hydrogen economy

The concept of a society that uses hydrogen as the primary means of energy storage was theorized by geneticist J. B. S. Haldane in 1923. Anticipating the exhaustion of Britain's coal reserves for power generation, Haldane proposed a network of wind turbines to produce hydrogen and oxygen for long-term energy storage through electrolysis, to help address renewable power's variable output.{{Cite web |title=Daedalus or Science and the Future, A paper read to the Heretics, Cambridge, on February 4th, 1923 – Transcript 1993 |url=http://bactra.org/Daedalus.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115013540/http://bactra.org/Daedalus.html |archive-date=2017-11-15 |access-date=2016-01-16}} The term "hydrogen economy" itself was coined by John Bockris during a talk he gave in 1970 at General Motors (GM) Technical Center.{{cite web|url=http://www.hydrogenassociation.org/general/factSheet_history.pdf|title=The History of Hydrogen|author1=National Hydrogen Association|author2=United States Department of Energy|work=hydrogenassociation.org|publisher=National Hydrogen Association|page=1|access-date=17 December 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714141058/http://www.hydrogenassociation.org/general/factSheet_history.pdf|archive-date=14 July 2010}} Bockris viewed it as an economy in which hydrogen, underpinned by nuclear and solar power, would help address growing concern about fossil fuel depletion and environmental pollution, by serving as energy carrier for end-uses in which electrification was not suitable.{{Cite journal |last1=Yap |first1=Jiazhen |last2=McLellan |first2=Benjamin |date=6 January 2023 |title=A Historical Analysis of Hydrogen Economy Research, Development, and Expectations, 1972 to 2020 |journal=Environments |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=11 |doi=10.3390/environments10010011 |issn=2076-3298 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023Envi...10...11Y |hdl=2433/284015 |hdl-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last=Bockris |first=J. O'M. |date=1972-06-23 |title=A Hydrogen Economy |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.176.4041.1323 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=176 |issue=4041 |pages=1323 |doi=10.1126/science.176.4041.1323 |pmid=17820918 |bibcode=1972Sci...176.1323O |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }}

A hydrogen economy was proposed by the University of Michigan to solve some of the negative effects of using hydrocarbon fuels where the carbon is released to the atmosphere (as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons, etc.). Modern interest in the hydrogen economy can generally be traced to a 1970 technical report by Lawrence W. Jones of the University of Michigan,{{cite conference|last1=Jones|first1=Lawrence W|date=13 March 1970|title=Toward a liquid hydrogen fuel economy|conference=University of Michigan Environmental Action for Survival Teach In|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|publisher=University of Michigan|hdl=2027.42/5800}} in which he echoed Bockris' dual rationale of addressing energy security and environmental challenges. Unlike Haldane and Bockris, Jones only focused on nuclear power as the energy source for electrolysis, and principally on the use of hydrogen in transport, where he regarded aviation and heavy goods transport as the top priorities.{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Lawrence W. |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/5800/bac5758.0001.001.pdf |title=Toward a Liquid Hydrogen Fuel Economy |date=March 13, 1970 |pages=2–3}}

File:IRENA hydrogen leadership opportunities.png in 2022IRENA (2022), [https://www.irena.org/Publications/2022/Jan/Geopolitics-of-the-Energy-Transformation-Hydrogen Geopolitics of the Energy Transformation: The Hydrogen Factor], International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. {{ISBN|978-92-9260-370-0}}.{{rp|55}}]]

A spike in attention for the hydrogen economy concept during the 2000s was repeatedly described as hype by some critics and proponents of alternative technologies,{{cite journal |last1=Bakker |first1=Sjoerd |title=The car industry and the blow-out of the hydrogen hype |journal=Energy Policy |volume=38 |issue=11 |pages=6540–6544 |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2010.07.019 |year=2010 |bibcode=2010EnPol..38.6540B |url=http://www.geo.uu.nl/isu/pdf/isu0914.pdf |access-date=2019-12-11 |archive-date=2018-11-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103054549/http://www.geo.uu.nl/isu/pdf/isu0914.pdf |url-status=live }}{{cite journal|last1=Harrison|first1=James|title=Reactions: Hydrogen hype|journal=Chemical Engineer|volume=58|pages=774–775|url=https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-31644446919&partnerID=40&md5=774f9bad3596ab20fa4e09dd311650f9|access-date=2017-08-31|archive-date=2021-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208150534/https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-31644446919&origin=inward&txGid=991e7333984829c38848e466307c1bde|url-status=live}}{{cite journal |last1=Rizzi |first=Francesco |last2=Annunziata |first2=Eleonora |last3=Liberati |first3=Guglielmo |last4=Frey |first4=Marco |date=2014 |title=Technological trajectories in the automotive industry: are hydrogen technologies still a possibility? |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=66 |pages=328–336 |bibcode=2014JCPro..66..328R |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.11.069}} and investors lost money in the bubble.{{Cite news |title=Can a viable industry emerge from the hydrogen shakeout? |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2023/07/03/can-a-viable-industry-emerge-from-the-hydrogen-shakeout |access-date=2023-09-26 |issn=0013-0613}} Interest in the energy carrier resurged in the 2010s, notably with the forming of the World Hydrogen Council in 2017. Several manufacturers released hydrogen fuel cell cars commercially, with manufacturers such as Toyota, Hyundai, and industry groups in China having planned to increase numbers of the cars into the hundreds of thousands over the next decade.{{cite news|last1=Murai|first1=Shusuke|title=Japan's top auto and energy firms tie up to promote development of hydrogen stations|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/03/05/business/japans-top-auto-energy-firms-tie-promote-development-hydrogen-stations/|newspaper=The Japan Times Online|publisher=Japan Times|access-date=16 April 2018|date=2018-03-05|archive-date=2018-04-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417194850/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/03/05/business/japans-top-auto-energy-firms-tie-promote-development-hydrogen-stations/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|last1=Mishra|first1=Ankit|title=Prospects of fuel-cell electric vehicles boosted with Chinese backing|work=Energy Post |url=http://energypost.eu/fuel-cell-vehicles-help-drive-china-to-a-low-carbon-future/|access-date=16 April 2018|date=2018-03-29|archive-date=2018-04-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417192045/http://energypost.eu/fuel-cell-vehicles-help-drive-china-to-a-low-carbon-future/|url-status=live}}

The global scope for hydrogen's role in cars is shrinking relative to earlier expectations.{{Cite journal |last=Plötz |first=Patrick |date=January 2022 |title=Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41928-021-00706-6 |journal=Nature Electronics |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=8–10 |doi=10.1038/s41928-021-00706-6 |s2cid=246465284 |issn=2520-1131|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite news |last=Collins (l_collins) |first=Leigh |date=2022-02-02 |title='Hydrogen unlikely to play major role in road transport, even for heavy trucks': Fraunhofer |url=https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/-hydrogen-unlikely-to-play-major-role-in-road-transport-even-for-heavy-trucks-fraunhofer/2-1-1162055 |access-date=2023-09-08 |newspaper=Recharge | Latest Renewable Energy News}} By the end of 2022, 70,200 hydrogen vehicles had been sold worldwide,{{Cite book |last1=Chu |first1=Yidan |url=https://theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Global-EV-sales-2022_FINAL.pdf |title=Annual update on the global transition to electric vehicles: 2022 |last2=Cui |first2=Hongyang |publisher=International Council on Clean Transportation |pages=2–3 |access-date=2023-08-25}} compared with 26 million plug-in electric vehicles.{{Cite book |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023 |title=Global EV Outlook 2023 |date=26 April 2023 |publisher=IEA |pages=14–24 |access-date=2023-08-25}}

Early 2020s takes on the hydrogen economy share earlier perspectives' emphasis on the complementarity of electricity and hydrogen, and the use of electrolysis as the mainstay of hydrogen production. They focus on the need to limit global warming to 1.5 °C and prioritize the production, transportation and use of green hydrogen for heavy industry (e.g. high-temperature processes alongside electricity,{{Cite web |last=Kjellberg-Motton |first=Brendan |date=2022-02-07 |title=Steel decarbonisation gathers speed {{!}} Argus Media |url=https://www.argusmedia.com/en//news/2299399-steel-decarbonisation-gathers-speed |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=www.argusmedia.com |language=en}} feedstock for production of green ammonia and organic chemicals, as alternative to coal-derived coke for steelmaking),{{Cite web |last1=Blank |first1=Thomas |last2=Molly |first2=Patrick |date=January 2020 |title=Hydrogen's Decarbonization Impact for Industry |url=https://rmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/hydrogen_insight_brief.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922115313/https://rmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/hydrogen_insight_brief.pdf |archive-date=22 September 2020 |access-date= |publisher=Rocky Mountain Institute |pages=2, 7, 8}} long-haul transport (e.g. shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles), and long-term energy storage.

Hydrogen production globally was valued at over US$155 billion in 2022 and is expected to grow over 9% annually through 2030.{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen Generation Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report, 2023 – 2030 |url=https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/hydrogen-generation-market |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=www.grandviewresearch.com |language=en}}

In 2021, 94 million tonnes (Mt) of molecular hydrogen ({{chem2|H2}}) was produced.{{Cite web |title=Executive summary – Global Hydrogen Review 2022 – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2022/executive-summary |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}} Of this total, approximately one sixth was as a by-product of petrochemical industry processes. Most hydrogen comes from dedicated production facilities, over 99% of which is from fossil fuels, mainly via steam reforming of natural gas (70%) and coal gasification (30%, almost all of which in China). Less than 1% of dedicated hydrogen production is low carbon: steam fossil fuel reforming with carbon capture and storage, green hydrogen produced using electrolysis, and hydrogen produced from biomass. CO₂ emissions from 2021 production, at 915 MtCO₂,{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen |url=https://www.iea.org/energy-system/low-emission-fuels/hydrogen |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}} amounted to 2.5% of energy-related CO₂ emissionsEnergy-related emissions totalled 36.3 Gigatonnes CO₂ in 2021.{{Cite web |title=Global CO2 emissions rebounded to their highest level in history in 2021 – News |url=https://www.iea.org/news/global-co2-emissions-rebounded-to-their-highest-level-in-history-in-2021 |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=IEA |date=8 March 2022 |language=en-GB}} and 1.8% of global greenhouse gas emissions.

Virtually all hydrogen produced for the current market is used in oil refining (40 Mt{{chem2|H2}} in 2021) and industry (54 MtH2).{{Rp|pages=18, 22}} In oil refining, hydrogen is used, in a process known as hydrocracking, to convert heavy petroleum sources into lighter fractions suitable for use as fuels. Industrial uses mainly comprise ammonia production to make fertilizers (34 Mt{{chem2|H2}} in 2021), methanol production (15 Mt{{chem2|H2}}) and the manufacture of direct reduced iron (5 Mt{{chem2|H2}}).{{Rp|pages=|page=29}}

{{Excerpt|Hydrogen production|paragraphs=1-3}}

{{See also|Methanol economy}}

Green methanol is a liquid fuel that is produced from combining carbon dioxide and hydrogen ({{chem2|CO2 + 3 H2 → CH3OH + H2O}}) under pressure and heat with catalysts. It is a way to reuse carbon capture for recycling. Methanol can store hydrogen economically at standard outdoor temperatures and pressures, compared to liquid hydrogen and ammonia that need to use a lot of energy to stay cold in their liquid state.{{Cite journal |last1=Song |first1=Qianqian |last2=Tinoco |first2=Rodrigo Rivera |last3=Yang |first3=Haiping |last4=Yang |first4=Qing |last5=Jiang |first5=Hao |last6=Chen |first6=Yingquan |last7=Chen |first7=Hanping |date=2022-09-01 |title=A comparative study on energy efficiency of the maritime supply chains for liquefied hydrogen, ammonia, methanol and natural gas |journal=Carbon Capture Science & Technology |volume=4 |pages=100056 |doi=10.1016/j.ccst.2022.100056 |issn=2772-6568|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022CCST....400056S }} In 2023 the Laura Maersk was the first container ship to run on methanol fuel.{{Cite web |date=2023-09-14 |title=World's 'first green container ship' christened in Denmark |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2023/09/14/what-is-green-methanol-denmark-launches-the-worlds-first-green-container-ship |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=euronews |language=en}} Ethanol plants in the midwest are a good place for pure carbon capture to combine with hydrogen to make green methanol, with abundant wind and nuclear energy in Iowa, Minnesota, and Illinois.{{Cite web |last=Strong |first=Jared |date=2024-02-17 |title=Green methanol: A carbon dioxide pipeline alternative? • Nebraska Examiner |url=https://nebraskaexaminer.com/2024/02/17/green-methanol-a-carbon-dioxide-pipeline-alternative/ |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=Nebraska Examiner |language=en-US}}{{Cite journal |last1=Cordero-Lanzac |first1=Tomas |last2=Ramirez |first2=Adrian |last3=Navajas |first3=Alberto |last4=Gevers |first4=Lieven |last5=Brunialti |first5=Sirio |last6=Gandía |first6=Luis M. |last7=Aguayo |first7=Andrés T. |last8=Mani Sarathy |first8=S. |last9=Gascon |first9=Jorge |date=2022-05-01 |title=A techno-economic and life cycle assessment for the production of green methanol from CO2: catalyst and process bottlenecks |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095495621005738 |journal=Journal of Energy Chemistry |volume=68 |pages=255–266 |doi=10.1016/j.jechem.2021.09.045 |issn=2095-4956|hdl=10754/673022 |hdl-access=free }} Mixing methanol with ethanol could make methanol a safer fuel to use because methanol doesn't have a visible flame in the daylight and doesn't emit smoke, and ethanol has a visible light yellow flame.{{cite journal | doi=10.1021/acsomega.2c00991 | title=Effects of Ethanol and Methanol on the Combustion Characteristics of Gasoline with the Revised Variation Disturbance Method | date=2022 | last1=Li | first1=Shu-hao | last2=Wen | first2=Zhenhua | last3=Hou | first3=Junxing | last4=Xi | first4=Shuanghui | last5=Fang | first5=Pengya | last6=Guo | first6=Xiao | last7=Li | first7=Yong | last8=Wang | first8=Zhenghe | last9=Li | first9=Shangjun | journal=ACS Omega | volume=7 | issue=21 | pages=17797–17810 | pmid=35664594 | pmc=9161270 }}{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lmEsU-QYxNk | title=The Horror of Methanol Fires | Last Moments | website=YouTube | date=17 March 2023 }}{{cite web | url=https://www.freepatentsonline.com/5858031.html | title=Isopropanol blended with aqueous ethanol for flame coloration without use of salts or hazardous solvents }} Green hydrogen production of 70% efficiency and a 70% efficiency of methanol production from that would be a 49% energy conversion efficiency.{{Cite web |title=Green Methanol Production-A Techno-Economic Analysis |url=https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/green-methanol-production-a-techno-economic-analysis-clrkc |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=www.linkedin.com |language=en}}

File:The_Hydrogen_Ladder,_Version_5.0.jpg

Image:Photo praxair plant.hydrogen.infrastructure.jpg

Hydrogen can be deployed as a fuel in two distinct ways: in fuel cells which produce electricity, and via combustion to generate heat.{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=Alastair C. |date=10 June 2021 |title=Optimising air quality co-benefits in a hydrogen economy: a case for hydrogen-specific standards for NO x emissions |journal=Environmental Science: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=201–207 |doi=10.1039/D1EA00037C|s2cid=236732702 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021ESAt....1..201L }}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by3|url=|authors=|vrt=|from this source=yes}} When hydrogen is consumed in fuel cells, the only emission at the point of use is water vapor. Combustion of hydrogen can lead to the thermal formation of harmful nitrogen oxides emissions.

In the context of limiting global warming, low-carbon hydrogen (particularly green hydrogen) is likely to play an important role in decarbonizing industry.{{Cite book |author=IPCC |url=https://ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_FullReport.pdf |title=Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press (In Press) |year=2022 |editor1-last=Shukla |editor1-first=P.R. |series=Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |place=Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US |pages=1184 |doi=10.1017/9781009157926 |isbn=9781009157926 |ref={{harvid|IPCC AR6 WG3|2022}} |author-link=IPCC |editor2-last=Skea |editor2-first=J. |editor3-last=Slade |editor3-first=R. |editor4-last=Al Khourdajie |editor4-first=A. |editor5-last=van Diemen |editor5-first=R. |editor6-last=McCollum |editor6-first=D. |editor7-last=Pathak |editor7-first=M. |editor8-last=Some |editor8-first=S. |editor9-last=Vyas |editor9-first=P. |display-editors=4 |editor10-first=R. |editor10-last=Fradera |editor11-first=M. |editor11-last=Belkacemi |editor12-first=A. |editor12-last=Hasija |editor13-first=G. |editor13-last=Lisboa |editor14-first=S. |editor14-last=Luz |editor15-first=J. |editor15-last=Malley}} Hydrogen fuel can produce the intense heat required for industrial production of steel, cement, glass, and chemicals, thus contributing to the decarbonization of industry alongside other technologies, such as electric arc furnaces for steelmaking. However, it is likely to play a larger role in providing industrial feedstock for cleaner production of ammonia and organic chemicals. For example, in steelmaking, hydrogen could function as a clean energy carrier and also as a low-carbon catalyst replacing coal-derived coke.

The imperative to use low-carbon hydrogen to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has the potential to reshape the geography of industrial activities, as locations with appropriate hydrogen production potential in different regions will interact in new ways with logistics infrastructure, raw material availability, human and technological capital.

{{Main|Hydrogen vehicle}}

Much of the interest in the hydrogen economy concept is focused on hydrogen vehicles, particularly planes.{{Cite news |title=Is the time now ripe for planes to run on hydrogen? |url=https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2020/12/08/is-the-time-now-ripe-for-planes-to-run-on-hydrogen |access-date=2024-02-17 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}{{Cite journal |last1=Yusaf |first1=Talal |last2=Faisal Mahamude |first2=Abu Shadate |last3=Kadirgama |first3=Kumaran |last4=Ramasamy |first4=Devarajan |last5=Farhana |first5=Kaniz |last6=A. Dhahad |first6=Hayder |last7=Abu Talib |first7=ABD Rahim |date=2024-01-02 |title=Sustainable hydrogen energy in aviation – A narrative review |journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy |volume=52 |pages=1026–1045 |doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.02.086 |issn=0360-3199|doi-access=free |bibcode=2024IJHE...52.1026Y }} Hydrogen vehicles produce significantly less local air pollution than conventional vehicles.{{cite web |date=2018-02-16 |title=This company may have solved one of the hardest problems in clean energy |url=https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2018/2/16/16926950/hydrogen-fuel-technology-economy-hytech-storage |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112094756/https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2018/2/16/16926950/hydrogen-fuel-technology-economy-hytech-storage |archive-date=2019-11-12 |access-date=9 February 2019 |publisher=Vox}} By 2050, the energy requirement for transportation might be between 20% and 30% fulfilled by hydrogen and synthetic fuels.{{Cite web |last=IRENA |title=The Hydrogen Factor |url=https://irena.org/DigitalArticles/2022/Jan/Hydrogen_Factor |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=irena.org |language=en |archive-date=2022-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019161220/https://irena.org/DigitalArticles/2022/Jan/Hydrogen_Factor |url-status=dead }}{{Cite web |title=Sustainable fuels and their role in decarbonizing energy {{!}} McKinsey |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/oil-and-gas/our-insights/charting-the-global-energy-landscape-to-2050-sustainable-fuels |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=www.mckinsey.com}}{{Cite journal |last1=Spiryagin |first1=Maksym |last2=Dixon |first2=Roger |last3=Oldknow |first3=Kevin |last4=Cole |first4=Colin |date=2021-09-01 |title=Preface to special issue on hybrid and hydrogen technologies for railway operations |journal=Railway Engineering Science |language=en |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=211 |doi=10.1007/s40534-021-00254-x |issn=2662-4753 |s2cid=240522190 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021RailE..29..211S }}

Hydrogen used to decarbonize transportation is likely to find its largest applications in shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles, through the use of hydrogen-derived synthetic fuels such as ammonia and methanol, and fuel cell technology. Hydrogen has been used in fuel cell buses for many years. It is also used as a fuel for spacecraft propulsion.

In the International Energy Agency's 2022 Net Zero Emissions Scenario (NZE), hydrogen is forecast to account for 2% of rail energy demand in 2050, while 90% of rail travel is expected to be electrified by then (up from 45% today). Hydrogen's role in rail would likely be focused on lines that prove difficult or costly to electrify.{{Cite book |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2022 |title=World energy outlook 2022 |date=27 October 2022 |publisher=International Energy Agency |pages=150}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}} The NZE foresees hydrogen meeting approximately 30% of heavy truck energy demand in 2050, mainly for long-distance heavy freight (with battery electric power accounting for around 60%).{{Cite book |last1=Cozzi |first1=Laura |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/830fe099-5530-48f2-a7c1-11f35d510983/WorldEnergyOutlook2022.pdf |title=World Energy Outlook 2022 |last2=Gould |first2=Tim |publisher=International Energy Agency |pages=148}}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}

Although hydrogen can be used in adapted internal combustion engines, fuel cells, being electrochemical, have an efficiency advantage over heat engines. Fuel cells are more expensive to produce than common internal combustion engines but also require higher purity hydrogen fuel than internal combustion engines.{{Cite journal |last=Stępień |first=Zbigniew |date=January 2021 |title=A Comprehensive Overview of Hydrogen-Fueled Internal Combustion Engines: Achievements and Future Challenges |journal=Energies |language=en |volume=14 |issue=20 |pages=6504 |doi=10.3390/en14206504 |issn=1996-1073 |doi-access=free }}

In the light road vehicle segment including passenger cars, by the end of 2022, 70,200 fuel cell electric vehicles had been sold worldwide, compared with 26 million plug-in electric vehicles. With the rapid rise of electric vehicles and associated battery technology and infrastructure, hydrogen's role in cars is minuscule.

Green hydrogen, from electrolysis of water, has the potential to address the variability of renewable energy output. Hydrogen energy is a clean fuel that produces only water when used in fuel cells. While most hydrogen comes from natural gas, green hydrogen from renewables offers a zero-emission alternative.Producing green hydrogen can both reduce the need for renewable power curtailment during periods of high renewables output and be stored long-term to provide for power generation during periods of low output.{{Cite journal |last1=Schrotenboer |first1=Albert H. |last2=Veenstra |first2=Arjen A.T. |last3=uit het Broek |first3=Michiel A.J. |last4=Ursavas |first4=Evrim |date=October 2022 |title=A Green Hydrogen Energy System: Optimal control strategies for integrated hydrogen storage and power generation with wind energy |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/230184233/1_s2.0_S1364032122006323_main.pdf |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=168 |pages=112744 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2022.112744 |arxiv=2108.00530 |bibcode=2022RSERv.16812744S |s2cid=250941369}}{{Cite news |last=Lipták |first=Béla |date=January 24, 2022 |title=Hydrogen is key to sustainable green energy |work=Control |url=https://www.controlglobal.com/home/article/11288951/hydrogen-is-key-to-sustainable-green-energy |access-date=February 12, 2023}}

{{Main|ammonia|ammonia production}}

{{see also|alkaline fuel cell}}

An alternative to gaseous hydrogen as an energy carrier is to bond it with nitrogen from the air to produce ammonia, which can be easily liquefied, transported, and used (directly or indirectly) as a clean and renewable fuel.{{cite web |last=Agosta |first=Vito |date=July 10, 2003 |title=The Ammonia Economy |url=http://www.memagazine.org/contents/current/webonly/webex710.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513030624/http://www.memagazine.org/contents/current/webonly/webex710.html |archive-date=May 13, 2008 |access-date=2008-05-09}}{{cite web |title=Renewable Energy |url=http://www.energy.iastate.edu/Renewable/ammonia/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513191842/http://www.energy.iastate.edu/renewable/ammonia/index.htm |archive-date=2008-05-13 |access-date=2008-05-09 |publisher=Iowa Energy Center}} Among disadvantages of ammonia as an energy carrier are its high toxicity, energy efficiency of {{chem2|NH3}} production from {{chem2|N2}} and {{chem2|H2}}, and poisoning of PEM Fuel Cells by traces of non-decomposed {{chem2|NH3}} after {{chem2|NH3}} to {{chem2|N2}} conversion.

Numerous industry groups (gas networks, gas boiler manufacturers) across the natural gas supply chain are promoting hydrogen combustion boilers for space and water heating, and hydrogen appliances for cooking, to reduce energy-related CO₂ emissions from residential and commercial buildings.{{Cite web |last=Collins |first=Leigh |date=2021-12-10 |title=Even the European gas lobby can't make a case for hydrogen boilers — so why does it say gases are needed to decarbonise heating? |url=https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/even-the-european-gas-lobby-can-t-make-a-case-for-hydrogen-boilers-so-why-does-it-say-gases-are-needed-to-decarbonise-heating-/2-1-1120847 |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=Recharge {{!}} Latest renewable energy news |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Roth |first=Sammy |date=2023-02-09 |title=California declared war on natural gas. Now the fight is going national |url=https://www.latimes.com/environment/newsletter/2023-02-09/california-declared-war-on-natural-gas-now-the-fight-is-going-national-boiling-point |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}} The proposition is that current end-users of piped natural gas can await the conversion of and supply of hydrogen to existing natural gas grids, and then swap heating and cooking appliances, and that there is no need for consumers to do anything now.

A review of 32 studies on the question of hydrogen for heating buildings, independent of commercial interests, found that the economics and climate benefits of hydrogen for heating and cooking generally compare very poorly with the deployment of district heating networks, electrification of heating (principally through heat pumps) and cooking, the use of solar thermal, waste heat and the installation of energy efficiency measures to reduce energy demand for heat. Due to inefficiencies in hydrogen production, using blue hydrogen to replace natural gas for heating could require three times as much methane, while using green hydrogen would need two to three times as much electricity as heat pumps. Hybrid heat pumps, which combine the use of an electric heat pump with a hydrogen boiler, may play a role in residential heating in areas where upgrading networks to meet peak electrical demand would otherwise be costly.

The widespread use of hydrogen for heating buildings would entail higher energy system costs, higher heating costs and higher environmental impacts than the alternatives, although a niche role may be appropriate in specific contexts and geographies. If deployed, using hydrogen in buildings would drive up the cost of hydrogen for harder-to-decarbonize applications in industry and transport.

{{As of|2019}} although technically possible production of syngas from hydrogen and carbon-dioxide from bio-energy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) via the Sabatier reaction is limited by the amount of sustainable bioenergy available:{{Harvnb|UKCCC H2|2018|p=79}}: The potential for bio-gasification with CCS to be deployed at scale is limited by the amount of sustainable bioenergy available. .... " therefore any bio-SNG made may be reserved for production of aviation biofuel.{{Harvnb|UKCCC H2|2018|p=33}}: production of biofuels, even with CCS, is only one of the best uses of the finite sustainable bio-resource if the fossil fuels it displaces cannot otherwise feasibly be displaced (e.g. use of biomass to produce aviation biofuels with CCS)."

Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG) can be produced from low rank coal/lignite by using hydrogen.{{Cite journal |last=Sasidhar |first=Nallapaneni |date=May 2025 |title=In-situ and Ex-situ Conversion of Coal to Methane using Hydrogen |url=https://www.ijeer.latticescipub.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/v4i3/C104404030525.pdf |access-date=2025-05-28 |journal=Indian Journal of Energy and Energy Resources |issn=2583-1186|volume=4 |issue=3|pages=1–5 |doi=10.54105/ijeer.C1044.04030525 |s2cid=258753397}}

{{Main|Hydrogen safety}}

File:Hydrogen_Flame_Broom_Test_NASA.jpg

In hydrogen pipelines and steel storage vessels, hydrogen molecules are prone to react with metals, causing hydrogen embrittlement and leaks in the pipeline or storage vessel.{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Hao |last2=Cao |first2=Xuewen |last3=Liu |first3=Yang |last4=Shao |first4=Yanbo |last5=Nan |first5=Zilong |last6=Teng |first6=Lin |last7=Peng |first7=Wenshan |last8=Bian |first8=Jiang |date=2022-11-01 |title=Safety of hydrogen storage and transportation: An overview on mechanisms, techniques, and challenges |journal=Energy Reports |volume=8 |pages=6258–6269 |doi=10.1016/j.egyr.2022.04.067 |issn=2352-4847|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022EnRep...8.6258L }}Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Since it is lighter than air, hydrogen does not easily accumulate to form a combustible gas mixture. However, even without ignition sources, high-pressure hydrogen leakage may cause spontaneous combustion and detonation.

Hydrogen is flammable when mixed even in small amounts with air. Ignition can occur at a volumetric ratio of hydrogen to air as low as 4%.{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Fuyuan |last2=Wang |first2=Tianze |last3=Deng |first3=Xintao |last4=Dang |first4=Jian |last5=Huang |first5=Zhaoyuan |last6=Hu |first6=Song |last7=Li |first7=Yangyang |last8=Ouyang |first8=Minggao |date=2021-09-03 |title=Review on hydrogen safety issues: Incident statistics, hydrogen diffusion, and detonation process |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360319921025520 |journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy |volume=46 |issue=61 |pages=31467–31488 |doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.07.005 |bibcode=2021IJHE...4631467Y |issn=0360-3199|url-access=subscription }} In approximately 70% of hydrogen ignition accidents, the ignition source cannot be found, and it is widely believed by scholars that spontaneous ignition of hydrogen occurs.

Hydrogen fire, while being extremely hot, is almost invisible, and thus can lead to accidental burns.{{Cite web |date=2016 |title=Hydrogen Detection Tape Saves Time and Lives {{!}} NASA Spinoff |url=https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2016/ps_5.html |access-date=2025-02-23 |website=spinoff.nasa.gov}} Hydrogen, like most gases, can cause asphyxiation in the absence of adequate ventilation.{{Cite web |last=U.S. Department of Energy |title=Current Safe Operating Practices |url=https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/current-safe-operating-practices |access-date=2025-02-24 |website=Energy.gov |language=en}}

{{Excerpt|Hydrogen infrastructure}}

{{Excerpt|Hydrogen storage}}

{{See also|Hydrogen fuel cell power station|Natural hydrogen|Midcontinent Rift System}}

Xcel Energy is going to build two combined cycle power plants in the Midwest that can mix 30% hydrogen with the natural gas.{{Cite web |last=Orenstein |first=Walker |date=2024-02-01 |title=Xcel Energy wants to extend life of Prairie Island nuclear facility, add two gas plants |url=https://www.startribune.com/xcel-energy-long-term-plan-prairie-island-nuclear-gas-plants-wind-solar-large-scale-battery/600340390 |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=www.startribune.com |language=en}} Intermountain Power Plant is being retrofitted to a natural gas/hydrogen power plant that can run on 30% hydrogen as well, and is scheduled to run on pure hydrogen by 2045.{{Cite web |title=Chevron joins Mitsubishi in 300 GWh hydrogen storage project as construction continues |url=https://www.utilitydive.com/news/chevron-mitsubishi-hydrogen-storage-aces-delata-utah/693782/ |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=Utility Dive |language=en-US}}

{{Update section|date=February 2024|reason=current prices need updating and white hydrogen adding}}

More widespread use of hydrogen in economies entails the need for investment and costs in its production, storage, distribution and use. Estimates of hydrogen's cost are therefore complex and need to make assumptions about the cost of energy inputs (typically gas and electricity), production plant and method (e.g. green or blue hydrogen), technologies used (e.g. alkaline or proton exchange membrane electrolysers), storage and distribution methods, and how different cost elements might change over time.{{Cite book |url=https://www.energy-transitions.org/publications/making-clean-hydrogen-possible/ |title=Making the Hydrogen Economy Possible: Accelerating Clean Hydrogen in an Electrified Economy |date=April 2021 |publisher=Energy Transitions Commission |page= |language=en-GB |access-date=2023-08-25}}{{Rp|page=|pages=49–65}} These factors are incorporated into calculations of the levelized costs of hydrogen (LCOH). The following table shows a range of estimates of the levelized costs of gray, blue, and green hydrogen, expressed in terms of US$ per kg of H₂ (where data provided in other currencies or units, the average exchange rate to US dollars in the given year are used, and 1 kg of H₂ is assumed to have a calorific value of 33.3kWh).

The range of cost estimates for commercially available hydrogen production methods is broad. As of 2022, gray hydrogen is cheapest to produce without a tax on its CO₂ emissions, followed by blue and green hydrogen. Blue hydrogen production costs are not anticipated to fall substantially by 2050,{{Rp|page=28}} can be expected to fluctuate with natural gas prices and could face carbon taxes for uncaptured emissions.{{Rp|page=79}} The cost of electrolysers fell by 60% from 2010 to 2022, before rising due to an increasing cost of capital. The cost of electrolyzers rose 50% between 2021 and 2024. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies nevertheless projects that the cost of green hydrogen is likely to fall significantly towards 2030 and 2050,{{Cite book |last1=Patonia |first1=Aliaksei |url=https://www.oxfordenergy.org/publications/cost-competitive-green-hydrogen-how-to-lower-the-cost-of-electrolysers/ |title=Cost-competitive green hydrogen: how to lower the cost of electrolysers? |last2=Poudineh |first2=Rahmat |date=January 2022 |publisher=Oxford Institute for Energy Studies |page= |language=en |access-date=2023-08-25}}{{Rp|page=26}} alongside the falling cost of renewable power generation.{{Cite journal |last=Roser |first=Max |date=2023-09-01 |title=Why did renewables become so cheap so fast? |url=https://ourworldindata.org/cheap-renewables-growth |journal=Our World in Data}}{{Rp|page=28}} It is cheapest to produce green hydrogen with surplus renewable power that would otherwise be curtailed, which favors electrolyzers capable of responding to low and variable power levels.{{Rp|page=5}}

A 2022 Goldman Sachs analysis anticipates that globally green hydrogen will achieve cost parity with grey hydrogen by 2030, earlier if a global carbon tax is placed on gray hydrogen. In terms of cost per unit of energy, blue and gray hydrogen will always cost more than the fossil fuels used in its production, while green hydrogen will always cost more than the renewable electricity used to make it.

Subsidies for clean hydrogen production are much higher in the US and EU than in India.{{Cite web |last=Martin |first=Polly |date=2023-06-29 |title=India to offer green hydrogen production subsidy of up to $0.60/kg — for three years only |url=https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/production/india-to-offer-green-hydrogen-production-subsidy-of-up-to-0-60-kg-for-three-years-only/2-1-1477425 |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Hydrogen news and intelligence {{!}} Hydrogen Insight |language=en}}

{{Update|section|date=February 2019}}

File:Brno, Autotec, Mercedes Citaro na palivové články II.jpg powered by hydrogen fuel cells in Brno, Czech Republic]]

The distribution of hydrogen for the purpose of transportation is being tested around the world, particularly in the US (California, Massachusetts), Canada, Japan, the EU (Portugal, Norway, the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany), and Iceland.

An indicator of the presence of large natural gas infrastructures already in place in countries and in use by citizens is the number of natural gas vehicles present in the country. The countries with the largest amount of natural gas vehicles are (in order of magnitude):{{Cite web |title=Worldwide NGV statistics |url=http://www.ngvjournal.com/worldwide-ngv-statistics/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206153839/http://www.ngvjournal.com/worldwide-ngv-statistics/ |archive-date=2015-02-06 |access-date=2019-09-29}}

Iran, China, Pakistan, Argentina, India, Brazil, Italy, Colombia, Thailand, Uzbekistan, Bolivia, Armenia, Bangladesh, Egypt, Peru, Ukraine, the United States. Natural gas vehicles can also be converted to run on hydrogen.

Also, in a few private homes, fuel cell micro-CHP plants can be found, which can operate on hydrogen, or other fuels as natural gas or LPG.{{Cite web |title=Fuel Cell micro CHP |url=http://www.pace-energy.eu/micro-cogeneration/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106175546/http://www.pace-energy.eu/micro-cogeneration/ |archive-date=2019-11-06 |access-date=2019-10-23}}{{Cite web |title=Fuel cell micro Cogeneration |url=https://www.cogeneurope.eu/events/past-events/cogen-event/fuel-cell-micro-cogeneration-generating-sustainable-heat-and-power-for-your-home |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023131059/https://www.cogeneurope.eu/events/past-events/cogen-event/fuel-cell-micro-cogeneration-generating-sustainable-heat-and-power-for-your-home |archive-date=2019-10-23 |access-date=2019-10-23}}

Western Australia's Department of Planning and Infrastructure operated three Daimler Chrysler Citaro fuel cell buses as part of its Sustainable Transport Energy for Perth Fuel Cells Bus Trial in Perth from 2004 to 2007.{{cite web |date=13 April 2007 |title=Perth Fuel Cell Bus Trial |url=http://www.dpi.wa.gov.au/ecobus/1206.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607172715/http://www.dpi.wa.gov.au/ecobus/1206.asp |archive-date=7 June 2008 |access-date=2008-05-09 |publisher=Department for Planning and Infrastructure, Government of Western Australia}}

By November 2020 the Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA) had invested $55 million in 28 hydrogen projects, from early stage research and development to early stage trials and deployments. The agency's stated goal is to produce hydrogen by electrolysis for $2 per kilogram, announced by Minister for Energy and Emissions Angus Taylor in a 2021 Low Emissions Technology Statement.{{Cite web |date=30 November 2020 |title=Australia's pathway to $2 per kg hydrogen |url=https://arena.gov.au/blog/australias-pathway-to-2-per-kg-hydrogen/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215065859/https://arena.gov.au/blog/australias-pathway-to-2-per-kg-hydrogen/ |archive-date=2020-12-15 |access-date=2021-01-06 |website=Australian Renewable Energy Agency}}

In October 2021, Queensland Premier Annastacia Palaszczuk and private investor Andrew Forrest announced that Queensland would be home to the world's largest hydrogen plant.{{Cite news |date=October 11, 2021 |title='Green industrial revolution': Queensland announces plans to mass produce green ammonia |newspaper=ABC News |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-10-11/queensland-hydrogen-twiggy-forrest-ammonia-feasiblity/100528732 |url-status=live |access-date=2021-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211012192350/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-10-11/queensland-hydrogen-twiggy-forrest-ammonia-feasiblity/100528732 |archive-date=2021-10-12 |via=abc.net.au}}

In November 2024, the South Australian Government's plan to spend A$593 million on a 200MW hydrogen energy plant near Whyalla was granted federal approval under the EPBC Act. The project is planned to be developed by the Office of Hydrogen Power SA, ATCO Australia, and BOC,{{cite web | last=Howland | first=Nadia | title=South Australia's 200MW Whyalla hydrogen plant approved | website=Energy Source & Distribution | date=3 November 2024 | url=https://esdnews.com.au/south-australias-200mw-whyalla-hydrogen-plant-approved/ | access-date=22 February 2025}} and intended "to supply additional grid stability for homes and businesses around the state, by using excess renewable energy generated from large-scale wind and solar farms to provide a consistent output of supply". Construction was scheduled to start in 2025, with completion and commissioning happening in 2026.{{cite web | last=Howland | first=Nadia | title=Steelworks administration fuels doubt over Whyalla hydrogen | website=Energy Source & Distribution | date=19 February 2025 | url=https://esdnews.com.au/steelworks-administration-fuels-doubt-over-whyalla-hydrogen/ | access-date=22 February 2025}}

Countries in the EU which have a relatively large natural gas pipeline system already in place include Belgium, Germany, France, and the Netherlands.{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen transport & distribution |url=https://hydrogeneurope.eu/hydrogen-transport-distribution |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929110509/https://hydrogeneurope.eu/hydrogen-transport-distribution |archive-date=2019-09-29 |access-date=2019-09-29}} In 2020, The EU launched its European Clean Hydrogen Alliance (ECHA).{{Cite web |last=Pollet |first=Mathieu |date=2020 |title=AExplainer: Why is the EU Commission betting on hydrogen for a greener future? |url=https://www.euronews.com/2020/07/10/explainer-why-is-the-eu-commission-betting-on-hydrogen-for-a-cleaner-future |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807130615/https://www.euronews.com/2020/07/10/explainer-why-is-the-eu-commission-betting-on-hydrogen-for-a-cleaner-future |archive-date=2020-08-07 |access-date=2020-08-14 |website=euronews}}{{Cite web |title=ECHA |url=https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/policy/european-clean-hydrogen-alliance_en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812182627/https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/policy/european-clean-hydrogen-alliance_en |archive-date=2020-08-12 |access-date=2020-08-14}}

Green hydrogen has become more common in France. A €150 million Green Hydrogen Plan was established in 2019, and it calls for building the infrastructure necessary to create, store, and distribute hydrogen as well as using the fuel to power local transportation systems like buses and trains. Corridor H2, a similar initiative, will create a network of hydrogen distribution facilities in Occitania along the route between the Mediterranean and the North Sea. The Corridor H2 project will get a €40 million loan from the EIB.{{Cite web |title=French port bets big on floating wind farms planned in Mediterranean |url=https://www.eib.org/en/essays/floating-wind-farms |access-date=2022-09-26 |website=European Investment Bank}}{{Cite web |date=23 June 2022 |title=Green Hydrogen: A key investment for the energy transition |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/ppps/green-hydrogen-key-investment-energy-transition |access-date=2022-09-26 |website=blogs.worldbank.org}}

German car manufacturer BMW has been working with hydrogen for years.{{quantify|date=October 2021}}.{{Cite web |date=24 October 2007 |title=E3B1C256-BFCB-4CEF-88A6-1DCCD7666635 |url=https://www.scmp.com/article/612717/test-drive-bmws-car-future-its-gas |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029174424/https://www.scmp.com/article/612717/test-drive-bmws-car-future-its-gas |archive-date=2021-10-29 |access-date=2021-10-12}}

The German government has announced plans to hold tenders for 5.5 GW of new hydrogen-ready gas-fired power plants and 2 GW of "comprehensive H2-ready modernisations" of existing gas power stations at the end of 2024 or beginning of 2025{{cite web | url=https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/power/germany-to-tender-for-5-5gw-of-new-hydrogen-ready-gas-fired-power-plants-and-2gw-of-conversions/2-1-1674082 | title=Germany to tender for 5.5GW of new hydrogen-ready gas-fired power plants and 2GW of conversions | date=8 July 2024 }}

Iceland has committed to becoming the world's first hydrogen economy by the year 2050.{{cite web |last=Hannesson |first=Hjálmar W. |date=2007-08-02 |title=Climate change as a global challenge |url=http://www.mfa.is/speeches-and-articles/nr/3800 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107205851/http://www.mfa.is/news-and-publications/nr/3800 |archive-date=2014-01-07 |access-date=2008-05-09 |publisher=Iceland Ministry for Foreign Affairs}} Iceland is in a unique position. Presently,{{when|date=June 2019}} it imports all the petroleum products necessary to power its automobiles and fishing fleet. Iceland has large geothermal resources, so much that the local price of electricity actually is lower than the price of the hydrocarbons that could be used to produce that electricity.

Iceland already converts its surplus electricity into exportable goods and hydrocarbon replacements. In 2002, it produced 2,000 tons of hydrogen gas by electrolysis, primarily for the production of ammonia (NH₃) for fertilizer. Ammonia is produced, transported, and used throughout the world, and 90% of the cost of ammonia is the cost of the energy to produce it.

Neither industry directly replaces hydrocarbons. Reykjavík, Iceland, had a small pilot fleet of city buses running on compressed hydrogen,{{cite news |last=Doyle |first=Alister |date=January 14, 2005 |title=Iceland's hydrogen buses zip toward oil-free economy |agency=Reuters |url=http://www.detnews.com/2005/autosinsider/0501/14/autos-60181.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=2008-05-09 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120724042846/http://www.detnews.com/2005/autosinsider/0501/14/autos-60181.htm |archive-date=July 24, 2012}} and research on powering the nation's fishing fleet with hydrogen is under way (for example by companies as Icelandic New Energy). For more practical purposes, Iceland might process imported oil with hydrogen to extend it, rather than to replace it altogether.

The Reykjavík buses are part of a larger program, HyFLEET:CUTE,{{cite web |title=What is HyFLEET:CUTE? |url=http://www.global-hydrogen-bus-platform.com/index.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080224165308/http://www.global-hydrogen-bus-platform.com/index.php |archive-date=2008-02-24 |access-date=2008-05-09}} operating hydrogen fueled buses in eight European cities. HyFLEET:CUTE buses were also operated in Beijing, China and Perth, Australia (see below). A pilot project demonstrating a hydrogen economy is operational on the Norwegian island of Utsira. The installation combines wind power and hydrogen power. In periods when there is surplus wind energy, the excess power is used for generating hydrogen by electrolysis. The hydrogen is stored, and is available for power generation in periods when there is little wind.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}}

India is said to adopt hydrogen and H-CNG, due to several reasons, amongst which the fact that a national rollout of natural gas networks is already taking place and natural gas is already a major vehicle fuel. In addition, India suffers from extreme air pollution in urban areas.{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen vehicles and refueling infrastructure in India |url=https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f10/cng_h2_workshop_11_das.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612130231/https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f10/cng_h2_workshop_11_das.pdf |archive-date=2017-06-12 |access-date=2019-09-28}}{{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=L |date=1991 |title=Exhaust emission characterization of hydrogen-operated engine system: Nature of pollutants and their control techniques |journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy |volume=16 |issue=11 |pages=765–775 |doi=10.1016/0360-3199(91)90075-T|bibcode=1991IJHE...16..765D }} According to some estimates, nearly 80% of India's hydrogen is projected to be green, driven by cost declines and new production technologies.{{Cite web|url=https://www.bridgeindia.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Bridge-India-UK-India-Energy-Report-2021.pdf|title=UK-India Energy Collaborations report}}

Currently however, hydrogen energy is just at the Research, Development and Demonstration (RD&D) stage.{{Cite web |title=MNRE: FAQ |url=https://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/UserFiles/faq_hydrogenenergy.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921111217/https://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/UserFiles/faq_hydrogenenergy.htm |archive-date=2019-09-21 |access-date=2019-09-28}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20120927155111/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/cng_h2_workshop_9_chenoy.pdf Overview of Indian Hydrogen Programme] As a result, the number of hydrogen stations may still be low,{{Cite web |title=H2 stations worldwide |url=https://www.netinform.net/h2/h2stations/h2stations.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921111217/https://www.netinform.net/h2/h2stations/h2stations.aspx |archive-date=2019-09-21 |access-date=2019-09-28}} although much more are expected to be introduced soon.{{Cite web |date=23 February 2016 |title=India working on more H2 stations |url=https://www.gasworld.com/india-working-on-hydrogen-fuel-stations/2010006.article |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921111210/https://www.gasworld.com/india-working-on-hydrogen-fuel-stations/2010006.article |archive-date=2019-09-21 |access-date=2019-09-28}}{{Cite news |title=Shell plans to open 1200 fuel stations in India, some of which may include H2 refilling |newspaper=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/oil-gas/shell-plans-opening-1200-retail-stations-in-india-in-10-years/articleshow/65660768.cms |url-status=live |access-date=2019-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922161455/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/oil-gas/shell-plans-opening-1200-retail-stations-in-india-in-10-years/articleshow/65660768.cms |archive-date=2019-09-22}}{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen Vehicles and Refueling Infrastructure in India |url=https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f10/cng_h2_workshop_11_das.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612130231/https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f10/cng_h2_workshop_11_das.pdf |archive-date=2017-06-12 |access-date=2019-09-28}}

It planning open first hydrogen publication stations, The Ministry of Climate and Environment (MKiŚ) will soon schan competitions for 2-3 hydrogen refueling stations, Polish Deputy Minister in this ministry Krzysztof Bolesta.{{cite web | url=https://hydrogen-central.com/orlen-hydrogen-refueling-stations-poland/ | title=ORLEN will Build the First Hydrogen Refueling Stations in Poland | date=6 May 2021 }}

Saudi Arabia as a part of the NEOM project, is looking to produce roughly 1.2 million tonnes of green ammonia a year, beginning production in 2025.{{Cite web |date=21 April 2021 |title=Saudi Arabia's $5bn green hydrogen-based ammonia plant to begin production in 2025 |url=https://energy-utilities.com/saudi-arabia-s-5bn-green-hydrogenbased-ammonia-news111872.html |access-date=2022-01-13 |website=Energy & Utilities |archive-date=2021-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421122019/https://energy-utilities.com/saudi-arabia-s-5bn-green-hydrogenbased-ammonia-news111872.html |url-status=dead }}

In Cairo, Egypt, Saudi real estate funding skyscraper project powered by hydrogen.https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/saudi-firm-plans-hydrogen-powered-skyscraper-egypts-new-capital-2024-08-14/ {{Bare URL inline|date=August 2024}}

{{Main|Ulsan Green Hydrogen Town}}

The Ulsan Green Hydrogen Town is a hydrogen city project being developed in Ulsan. As of October 2024, 188km of underground pipelines have been laid to connect hydrogen produced as a byproduct from petrochemical complexes to the city center.{{Cite news |date=28 October 2024 |title='탄소제로' 주거·교통…울산형 수소도시 뜬다 |url=https://www.hankyung.com/article/2024102842491 |work=Korea Economic Daily |publisher=}}

The Turkish Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization created the International Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies (UNIDO-ICHET) in Istanbul in 2004 and it ran to 2012.{{cite web |date=31 August 2009 |title=Independent Mid-Term Review of the UNIDO Project: Establishment and operation of the International Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies (ICHET), TF/INT/03/002 |url=http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/About_UNIDO/Evaluation/TORs/TOR%20ICHET%20final.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601075325/http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/About_UNIDO/Evaluation/TORs/TOR%20ICHET%20final.PDF |archive-date=1 June 2010 |access-date=2010-07-20 |publisher=UNIDO |df=dmy-all}} In 2023 the ministry published a Hydrogen Technologies Strategy and Roadmap.{{Cite web |title=Announcement – Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources |url=https://enerji.gov.tr/announcements-detail?id=20349 |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=enerji.gov.tr}}

The UK started a fuel cell pilot program in January 2004, the program ran two Fuel cell buses on route 25 in London until December 2005, and switched to route RV1 until January 2007.{{cite web | url= http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/environment/2017.aspx#routes | title= Hydrogen buses |publisher= Transport for London | access-date= 2008-05-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080323064054/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/environment/2017.aspx#routes |archive-date = March 23, 2008}} The Hydrogen Expedition is currently working to create a hydrogen fuel cell-powered ship and using it to circumnavigate the globe, as a way to demonstrate the capability of hydrogen fuel cells.{{cite web | url= http://www.atti-info.org/HydrogenVeh/prospectus.pdf | title= The Hydrogen Expedition | date= January 2005 | access-date= 2008-05-09 | url-status= dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080527234233/http://www.atti-info.org/HydrogenVeh/prospectus.pdf | archive-date= 2008-05-27 }} In August 2021 the UK Government claimed it was the first to have a Hydrogen Strategy and produced a document.{{Cite web|date=August 2021|title=UK Hydrogen Strategy|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1011283/UK-Hydrogen-Strategy_web.pdf|url-status=live|website=UK Government|access-date=2021-08-19|archive-date=2021-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819205309/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1011283/UK-Hydrogen-Strategy_web.pdf}}

In August 2021, Chris Jackson quit as chair of the UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association, a leading hydrogen industry association, claiming that UK and Norwegian oil companies had intentionally inflated their cost projections for blue hydrogen in order to maximize future technology support payments by the UK government.{{cite news |last1=Ambrose |first1=Jillian |date=20 August 2021 |title=Oil firms made 'false claims' on blue hydrogen costs, says ex-lobby boss |work=The Guardian |location=London, United Kingdom |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/aug/20/oil-firms-made-false-claims-on-blue-hydrogen-costs-says-ex-lobby-boss |url-status=live |access-date=2021-08-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824075238/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/aug/20/oil-firms-made-false-claims-on-blue-hydrogen-costs-says-ex-lobby-boss |archive-date=2021-08-24 |issn=0261-3077}}

Several domestic U.S. automobile companies have developed vehicles using hydrogen, such as GM and Toyota.{{Cite web |title=Are hydrogen fuel cell vehicles the future of autos? |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Business/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-future-autos/story?id=74583475 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117010939/https://abcnews.go.com/Business/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles-future-autos/story?id=74583475 |archive-date=2021-01-17 |access-date=2021-01-18 |website=ABC News}} However, as of February 2020, infrastructure for hydrogen was underdeveloped except in some parts of California.{{Cite news |last=Siddiqui |first=Faiz |title=The plug-in electric car is having its moment. But despite false starts, Toyota is still trying to make the fuel cell happen.|newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/02/26/hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars/ |url-status=live |access-date=2021-01-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119142059/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/02/26/hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars/ |archive-date=2021-01-19 |issn=0190-8286}} The United States have their own hydrogen policy.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} A joint venture between NREL and Xcel Energy is combining wind power and hydrogen power in the same way in Colorado.{{cite web |date=January 8, 2007 |title=Experimental 'wind to hydrogen' system up and running |url=http://www.physorg.com/news87494382.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126092957/http://phys.org/news87494382.html |archive-date=2013-01-26 |access-date=2008-05-09 |publisher=Physorg.com}} Hydro in Newfoundland and Labrador are converting the current wind-diesel Power System on the remote island of Ramea into a Wind-Hydrogen Hybrid Power Systems facility.{{cite web |date=May 16, 2006 |title=Hydrogen Engine Center Receives Order for Hydrogen Power Generator 250kW Generator for Wind/Hydrogen Demonstration |url=http://www.hydrogenenginecenter.com/userdocs/NRCan_Press_Release_Final_05.16.06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527234233/http://www.hydrogenenginecenter.com/userdocs/NRCan_Press_Release_Final_05.16.06.pdf |archive-date=May 27, 2008 |access-date=2008-05-09 |publisher=Hydrogen Engine Center, Inc.}} Five pump station hubs being delivered to heavy-duty H2 trucks in Texas.{{Cite web |last=Kilgore |first=Erin |date=2024-01-12 |title=Texas Hydrogen Stations Infrastructure Gets Boost From Biden Administration |url=https://www.hydrogenfuelnews.com/hydrogen-stations-texas/8562318/ |website=Hydrogen Fuel News}} Hydrogen City built Green by Hydrogen International (GHI), to planning open in 2026.{{Cite web |date=2022-03-08 |title=World's largest green H2 hub, Hydrogen City, to open in Texas in 2026 |url=https://newatlas.com/energy/worlds-largest-green-hydrogen-city/ |first=Loz |last=Blain |website=New Atlas}}

In 2006, Florida’s infrastructure project was commissioned.{{Cite web |date=April 12, 2007 |title=The Florida Hydrogen Initiative |url=https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/docs/hydrogenprogramlibraries/pdfs/review07/tvp_11_levine.pdf?sfvrsn=3534d200_1 |website=Hydrogen Program}} First opened Orlando as public bus transportation, Ford Motor Company announced putting a fleet of hydrogen-fueled Ford E-450.{{Cite web |title=First Hydrogen Station Opens |url=https://www.tampabay.com/archive/2007/05/24/first-hydrogen-station-opens/ |date=May 24, 2007 |website=Tampa Bay Times|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709025342/https://www.tampabay.com/archive/2007/05/24/first-hydrogen-station-opens/ |archive-date= 2024-07-09}}{{Cite web |date=23 May 2007 |title=Florida gets hydrogen-fueled buses |url=https://www.drive.com.au/news/florida-gets-hydrogenfueled-buses-20070523-1413y/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709014134/https://www.drive.com.au/news/florida-gets-hydrogenfueled-buses-20070523-1413y/ |archive-date=2024-07-09 |website=Drive}} Liquidated hydrogen mobile system was constructed at Titusville.{{Cite web |last=Himmelstein |first=S. |date=January 18, 2023 |title=Liquid hydrogen system is compact and mobile |url=https://insights.globalspec.com/article/19790/liquid-hydrogen-system-is-compact-and-mobile |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709020150/https://insights.globalspec.com/article/19790/liquid-hydrogen-system-is-compact-and-mobile |archive-date=2024-07-09 |website=GlobalSpec}}{{Cite web |date=2023-02-24 |title=GENH2 Partners with H2 GENESIS to Provide Small-Scale Hydrogen Liquefaction |url=https://hydrogen-central.com/genh2-partners-h2-genesis-to-provide-small-scale-hydrogen-liquefaction/ |website=Hydrogen Central|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709000122/https://hydrogen-central.com/genh2-partners-h2-genesis-to-provide-small-scale-hydrogen-liquefaction/ |archive-date= 2024-07-09 }} An FPL’s pilot clean hydrogen facility operated in Okeechobee County.{{Cite web |last1=Kurzner |first1=Jeff |first2=Nikki |last2=Cabus |date=2024-02-28 |title=FPL announces completion of Florida's first ever clean hydrogen hub of its kind |url=https://techhubsouthflorida.org/fpl-announces-completion-of-florida-first-ever-clean-hydrogen-hub-of-its-kind/ |website=South Florida Tech Hub|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709014526/https://techhubsouthflorida.org/fpl-announces-completion-of-florida-first-ever-clean-hydrogen-hub-of-its-kind/ |archive-date= 2024-07-09}}

A similar pilot project on Stuart Island uses solar power, instead of wind power, to generate electricity. When excess electricity is available after the batteries are fully charged, hydrogen is generated by electrolysis and stored for later production of electricity by fuel cell.{{cite web |title=Stuart Island Energy Initiative |url=http://www.siei.org |website=siei.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618081052/http://siei.org/ |archive-date=2013-06-18 |access-date=2008-05-09}} The US also have a large natural gas pipeline system already in place.

Việt Nam Energy Association have included green hydrogenation support.{{Cite web |title=Hydrogen production project promotes green energy transition in Việt Nam |url=https://vietnamnews.vn/economy/1068281/hydrogen-production-project-promotes-green-energy-transition-in-viet-nam.html |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=vietnamnews.vn}} Australian clean energy company Pure Hydrogen Corporation Limited announced on July 22 that it has signed an MoU with Vietnam public transportation.{{Cite press release |title=MOU for multiple buses with the Vietnam ASEAN Hydrogen Club |publisher=Pure Hydrogen |url=https://news.finclear.tradecentre.io/asx/document/20240722/02830030.pdf}}

{{colbegin}}

• Alternative fuel
• Biohydrogen
• Combined cycle hydrogen power plant
• Energy development
• Hydrogen damage
• Hydrogen fuel cell power plant
• Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle
• Hydrogen-powered aircraft
• Hydrogen-powered ship
• Hydrogen prize
• Hydrogen tanker
• Hydrogen train
• Lolland Hydrogen Community
• Methane pyrolysis
• Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present#Hydrogen energy

{{colend}}

{{Portalbar|Chemistry|Energy|Science}}

{{reflist|refs=

{{Cite web |last=Deign |first=Jason |date=2020-06-29 |title=So, What Exactly Is Green Hydrogen? |url=https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/green-hydrogen-explained |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323195427/https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/green-hydrogen-explained |archive-date=2022-03-23 |access-date=2022-02-11 |website=Greentechmedia}}}}

• {{cite book |ref = {{harvid|UKCCC H2|2018}}

|publisher = UK Committee on Climate Change

|title = Hydrogen in a low-carbon economy

|year = 2018

|url = https://www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Hydrogen-in-a-low-carbon-economy.pdf

}}

• {{cite book |ref = {{harvid|IEA H2|2019}}

| publisher=International Energy Agency

| title=The Future of Hydrogen

| year=2019

| url-access=registration

| url=https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-hydrogen

}}

{{Commons}}

{{wikiquote}}

• [http://www.iphe.net/ International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy]
• [https://www.iea.org/reports/hydrogen Hydrogen]. International Energy Agency. 2022
• [http://www.h2euro.org/ European Hydrogen Association]
• [https://model.energy/products/ Online calculator for green hydrogen production and transport costs]

{{emerging technologies|energy=yes}}

{{Alternative propulsion}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hydrogen Economy}}

Category:Fuel technology

Category:Hydrogen economy

Category:Hydrogen technologies

Category:Industrial gases

Category:Low-carbon economy