae

Most halictids nest in the ground, often in habitats like clay soil and river banks, though a few nest in wood. They mass-provision their young; a mass of pollen and nectar is formed inside a waterproof cell, an egg laid upon it, and the cell sealed off, so the larva is given all of its food at one time, as opposed to "progressive provisioning", where a larva is fed repeatedly as it grows, as in honey bees. Some species line their tunnels with lactone secretions to help workers return to the nest. It is thought that each individual bee has its own unique chemical signature. All species (except for kleptoparasites) are pollen feeders and may be important pollinators.{{Citation needed |date=May 2023}}

File:Systropha planidens.jpg , a specialist pollinator of Convolvulus]]

{{further |Eusociality}}

Many species in the Halictidae are eusocial at least in part, such as Lasioglossum malachurum, with fairly well-defined queen and worker castes (though not the same as the caste system in honey bees), and certain manifestations of their social behavior appear to be facultative in various lineages.{{Cite journal |title=Environmental influences on male production and social structure in Halictus rubicundus (Hymenoptera: Halictidae) |journal=Insectes Sociaux |date=1993-06-01 |issn=0020-1812 |pages=169–180 |volume=40 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/BF01240705 |first=D. |last=Yanega |s2cid=44934383}} The first group of offspring continues to build and protect the nest as well as gather food for a new brood of larvae. An impressive variety of social and nesting behaviors are exhibited by halictids including solitary, communal, semi-social and primitively eusocial. Different biotic and abiotic factors can even affect these behaviors such as floral resources, location, altitude, season, and climate.

Those species which do not have a permanent, rigid, division of labor, such as Lasioglossum zephyrus or Halictus rubicundus, are considered primitively eusocial.{{cite journal |last=Batra |first=Suzanne W. T. |year=1966 |title=The life cycle and behavior of the primitively social bee Lasioglossum zephyrum (Halictidae) |journal=Univisty of Kansas Science Bulletin |volume=46 |pages=359–423 }} Another example of a primitive eusocial bee species from this family is Halictus ligatus, for which aggression is one of the most influential behavioral attitudes for establishing hierarchy and social organization within the colony.{{cite journal |last1=Pabalan |first1=N. |last2=Davey |first2=K.G. |last3=Packer |first3=L. |year=2000 |title=Escalation of aggressive interactions during staged encounters in Halictus ligatus Say (Hymenoptera: Halictidae), with a comparison of circle tube behaviors with other halictine species |doi=10.1023/a:1007868725551 |journal=Journal of Insect Behavior |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=627–650 |s2cid=20773517 }} Primitively eusocial species such as these provide insight into the early evolution of eusociality. Halictus sexcinctus, which exhibits social, communal, and eusocial organization, provides insight into the evolutionary reversal of eusociality. Phylogenetic data from this species suggests that a communal strategy serves as a transitional step between eusociality and a reversion back to solitary nesting.{{cite journal |last1=Richards |first1=M. H. |year=2003 |title=Variable worker behaviour in the weakly eusocial sweat bee, Halictus sexcinctus Fabricius |journal=Insectes Sociaux |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=361–364 |doi=10.1007/s00040-003-0691-3 |s2cid=38716600 }}

Several genera and species of halictids are kleptoparasites of other bees (mostly other halictids or bees of similar size). The behavior has evolved at least nine times independently within the family. The most well-known and common are species in the genus Sphecodes, which are somewhat wasp-like in appearance (often shining black with blood-red abdomen- German: Blutbienen - usually 4–9 mm in body length); the female Sphecodes enters the cell with the provision mass, eats the host egg, and lays an egg of her own in its place.{{Citation needed |date=May 2023}}

Halictidae is one of the four bee families that contain some crepuscular species; these halictids are active only at dusk or in the early evening, so are technically considered "vespertine" (e.g. in the subgenus Sphecodogastra of Lasioglossum), or sometimes truly nocturnal (e.g. in the genus Megalopta, such as the species M. genalis).{{Cite journal |title=Retinal and optical adaptations for nocturnal vision in the halictid bee Megalopta genalis |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |date=2004-04-03 |issn=0302-766X |pages=377–390 |volume=316 |issue=3 |doi=10.1007/s00441-004-0883-9 |first1=Birgit |last1=Greiner |first2=Willi A. |last2=Ribi |first3=Eric J. |last3=Warrant |pmid=15064946 |s2cid=2155166}} These bees, as is typical in such cases, have greatly enlarged ocelli. The other families with some crepuscular species are Andrenidae, Colletidae, and Apidae.{{Citation needed |date=May 2023}}

Some Halictids are important in the pollination of crops. Among these are the alkali bee,{{cite web |title=A native ground nesting bee, Nomia melanderi, sustainably managed to pollinate alfalfa across an intensively agricultural landscape) |url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?seq_no_115=212779 |website=United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service}} Lasioglossum vierecki{{cite web |title=Farming for native bees: Final report |last1=Kuehn |first1=F. |year=2015 |url=http://mysare.sare.org/sare_project/LNE07-261/?page=final |website=SARE - Sustainable agriculture research & education}} and Lasioglossum leucozonium.{{cite thesis |last=Adamson |first=N. L. |year=2011 |title=An assessment of non-Apis bees as fruit and vegetable crop pollinators in southwest Virginia |publisher=Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University |url=http://www.step-project.net/NPDOCS/Adamson_NL_D_2011.pdf |type=PhD}} While some halictid species are oligoleges (e.g., Rophites algirus, which only visits the flowers of hedgenettle plants.), most are generalists making them potentially valuable overall pollinators.{{Cite web |title=Halictid Bees |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/pollinator-of-the-month/halictid_bees.shtml |access-date=2021-12-06 |website=www.fs.fed.us}}

File:Halictus rubicundus 394603187.jpg with its tongue out, licking sweat]]

Only females have the ability to deliver a sting.{{Cite web |title=StackPath |url=https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/plant-problems/pests/insects/sweat-bees-in-gardens.htm |access-date=2021-12-07 |website=www.gardeningknowhow.com}} Due to their non-aggressive nature, they are only likely to sting if disturbed; the sting is minor. The most common instances of stinging occur from swatting at or accidentally making contact with a halictid trying to get a lick of one's sweat, seeking the dissolved electrolytes.{{Cite web |title=No Need To Sweat Non-Aggressive Sweat Bees Or Lookalike Hover Flies |url=https://reconnectwithnature.org/News-Events/The-Buzz/Non-Aggressive-Sweat-bees |access-date=2021-12-07 |website=Forest Preserve District of Will County}}

Halictidae belongs to the hymenopteran subclade Aculeata (stinging Hymenoptera), superfamily Apoidea (bees and wasps), series Anthophila (true bees). Fossils from this family are typically found in amber from the Baltic Region and the Dominican Republic and imply that Halictidae have existed since at least 96-75 million years ago. The oldest fossil record of Halictidae dates back to Early Eocene{{cite journal |last1=Engel |first1=M.S. |last2=Archibald |first2=S.B. |year=2003 |title=An Early Eocene bee (Hymenoptera: Halictidae) from Quilchena, British Columbia |doi=10.4039/n02-030 |journal=The Canadian Entomologist |volume=135 |issue=1 |pages=63–69 |hdl=1808/16473 |s2cid=54053341 |hdl-access=free }} with a number of species, such as Neocorynura electra{{cite journal |last1=Engel |first1=M.S. |year=1995 |title=Neocorynura electra, a New Fossil Bee Species from Dominican Amber (Hymenoptera:Halictidae) |journal= Journal of the New York Entomological Society |volume=103 |pages=317–323 |jstor=25010174 |issue=3}} and Augochlora leptoloba{{cite journal |last1=Engel |first1=M.S. |year=2000 |title= Classification of the bee tribe Augochlorini (Hymenoptera, Halictidae) |journal= Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History |volume=250 |pages=1 |url=http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/1598/1/B250.pdf |doi=10.1206/0003-0090(2000)250<0001:COTBTA>2.0.CO;2 |hdl=2246/1598 |s2cid=85810077 }} known from amber deposits. Currently, the family is divided into four subfamilies, many genera, and more than 2000 known species. Rophitinae appears to be the sister group to the remaining three subfamilies (Nomiinae, Nomioidinae, Halictinae) based on both morphology and molecular data.{{cite journal |last1=Patiny |first1=S. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Phylogenetic relationships and host-plant evolution within the basal clade of Halictidae (Hymenoptera, Apoidea) |journal=Cladistics |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=255–269 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.2007.00182.x |s2cid=23828602 |doi-access=free }}

File:Iridescent.green.sweat.bee1.jpg|Agapostemon sp.

File:Dufourea novaeangliae, f, side, Washington Co, ME 2016-04-15-21.47 (26697775525).jpg|Dufourea novaeangliae side

File:Oligochlora semirugosa.jpg|female Oligochlora semirugosa in Dominican amber of Miocene age

File:Augochloropsis metallica male.jpg|Augochloropsis metallica male

File:Augochlora pura.webm|thumbtime=10|A pure green sweat bee foraging on yellow ironweed

{{div col |colwidth=20em}}

Subfamily Rophitinae:

• Ceblurgus
• Conanthalictus
• Dufourea
• Goeletapis
• Micralictoides
• Morawitzella
• Morawitzia
• Penapis
• Protodufourea
• Rophites
• Sphecodosoma
• Systropha
• Xeralictus

Subfamily Nomiinae:

• Dieunomia
• Halictonomia
• Lipotriches
• Mellitidia
• Nomia
• Pseudapis
• Ptilonomia
• Reepenia
• Spatunomia
• Sphegocephala
• Steganomus

Subfamily Nomioidinae:

• Cellariella
• Ceylalictus
• Nomioides

Subfamily Halictinae:

Tribe Halictini

• Agapostemon
• Caenohalictus
• Dinagapostemon
• Echthralictus
• Eupetersia
• Glossodialictus
• Habralictus
• Halictus
• Homalictus
• Lasioglossum
• Mexalictus
• Microsphecodes
• Nesosphecodes
• Paragapostemon
• Patellapis
• Pseudagapostemon
• Ptilocleptis
• Rhinetula
• Ruizantheda
• Sphecodes
• Thrincohalictus
• Urohalictus

Tribe Thrinchostomini

• Parathrincostoma
• Thrinchostoma

Tribe Augochlorini

• Andinaugochlora
• Ariphanarthra
• Augochlora
• Augochlorella
• Augochlorodes
• Augochloropsis
• Caenaugochlora
• Chlerogas
• Chlerogella
• Chlerogelloides
• Corynura
• Halictillus
• Ischnomelissa
• Megalopta
• Megaloptidia
• Megaloptilla
• Megommation
• Micrommation
• Neocorynura
• Paroxystoglossa
• Pseudaugochlora
• Rhectomia
• Rhinocorynura
• Temnosoma
• Thectochlora
• Xenochlora

Unplaced fossil halictines:

• †Eickwortapis
• †Nesagapostemon
• †Oligochlora

{{div col end}}

{{Reflist |30em |refs=

{{cite journal |last1=Engel |first1=M.S. |author-link=Michael S. Engel |year=2000 |title=Classification of the bee tribe Augochlorini (Hymenoptera: Halictidae) |url =http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/bitstream/2246/1598/1//v2/dspace/ingest/pdfSource/bul/B250.pdf |journal=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History |volume=250 |pages=1–89 |doi=10.1206/0003-0090(2000)250<0001:cotbta>2.0.co;2 |hdl=2246/1598 |s2cid=85810077 }}

{{cite book |author=Grimaldi, D. |author-link=David Grimaldi (entomologist) |author2=Engel, M.S. |author2-link=Michael S. Engel |name-list-style=amp |title=Evolution of the Insects |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82149-0}}

}}

{{Commons category|Halictidae}}

{{Wikispecies}}

• [http://www.cirrusimage.com/Bees_halictid.htm Family Halictidae] Large format diagnostic photos, information.
• [http://www.everythingabout.net/articles/biology/animals/arthropods/insects/bees/sweat_bee/ Everything About the Sweat Bee] - Description and photo of the sweat bee.
• [http://zoologie.umh.ac.be/hymenoptera/galerie/exploredb.aspx?parent=45 Image Gallery from Gembloux] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181831/http://zoologie.umh.ac.be/hymenoptera/galerie/exploredb.aspx?parent=45 |date=2016-03-03 }}
• [http://bugguide.net/index.php?q=search&keys=Halictidae&search=Search BugGuide – Search: Halictidae] (North American species only).
• [http://www.discoverlife.org/20/q?search=Apoidea#Identification Online identification guides for eastern North American Halictidae]
• [http://entnemdept.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/halictid_bees.htm Halictidae ] on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site

{{Hymenoptera|2}}

{{Eusociality}}

{{Taxonbar |from=Q2276661}}

{{Authority control}}

Halictidae

Category:Bee families