lunar resources

Lunar materials could facilitate continued exploration of the Moon, facilitate scientific and economic activity in the vicinity of both Earth and Moon (so-called cislunar space), or they could be imported to the Earth's surface where they would contribute directly to the global economy. Regolith (lunar soil) is the easiest product to obtain; it can provide radiation and micrometeoroid protection as well as construction and paving material by melting.Alex Ignatiev and Elliot Carol. "The Use of a Lunar Vacuum Deposition Paver/Rover to Eliminate Hazardous Dust Plumes on the Lunar Surface." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland. Oxygen from lunar regolith oxides can be a source for metabolic oxygen and rocket propellant oxidizer. Water ice can provide water for radiation shielding, life-support, oxygen and rocket propellant feedstock. Volatiles from permanently shadowed craters may provide methane ({{chem|C|H|4}}), ammonia ({{chem|N|H|3}}), carbon dioxide ({{chem|C|O|2}}) and carbon monoxide (CO).B. R. Blair. "Emarging Markets for Lunar Resources." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland. Metals and other elements for local industry may be obtained from the various minerals found in regolith.

The Moon is known to be poor in carbon and nitrogen, and rich in metals and in atomic oxygen, but their distribution and concentrations are still unknown. Further lunar exploration will reveal additional concentrations of economically useful materials, and whether or not these will be economically exploitable will depend on the value placed on them and on the energy and infrastructure available to support their extraction.{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/28189-moon-mining-economic-feasibility.html |title=Is Moon Mining Economically Feasible? |first=Leonard |last=David |website=Space.com |date=7 January 2015}} For in situ resource utilization (ISRU) to be applied successfully on the Moon, landing site selection is imperative, as well as identifying suitable surface operations and technologies.

Scouting from lunar orbit by a few space agencies is ongoing, and landers and rovers are scouting resources and concentrations in situ (see: List of missions to the Moon).

Solar power, oxygen, and metals are abundant resources on the Moon.{{Cite web |last=Hugo |first=Adam |date=2020-06-24 |orig-date=April 2019 |title=Why the Lunar South Pole? |url=https://www.thespaceresource.com/news/2019/4/why-the-lunar-south-pole |access-date=2024-05-16 |website=The Space Resource |language=en-US}} Elements known to be present on the lunar surface include, among others, hydrogen (H),{{cite web | author=S. Maurice | title=Distribution of hydrogen at the surface of the moon | url= http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2003/pdf/1867.pdf }} oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminium (Al), manganese (Mn) and titanium (Ti). Among the more abundant are oxygen, iron and silicon. The atomic oxygen content in the regolith is estimated at 45% by weight.Laurent Sibille, William Larson. [https://isru.nasa.gov/OxygenfromRegolith.html Oxygen from Regolith.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200905223229/https://isru.nasa.gov/OxygenfromRegolith.html|date=2020-09-05}}. NASA. 3 July 2012.Gregory Bennett. [http://www.asi.org/adb/04/03/10/04/oxygen-extraction.html The Artemis Project – How to Get Oxygen from the Moon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200905223234/http://www.asi.org/adb/04/03/10/04/oxygen-extraction.html|date=2020-09-05}}. Artemis Society International. June 17, 2001.

Studies from Apollo 17's Lunar Atmospheric Composition Experiment (LACE) show that the lunar exosphere contains trace amounts of hydrogen (H₂), helium (He), argon (Ar), and possibly ammonia (NH₃), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and methane (CH₄). Several processes can explain the presence of trace gases on the Moon: high energy photons or solar winds reacting with materials on the lunar surface, evaporation of lunar regolith, material deposits from comets and meteoroids, and out-gassing from inside the Moon. However, these are trace gases in very low concentration.{{Cite web |last=Administrator |first=NASA |date=2013-06-07 |title=Is There an Atmosphere on the Moon? |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LADEE/news/lunar-atmosphere.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=NASA |language=en}} The total mass of the Moon's exosphere is roughly {{convert|25,000|kg}} with a surface pressure of 3×10⁻¹⁵ bar (2×10⁻¹² torr).{{Cite web |title=Moon Fact Sheet |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov}} Trace gas amounts are unlikely to be useful for in situ resource utilization.

Daylight on the Moon lasts approximately two weeks, followed by approximately two weeks of night, while both lunar poles are illuminated almost constantly.{{cite journal|last1=Speyerer|first1=Emerson J.|last2=Robinson|first2=Mark S.|title=Persistently illuminated regions at the lunar poles: Ideal sites for future exploration|journal=Icarus|volume=222|issue=1|year=2013|pages=122–136|issn=0019-1035|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2012.10.010|bibcode=2013Icar..222..122S }}Gläser, P., Oberst, J., Neumann, G. A., Mazarico, E., Speyerer, E. J., Robinson, M. S. (2017). "Illumination conditions at the lunar poles: Implications for future exploration. Planetary and Space Science, vol. 162, p. 170–178. {{doi|10.1016/j.pss.2017.07.006}}{{cite web |url=https://space.nss.org/lunar-resources-unlocking-the-space-frontier/ |title=Lunar Resources: Unlocking the Space Frontier |first=Paul D. |last=Spudis |work=Ad Astra |volume=23 |number=2 |year=2011 |publisher=National Space Society |access-date=30 April 2023}} The lunar south pole features a region with crater rims exposed to near constant solar illumination, yet the interior of the craters are permanently shaded from sunlight.

Solar cells could be fabricated directly on the lunar soil by a medium-size (~200 kg) rover with the capabilities for heating the regolith, evaporation of the appropriate semiconductor materials for the solar cell structure directly on the regolith substrate, and deposition of metallic contacts and interconnects to finish off a complete solar cell array directly on the ground.Alex Ignatiev, Peter Curreri, Donald Sadoway, and Elliot Carol. "The Use of Lunar Resources for Energy Generation on the Moon." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland. This process however requires the importation of potassium fluoride from Earth to purify the necessary materials from regolith.{{Cite report |last=Landis |first=Geoffrey A. |date=2005-12-01 |title=Materials Refining for Solar Array Production on the Moon |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20060004126 |language=en}}

The Kilopower nuclear fission system is being developed for reliable electric power generation that could enable long-duration crewed bases on the Moon, Mars and destinations beyond.{{cite web |url=https://www.spaceflightinsider.com/space-centers/glenn-research-center/nasa-concept-for-generating-power-in-deep-space-a-little-krusty/ |title=NASA concept for generating power in deep space a little KRUSTY |first=Collin |last=Skocii |work=Spaceflight Insider |date=18 June 2019}}{{Cite web |last=Anderson |first=Gina |last2=Wittry |first2=Jan |date=May 2, 2018 |title=Demonstration Proves Nuclear Fission System Can Provide Space Exploration Power |url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/demonstration-proves-nuclear-fission-system-can-provide-space-exploration-power/ |access-date=2024-05-16 |publisher=NASA press release |language=en-US}} This system is ideal for locations on the Moon and Mars where power generation from sunlight is intermittent. Uranium and thorium are both present on the Moon, but due to the high energy density of nuclear fuels, it could be more economical to import suitable fuels from Earth rather than producing them in situ.

Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) are another form of nuclear power which use the natural decay of radioisotopes rather than their induced fission. They have been used in space—including on the Moon—for decades. The usual process is to source the suitable substances from Earth, but plutonium-238 or strontium-90 could be produced on the Moon if feedstocks such as spent nuclear fuel are present (either delivered from Earth for processing or produced by local fission reactors). RTGs could be used to deliver power independent of available sunlight, for both lunar and non-lunar applications. RTGs do contain harmful toxic and radioactive materials, which leads to concerns of unintentional distribution of those materials in the event of an accident. Protests by the general public therefore often focus on the phaseout of RTGs (instead recommending alternative power sources), due to an overestimation of the dangers of radiation.

A more theoretical lunar resource are potential fuels for nuclear fusion. Helium-3 has received particular media attention as its abundance in lunar regolith is higher than on Earth. However, thus far nuclear fusion has not been employed by humans in a controlled fashion releasing net usable energy (devices like the fusor are net energy consumers while the hydrogen bomb is not a controlled fusion reaction). Furthermore, while helium-3 is required for one possible pathway of nuclear fusion, others instead rely on nuclides which are more easily obtained on Earth, such as tritium, lithium or deuterium.

The elemental oxygen content in the regolith is estimated at 45% by weight. Oxygen is often found in iron-rich lunar minerals and glasses as iron oxide. Such lunar minerals and glass include ilmenite, olivine, pyroxene, impact glass, and volcanic glass.{{Cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Carlton C. |last2=McKay |first2=David S. |date=1995 |title=Oxygen Production From Lunar Soil |jstor=44612041 |journal=SAE Transactions |volume=104 |pages=1285–1290 |issn=0096-736X}} Various isotopes of oxygen are present on the Moon in the form of ¹⁶O, ¹⁷O, and ¹⁸O.{{Cite journal |last1=Wiechert |first1=U. |last2=Halliday |first2=A. N. |last3=Lee |first3=D.-C. |last4=Snyder |first4=G. A. |last5=Taylor |first5=L. A. |last6=Rumble |first6=D. |date=2001 |title=Oxygen Isotopes and the Moon-Forming Giant Impact |jstor=3084837 |journal=Science |volume=294 |issue=5541 |pages=345–348 |doi=10.1126/science.1063037 |pmid=11598294 |bibcode=2001Sci...294..345W |s2cid=29835446 |issn=0036-8075}}

At least twenty different possible processes for extracting oxygen from lunar regolith have been described,{{cite journal| doi=10.2514/3.51397| title=Production and use of metals and oxygen for lunar propulsion| journal=Journal of Propulsion and Power | volume=10| issue=16 |pages=834–840 |date=1994 |author1=Hepp, Aloysius F. |author2=Linne, Diane L. |author3=Groth, Mary F. |author4=Landis, Geoffrey A. |author5=Colvin, James E. | url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=653802&id=8&as=false&or=false&qs=Ntt%3Dlunar%26Ntk%3Dall%26Ntx%3Dmode%2Bmatchall%26Ns%3DHarvestDate%257c0%26N%3D4294808501| hdl=2060/19910019908| s2cid=120318455|hdl-access=free }}Larry Friesen. [http://www.asi.org/adb/04/03/10/04/extraction-processes.html Processes for Getting Oxygen on the Moon.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118141558/http://asi.org/adb/04/03/10/04/extraction-processes.html|date=2022-01-18}}. Artemis Society International. 10 May 1998. and all require high energy input: between 2–4 megawatt-years of energy (i.e. {{val|6|-|12|e=13|u= J}}) to produce 1,000 tons of oxygen. While oxygen extraction from metal oxides also produces useful metals, using water as a feedstock does not. One possible method of producing oxygen from lunar soil requires two steps. The first step involves the reduction of iron oxide with hydrogen gas (H₂) to form elemental iron (Fe) and water (H₂O). Water can then be electrolyzed to produce oxygen which can be liquified at low temperatures and stored. The amount of oxygen released depends on the iron oxide abundance in lunar minerals and glass. Oxygen production from lunar soil is a relatively fast process, occurring in a few tens of minutes. In contrast, oxygen extraction from lunar glass requires several hours.

{{main|Lunar water}}

File:LRO Peers into Permanent Shadows.ogg

File:The image shows the distribution of surface ice at the Moon's south pole (left) and north pole (right).webp (M³) spectrometer onboard India's Chandrayaan-1 orbiter]]

Cumulative evidence from several orbiters strongly indicate that water ice is present on the surface at the Moon poles, but mostly on the south pole region.{{Cite web |last= |date=20 August 2018 |title=Ice Confirmed at the Moon's Poles |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/ice-confirmed-at-the-moons-poles |access-date=2024-05-16 |website=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |date=April 7, 2010 |title=Water on the Moon: Direct evidence from Chandrayaan-1's Moon Impact… |url=https://www.planetary.org/articles/2430 |access-date=2024-05-16 |website=The Planetary Society |language=en}} However, results from these datasets are not always correlated.H. M. Brown. "Identifying Resource-rich Lunar Permanently Shadowed Regions." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland.J. E. Gruener. "The Lunar Northwest Nearside: The Price Is Right Before Your Eyes." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland. It has been determined that the cumulative area of permanently shadowed lunar surface is 13,361 km² in the northern hemisphere and 17,698 km² in the southern hemisphere, giving a total area of 31,059 km². The extent to which any or all of these permanently shadowed areas contain water ice and other volatiles is not currently known, so more data is needed about lunar ice deposits, its distribution, concentration, quantity, disposition, depth, geotechnical properties and any other characteristics necessary to design and develop extraction and processing systems.{{cite web |url=https://www.space.com/41164-mining-moon-water-plans-take-shape.html |title=Mining Moon Ice: Prospecting Plans Starting to Take Shape |first=Leonard |last=David |work=Space.com |date=13 July 2018}} The intentional impact of the LCROSS orbiter into the crater Cabeus was monitored to analyze the resulting debris plume, and it was concluded that the water ice must be in the form of small (< ~10 cm), discrete pieces of ice distributed throughout the regolith, or as a thin coating on ice grains.L. M. Jozwiak, G. W. Patterson, R. Perkins. "Mini-RF Monostatic Radar Observations of Permanently Shadowed Crater Floors." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland. This, coupled with monostatic radar observations, suggest that the water ice present in the permanently shadowed regions of lunar polar craters is unlikely to be present in the form of thick, pure ice deposits.

Water may have been delivered to the Moon over geological timescales by the regular bombardment of water-bearing comets, asteroids and meteoroidsElston, D. P. (1968) "Character and Geologic Habitat of Potential Deposits of Water, Carbon and Rare Gases on the Moon", Geological Problems in Lunar and Planetary Research, Proceedings of AAS/IAP Symposium, AAS Science and Technology Series, Supplement to Advances in the Astronautical Sciences., p. 441. or continuously produced in situ by the hydrogen ions (protons) of the solar wind impacting oxygen-bearing minerals.{{cite web |url=http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/project/faq.htm#18 |title=NASA – Lunar Prospector |publisher=lunar.arc.nasa.gov |access-date=2015-05-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914115221/http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/project/faq.htm#18 |archive-date=2016-09-14 }}

The lunar south pole features a region with crater rims exposed to near constant solar illumination, where the craters' interior are permanently shaded from sunlight, allowing for natural trapping and collection of water ice that could be mined in the future.

Water molecules ({{chem|H|2|O}}) can be broken down to form molecular hydrogen ({{chem|H|2}}) and molecular oxygen ({{chem|O|2}}) to be used as rocket bi-propellant or produce compounds for metallurgic and chemical production processes. Just the production of propellant, was estimated by a joint panel of industry, government and academic experts, identified a near-term annual demand of 450 metric tons of lunar-derived propellant equating to 2,450 metric tons of processed lunar water, generating US$2.4 billion of revenue annually.{{Cite web |last=David |first=Leonard |date=2019-03-15 |title=Moon Mining Could Actually Work, with the Right Approach |url=https://www.space.com/moon-mining-space-exploration-report.html |access-date=2024-05-16 |website=Space.com |language=en}}

Slopes on the lunar surface that face the Moon's poles show a higher concentration of hydrogen. This is because pole facing slopes have less exposure to sunlight that will cause vaporization of hydrogen. Additionally, slopes closer to the Moon's poles show a higher concentration of hydrogen of about 45 ppmw. There are various theories to explain the presence of hydrogen on the Moon. Water, which contains hydrogen, could have been deposited on the Moon by comets and asteroids. Additionally, solar winds interacting with compounds on the lunar surface may have led to the formation of hydrogen-bearing compounds such as hydroxyl and water.{{Cite web |last=Steigerwald |first=Bill |date=2015-02-27 |title=LRO Discovers Hydrogen More Abundant on Moon's Pole-Facing Slopes |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/lro-lunar-hydrogen |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=NASA}} The solar wind implants protons on the regolith, forming a protonated atom, which is a chemical compound of hydrogen (H). Although bound hydrogen is plentiful, questions remain about how much of it diffuses into the subsurface, escapes into space or diffuses into cold traps.H. L. Hanks. "Prospective Study for Harvesting Solar Wind Particles via Lunar Regolith Capture." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland. Hydrogen would be needed for propellant production, and it has a multitude of industrial uses. For example, hydrogen can be used for the production of oxygen by hydrogen reduction of ilmenite.P. Reiss, F. Kerscher and L. Grill. "Thermogravimetric Analysis of the Reduction of ilmenite and NU-LHT-2M With Hydrogen and Methane." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland.H. M. Sargeant, F. Abernethy, M. Anand1, S. J. Barber, S. Sheridan, I. Wright, and A. Morse. "Experimental Development And Testing Of The Reduction Of Ilmenite For A Lunar ISRU Demonstration With PRO SPA." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland.J. W. Quinn. "Electrostatic Beneficiation of Lunar Regolith; A review of the Previous Testing As Starting Point For Future Work." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland.

Iron (Fe) is abundant in all mare basalts (~14–17% per weight) but is mostly locked into silicate minerals (i.e. pyroxene and olivine) and into the oxide mineral ilmenite in the lowlands.Mark Prado. [https://www.permanent.com/lunar-geology-minerals.html Major Lunar Minerals.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801201700/https://www.permanent.com/lunar-geology-minerals.html|date=2019-08-01}}. Projects to Employ Resources of the Moon and Asteroids Near Earth in the Near Term (PERMANENT). Accessed on 1 August 2019. Extraction would be quite energy-demanding, but some prominent lunar magnetic anomalies are suspected as being due to surviving Fe-rich meteoritic debris. Only further exploration in situ will determine whether or not this interpretation is correct, and how exploitable such meteoritic debris may be. Hematite, a mineral composed of ferric oxide (Fe₂O₃), has been found on the Moon. This mineral is a product of a reaction between iron, oxygen, and liquid water. Oxygen from the Earth's atmosphere may cause this reaction as indicated by there being more hematite on the side of the Moon facing the Earth.{{Cite web |title=The Moon Is Rusting, and Researchers Want to Know Why |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/the-moon-is-rusting-and-researchers-want-to-know-why |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) |language=en-US}}

Free iron also exists in the regolith (0.5% by weight) naturally alloyed with nickel and cobalt and it can easily be extracted by simple magnets after grinding. This iron dust can be processed to make parts using powder metallurgy techniques, such as additive manufacturing, 3D printing, selective laser sintering (SLS), selective laser melting (SLM), and electron beam melting (EBM).

Titanium (Ti) can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium, and molybdenum, among other elements, to produce strong, lightweight alloys for aerospace use. It exists almost exclusively in the mineral ilmenite (FeTiO₃) in the range of 5–8% by weight. Ilmenite minerals also trap hydrogen (protons) from the solar wind, so that processing of ilmenite will also produce hydrogen, a valuable element on the Moon. The vast flood basalts on the northwest nearside (Mare Tranquillitatis) possess some of the highest titanium contents on the Moon, with 10 times as much titanium as rocks on Earth.{{Cite web |last=Space com Staff |first= |date=2011-10-11 |title=Moon Packed with Precious Titanium, NASA Probe Finds |url=https://www.space.com/13247-moon-map-lunar-titanium.html |access-date=2024-05-16 |website=Space.com |language=en}}

Aluminum (Al) is found with a concentration in the range of 10–18% by weight, present in the mineral anorthite ({{chem|CaAl|2|Si|2|O|8}}), the calcium endmember of the plagioclase feldspar mineral series. Aluminum is a good electrical conductor, and atomized aluminum powder also makes a good solid rocket fuel when burned with oxygen. Extraction of aluminum would also require breaking down plagioclase (CaAl₂Si₂O₈).

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File:SiliconCroda.jpg

Silicon (Si) is an abundant metalloid in all lunar material, with a concentration of about 20% by weight. It is of enormous importance to produce solar panel arrays for the conversion of sunlight into electricity, as well as glass, fiber glass, and a variety of useful ceramics. Achieving a very high purity for use as semi-conductor would be challenging, especially in the lunar environment. Converting silica into silicon is an energy-intensive process. On earth this is usually done via carbothermic reduction, a process that requires carbon, an element in comparatively short supply on the moon.

File:Anorthite-rare08-38b.jpg crystals in a basalt vug from Vesuvius, Italy (size: 6.9 × 4.1 × 3.8 cm)]]

Calcium (Ca) is the fourth most abundant element in the lunar highlands, present in anorthite minerals (formula {{chem|CaAl|2|Si|2|O|8}}).{{Cite web |date=8 June 2005 |title=SMART-1 detects calcium on the Moon |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/SMART-1/SMART-1_detects_calcium_on_the_Moon |access-date=2024-05-16 |website=www.esa.int |language=en}} Calcium oxides and calcium silicates are not only useful for ceramics, but pure calcium metal is flexible and an excellent electrical conductor in the absence of oxygen. Anorthite is rare on the Earth{{cite book |last1=Deer |first1=W. A. |title=An Introduction to the Rock Forming Minerals |last2=Howie |first2=R. A. |last3=Zussman |first3=J. |publisher=Longman |year=1966 |isbn=0-582-44210-9 |location=London, England |page=336 |language=en}} but abundant on the Moon.

Calcium can also be used to fabricate silicon-based solar cells, requiring lunar silicon, iron, titanium oxide, calcium and aluminum.A. Ignatiev and A. Freundlich. [http://www.niac.usra.edu/files/library/meetings/annual/jun00/433Ignatiev.pdf New Architecture for Space Solar Power Systems: Fabrication of Silicon Solar Cells Using In-Situ Resources.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190101093856/http://www.niac.usra.edu/files/library/meetings/annual/jun00/433Ignatiev.pdf|date=2019-01-01}}. NIAC 2nd Annual Meeting, June 6–7, 2000.

When combined with water, lime (calcium oxide) produces significant amounts of heat. Hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) meanwhile absorbs carbon dioxide which can be used as a (non-replenishing) filter. The resulting material, calcium carbonate is commonly used as a building material on earth.

Magnesium (Mg) is present in magmas and in the lunar minerals pyroxene and olivine,{{Cite journal |last=Rao |first=D. B. |last2=Choudary |first2=U. V. |last3=Erstfeld |first3=T. E. |last4=Williams |first4=R. J. |last5=Chang |first5=Y. A. |date=1979-01-01 |title=Extraction processes for the production of aluminum, titanium, iron, magnesium, and oxygen and nonterrestrial sources |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19790024069 |journal=NASA. Ames Research Center, Space Resources and Space Settlements |language=en}} so it is suspected that magnesium is more abundant in the lower lunar crust.Cordierite-Spinel Troctolite, a New Magnesium-Rich Lithology from the Lunar Highlands. Science. Vol 243, Issue 4893. 17 February 1989 {{doi}10.1126/science.243.4893.925}}. Magnesium has multiple uses as alloys for aerospace, automotive and electronics.

The Compton–Belkovich Thorium Anomaly is a volcanic complex on the far side of the Moon.{{cite conference|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2011/pdf/2224.pdf|conference=42nd Lunar and Planetary Science Conference |title=Compton-Belkovich: Nonmare, Silicic Volcanism on the Moon's Far Side|last1=Jolliff|first1=B. L.|first2=T. N. |last2=Tran |first3=S. J. |last3=Lawrence |first4=M. S. |last4=Robinson |year=2011|access-date=May 14, 2012 |display-authors=etal}} It was found by a gamma-ray spectrometer in 1998 and is an area of concentrated thorium, a 'fertile' element.{{cite conference |bibcode=2002LPI....33.1970L |title = Small-Area Thorium Enhancements on the Lunar Surface |conference=33rd Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference |last1=Lawrence |first1=D. J. |last2=Elphic |first2=R. C. |last3= Feldman |first3=W. C. |last4= Gasnault |first4=O.|last5= Genetay |first5= I. |last6=Maurice |first6=S. |last7=Prettyman |first7=T. H. |publisher=Harvard University |date=March 2002}}

Rare-earth elements are used to manufacture everything from electric or hybrid vehicles, wind turbines, electronic devices and clean energy technologies.{{cite news| title=China may not issue new 2011 rare earths export quota: report |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6BU04S20101231| work=Reuters|date=31 December 2010}}{{Cite journal |last1=Medeiros |first1=Carlos Aguiar De| last2=Trebat| first2=Nicholas M.| last3=Medeiros |first3=Carlos Aguiar De| last4=Trebat| first4=Nicholas M.| date=July 2017 |title=Transforming natural resources into industrial advantage: the case of China's rare earths industry|journal=Brazilian Journal of Political Economy| volume=37| issue=3 |pages=504–526 |doi=10.1590/0101-31572017v37n03a03| issn=0101-3157| doi-access=free}} Despite their name, rare-earth elements are – with the exception of promethium – relatively plentiful in Earth's crust. However, because of their geochemical properties, rare-earth elements are typically dispersed and not often found concentrated in rare-earth minerals; as a result, economically exploitable ore deposits are less common.{{cite web |author=Haxel |first=G. |author2=Hedrick |first2=J. |author3=Orris |first3=J. |date=2002 |editor=Stauffer |editor-first=Peter H. |editor2=Hendley II |editor2-first=James W. |title=Rare Earth Elements—Critical Resources for High Technology |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2002/fs087-02/fs087-02.pdf |access-date=2012-03-13 |publisher=United States Geological Survey |id=USGS Fact Sheet: 087-02 |quote=However, in contrast to ordinary base and precious metals, REE have very little tendency to become concentrated in exploitable ore deposits. Consequently, most of the world's supply of REE comes from only a handful of sources.}} Major reserves exist in China, California, India, Brazil, Australia, South Africa, and Malaysia,{{Cite journal| last=Goldman| first=Joanne Abel| date=April 2014| title=The U.S. Rare Earth Industry: Its Growth and Decline| journal=Journal of Policy History |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=139–166| doi=10.1017/s0898030614000013 | s2cid=154319330|issn=0898-0306}} but China accounts for over 95% of the world's production of rare-earths.{{Cite web |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1042| title=USGS Report Series 2011–1042: China's Rare-Earth Industry| last=Tse| first=Pui-Kwan| website=pubs.usgs.gov|access-date=2018-04-04}} (See: Rare earth industry in China.)

Although current evidence suggests rare-earth elements are less abundant on the Moon than on Earth,A. A. Mardon, G. Zhou, R. Witiw. "Lunar Rare-Earth Minerals For Commercialization." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland. NASA views the mining of rare-earth minerals as a viable lunar resource because they exhibit a wide range of industrially important optical, electrical, magnetic and catalytic properties. KREEP are parts of the lunar surface richer in potassium (the "K" stands for the element symbol) rare earth elements and Phosphorus. Potassium and phosphorus are two of the three essential plant nutrients, the third being fixed nitrogen (hence NPK fertilizer) any agricultural activity on the moon would need a supply of those elements — whether sourced in situ or brought from elsewhere e.g. earth.

{{main|Helium-3#Extraterrestrial mining}}

By one estimate, the solar wind has deposited more than 1 million tons of helium-3 (³He) on the Moon's surface.L. J. Wittenberg, E. N. Cameron, G. L. Kulcinski, S. H. Ott, J. F. Santarius, G. I. Sviatoslavsky, I. N. SViatoslavsky & H. E. Thompson. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.13182/FST92-A29718 A Review of 3He Resources and Acquisition for Use as Fusion Fuel.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200514180245/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.13182/FST92-A29718|date=2020-05-14}}. Fusion Technology, volume 21, 1992; issue 4; pp: 2230–2253; 9 May 2017. {{doi|10.13182/FST92-A29718}}. Materials on the Moon's surface contain helium-3 at concentrations estimated between 1.4 and 15 parts per billion (ppb) in sunlit areas,[http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/Research/he3_pubs.html FTI Research Projects: 3He Lunar Mining] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904144943/http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/Research/he3_pubs.html |date=2006-09-04 }}. Fti.neep.wisc.edu. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.{{cite journal |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2007/pdf/2175.pdf| title=The estimation of helium-3 probable reserves in lunar regolith| issue=1338| page=2175| author1=E. N. Slyuta|author2=A. M. Abdrakhimov |author3=E. M. Galimov |journal=Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII |date=2007 |bibcode=2007LPI....38.2175S}} and may contain concentrations as much as 50 ppb in permanently shadowed regions.{{cite journal| author=Cocks, F. H. |date=2010| title=³He in permanently shadowed lunar polar surfaces|journal=Icarus |volume=206 |issue=2 |pages=778–779 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2009.12.032 |bibcode=2010Icar..206..778C}} For comparison, helium-3 in the Earth's atmosphere occurs at 7.2 parts per trillion (ppt).

A number of people since 1986{{cite news |author=Hedman |first=Eric R. |date=January 16, 2006 |title=A fascinating hour with Gerald Kulcinski |url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/536/1 |work=The Space Review}} have proposed to exploit the lunar regolith and use the helium-3 for nuclear fusion.{{Cite web |last= |date=May 28, 2019 |title=The Lunar Gold Rush: How Moon Mining Could Work |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/infographics/the-lunar-gold-rush-how-moon-mining-could-work |access-date=2024-05-16 |website=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) |language=en-US}} Although as of 2020, functioning experimental nuclear fusion reactors have existed for decades{{Cite web|title=Korean fusion reactor achieves record plasma – World Nuclear News|url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-Korean-fusion-reactor-achieves-record-plasma-1412164.html|website=www.world-nuclear-news.org|access-date=2020-05-30}}{{Cite web|title=Fusion reactor – Principles of magnetic confinement|url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/fusion-reactor|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-05-30}} – none of them has yet provided electricity commercially. Because of the low concentrations of helium-3, any mining equipment would need to process large amounts of regolith. By one estimate, over 150 tons of regolith must be processed to obtain {{convert|1|g|oz}} of helium 3.{{cite web |author=Sviatoslavsky |first=I. N. |date=November 1993 |title=The challenge of mining He-3 on the lunar surface: how all the parts fit together |url=http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/pdf/wcsar9311-2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120035522/http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/pdf/wcsar9311-2.pdf |archive-date=2019-01-20 |access-date=2019-07-22}} Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics Technical Report WCSAR-TR-AR3-9311-2. China has begun the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program for exploring the Moon and is investigating the prospect of lunar mining, specifically looking for the isotope helium-3 for use as an energy source on Earth.{{cite news|url=http://space.com/missionlaunches/china_Moon_030304.html |title=China Outlines its Lunar Ambitions |first=Leonard |last=David |work=Space.com |date=4 March 2003 |access-date=2006-03-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060316214426/http://space.com/missionlaunches/china_moon_030304.html |archive-date=March 16, 2006 }} Not all authors think the extraterrestrial extraction of helium-3 is feasible,{{cite news |last1=Day |first1=Dwayne |author-link=Dwayne A. Day |title=The helium-3 incantation |url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2834/1 |access-date=11 January 2019 |work=The Space Review |date=September 28, 2015}} and even if it was possible to extract helium-3 from the Moon, no useful fusion reactor design has produced more fusion power output than the electrical power input, defeating the purpose.{{cite web| url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Current-and-Future-Generation/Nuclear-Fusion-Power| title=Nuclear Fusion: WNA| website=world-nuclear.org| date=November 2015| access-date=2019-07-22| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719060659/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-fusion-power/| archive-date=2015-07-19}} However, on 13 December 2022, the United States Department of Energy announced that "...Monday, December 5, 2022, was a historic day in science thanks to the incredible people at Livermore Lab and the National Ignition Facility" and that the National Ignition Facility, "conducted the first controlled fusion experiment in history to reach this milestone, also known as scientific energy breakeven, meaning it produced more energy from fusion than the laser energy used to drive it."{{Cite web |title=DOE National Laboratory Makes History by Achieving Fusion Ignition |url=https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-national-laboratory-makes-history-achieving-fusion-ignition |access-date=2023-01-02 |website=Energy.gov |language=en}} The downside remains that Helium-3 is a limited lunar resource that can be exhausted once mined.

Carbon (C) would be required for the production of lunar steel, but it is present in lunar regolith in trace amounts (82 ppm[http://www.asi.org/adb/m/08/08/lunar-carbon.html Carbon on the Moon.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613105458/http://asi.org/adb/m/08/08/lunar-carbon.html |date=2010-06-13 }} Artemis Society International. 8 August 1999.), contributed by the solar wind and micrometeorite impacts.Colin Trevor Pillinger and Geoffrey Eglinton. "The chemistry of carbon in the lunar regolith." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 1 January 1997. {{doi|10.1098/rsta.1977.0076}}. Due to extremely low temperatures, permanently shadowed regions of the Moon's poles have cold traps which possibly contain solid carbon dioxide.{{Cite web |last=American Geophysical Union |first= |title=Carbon dioxide cold traps on the moon are confirmed for the first time |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-11-carbon-dioxide-cold-moon.html |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=phys.org |language=en}} The presence of carbon is mostly due to solar wind carbon implanted in bulk regolith. Carbon is present in carbon-bearing ices at the lunar poles in concentrations as high as 20% by weight. However, most carbon-bearing ices have a 0–3% by weight carbon concentration. Carbon-bearing compounds that could exist include carbon monoxide (CO), ethylene (C₂H₄), carbon dioxide (CO₂), methanol (CH₃OH), methane (CH₄), carbonyl sulfide (OCS), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), and toluene (C₇H₈). These compounds form roughly 5000 ppm of elemental carbon in soil samples brought back from the Moon. These polar regions contain C, H, and O which can serve as propellant sources for methalox spacecraft.{{cite arXiv |last=Cannon |first=Kevin M. |date=2021-04-27 |title=Accessible Carbon on the Moon |class=astro-ph.EP |eprint=2104.13521 }}

Nitrogen (N) was measured from soil samples brought back to Earth, and it exists as trace amounts at less than 5 ppm.Richard H. Becker and Robert N. Clayton. [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1975LPSC....6.2131B Nitrogen abundances and isotopic compositions in lunar samples] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723003808/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1975LPSC....6.2131B|date=2019-07-23}}. Proceedings Lunar Science Conference, 6th (1975); pp: 2131–2149. {{bibcode|1975LPSC....6.2131B}}. It was found as isotopes ¹⁴N, ¹⁵N, and ¹⁶N.{{cite journal|last1=Füri|first1=Evelyn|last2=Barry|first2=Peter H.|last3=Taylor|first3=Lawrence A.|last4=Marty|first4=Bernard|title=Indigenous nitrogen in the Moon: Constraints from coupled nitrogen–noble gas analyses of mare basalts|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|volume=431|year=2015|pages=195–205|issn=0012-821X|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2015.09.022|bibcode=2015E&PSL.431..195F }} As much as 87% of nitrogen found in lunar regolith may come from non-solar sources (not from the Sun) or from other planets. Comets and meteorites contribute less than ~10% of nitrogen from non-solar sources.{{Cite journal |last1=Mortimer |first1=J. |last2=Verchovsky |first2=A. B. |last3=Anand |first3=M. |date=2016-11-15 |title=Predominantly non-solar origin of nitrogen in lunar soils |journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |language=en |volume=193 |pages=36–53 |doi=10.1016/j.gca.2016.08.006 |bibcode=2016GeCoA.193...36M |s2cid=99355135 |issn=0016-7037|doi-access=free }} Carbon and fixed nitrogen would be required for farming activities within a sealed biosphere.

{{main|Changesite–(Y)}}

{{further|Lunarcrete}}

Developing a lunar economy will require a significant amount of infrastructure on the lunar surface, which will rely heavily on In situ resource utilization (ISRU) technologies to develop. One of the primary requirements will be to provide construction materials to build habitats, storage bins, landing pads, roads and other infrastructure.Brad Buckles, Robert P. Mueller, and Nathan Gelino. "Additive Construction Technology For Lunar Infrastructure." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019.A. K. Hayes, P. Ye, D. A. Loy, K. Muralidharan, B. G. Potter, and J. J. Barnes. "Additive Manufacturing of Lunar Mineral-Based Composites." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019. Unprocessed lunar soil, also called regolith, may be turned into usable structural components,{{cite web| title=Indigenous lunar construction materials| publisher=AIAA PAPER 91-3481| url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=696858&id=2&qs=N%3D4294819768| access-date=2007-01-14 }}{{Cite web |title=In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) – NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission/in-situ-resource-utilization-isru/ |archive-date= |access-date=2024-05-16 |language=en-US}} through techniques such as sintering, hot-pressing, liquification, the cast basalt method,{{cite web |title=Cast Basalt |publisher=Ultratech |url=http://www.conforms.com/pdf/ultratech/UTD101.pdf |access-date=2007-01-14 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060828111855/http://www.conforms.com/pdf/ultratech/UTD101.pdf |archive-date=2006-08-28 }} and 3D printing. Glass and glass fiber are straightforward to process on the Moon, and it was found regolith material strengths can be improved by using glass fiber, such as 70% basalt glass fiber and 30% PETG mixture. Successful tests have been performed on Earth using some lunar regolith simulants,Gerald B. Sanders, William E. Larson. [https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20100021362.pdf Title: Integration of In-Situ Resource Utilization Into Lunar/Mars Exploration Through Field Analogs.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723232119/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20100021362.pdf|date=2019-07-23}}. NASA Johnson Space Center. 2010. including MLS-1 and MLS-2.{{Cite conference |last1=Tucker |first1=Dennis S. |last2=Ethridge |first2=Edwin C. |date=May 11, 1998 |title=Processing Glass Fiber from Moon/Mars Resources |url=https://science.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/1998/05/11/msad28apr98_1a_resources/fiber.pdf |conference=Proceedings of American Society of Civil Engineers Conference, 26–30 April 1998 |location=Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States |id=19990104338 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000918225927/https://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/space98pdf/fiber.pdf |archive-date=2000-09-18}}

The lunar soil, although it poses a problem for any mechanical moving parts, can be mixed with carbon nanotubes and epoxies in the construction of telescope mirrors up to 50 meters in diameter.{{cite web|last=Naeye|first=Robert|title=NASA Scientists Pioneer Method for Making Giant Lunar Telescopes|publisher=Goddard Space Flight Center|date=6 April 2008|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2008/lunar_telescopes.html|access-date=27 March 2011}}{{Cite magazine |title=Build astronomical observatories on the Moon?|url=http://www.physicstoday.org/vol-59/iss-11/p50.html |magazine=Physics Today |volume=59 |issue=11 |page=50 |first1=Paul D. |last1=Lowman |first2=Daniel F. |last2=Lester |date=November 2006 |access-date=16 February 2008 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20071107102620/http://www.physicstoday.org/vol-59/iss-11/p50.html| archive-date=7 November 2007}}{{cite web| last=Bell| first=Trudy| title=Liquid Mirror Telescopes on the Moon |work=Science News| publisher=NASA |date=9 October 2008| url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/09oct_liquidmirror/|access-date=27 March 2011}} Several craters near the poles are permanently dark and cold, a favorable environment for infrared telescopes.{{cite web|last=Chandler|first=David|title=MIT to lead development of new telescopes on moon|work=MIT News|date=15 February 2008|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/moonscope-0215.html|access-date=27 March 2011}}

Some proposals suggest to build a lunar base on the surface using modules brought from Earth, and covering them with lunar soil. The lunar soil is composed of a blend of silica and iron-containing compounds that may be fused into a glass-like solid using microwave radiation.{{Cite web| title=Lunar Dirt Factories? A look at how regolith could be the key to permanent outposts on the moon |url=http://spacemonitor.blogspot.com/2007/06/lunar-dirt-factories-look-at-how.html|website=The Space Monitor |date=2007-06-18 |access-date=30 April 2023}}

{{cite journal| last=Blacic| first=James D.| title=Mechanical Properties of Lunar Materials Under Anhydrous, Hard Vacuum Conditions: Applications of Lunar Glass Structural Components| journal=Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century| pages=487–495 | year=1985 | bibcode=1985lbsa.conf..487B}}

The European Space Agency working in 2013 with an independent architectural firm, tested a 3D-printed structure that could be constructed of lunar regolith for use as a Moon base.{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Technology/Building_a_lunar_base_with_3D_printing|title=Building a lunar base with 3D printing / Technology / Our Activities / ESA|date=2013-01-31|publisher=Esa.int|access-date=2014-03-13}}{{cite web| url=http://www.fosterandpartners.com/News/492/Default.aspx|title=Foster + Partners works with European Space Agency to 3D print structures on the moon| publisher=Foster + Partners| date=31 January 2013| access-date=3 February 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203104900/http://www.fosterandpartners.com/News/492/Default.aspx| archive-date=3 February 2013}}

{{cite news |last=Diaz| first=Jesus |title=This Is What the First Lunar Base Could Really Look Like |url=https://gizmodo.com/moon-base/ |access-date=2013-02-01 |newspaper=Gizmodo |date=2013-01-31 }} 3D-printed lunar soil would provide both "radiation and temperature insulation. Inside, a lightweight pressurized inflatable with the same dome shape would be the living environment for the first human Moon settlers."

In early 2014, NASA funded a small study at the University of Southern California to further develop the Contour Crafting 3D printing technique. Potential applications of this technology include constructing lunar structures of a material that could consist of up to 90-percent lunar material with only ten percent of the material requiring transport from Earth.{{cite news| url=http://techflesh.com/nasas-plan-to-build-homes-on-the-moon-space-agency-backs-3d-print-technology-which-could-build-base/| title=NASA's plan to build homes on the Moon: Space agency backs 3D print technology which could build base| date=2014-01-15| website=TechFlesh| access-date=2014-01-16| archive-date=2014-01-16| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116195122/http://techflesh.com/nasas-plan-to-build-homes-on-the-moon-space-agency-backs-3d-print-technology-which-could-build-base/}} NASA is also looking at a different technique that would involve the sintering of lunar dust using low-power (1500 watt) microwave radiation. The lunar material would be bound by heating to {{convert|1200|to|1500|C}}, somewhat below the melting point, in order to fuse the nanoparticle dust into a solid block that is ceramic-like, and would not require the transport of a binder material from Earth.{{cite magazine| url=https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-03/01/giant-nasa-spider-moon-base-sinterhab| title=Giant Nasa spider robots could 3D print lunar base using microwaves (Wired UK)|last=Steadman |first=Ian |magazine=Wired UK |date=1 March 2013 | access-date=2014-03-13}}

There are several models and proposals on how to exploit lunar resources, yet few of them consider sustainability.A. A. Ellery. "Sustainable Lunar In-Situ Resource Utilization = Long-Term Planning." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland. Long-term planning is required to achieve sustainability and ensure that future generations are not faced with a barren lunar wasteland by wanton practices.G. Harmer. "Integrating ISRU Projects to Create A Sustainable In-Space Economy." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland.A. A. Mardon, G. Zhou, R. Witiw. "Ethical Conduct in Lunar Commercialization." Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland. To be truly sustainable, lunar mining would have to adopt processes that do not use nor yield toxic material, and would minimize waste through recycling loops.

{{main|Exploration of the Moon|List of missions to the Moon}}

Numerous orbiters have mapped the lunar surface composition, including Clementine, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), Artemis orbiter, SELENE, Lunar Prospector, Chandrayaan, and Chang'e, to name a few, while the Soviet Luna programme and Apollo Program brought lunar samples back to Earth for extensive analyses. As of 2019, a new "Moon race" is ongoing that features prospecting for lunar resources to support crewed bases.

In the 21st century, China's Chinese Lunar Exploration Program,{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jan/21/china-steps-up-bid-to-win-the-lunar-space-race |title=Battlefield moon: how China plans to win the lunar space race |first=Hannah |last=Devlin |work=The Guardian |date=21 January 2019}}{{cite news |url=https://www.politico.com/agenda/story/2019/06/13/china-nasa-moon-race-000897 |title=A new moon race is on. Is China already ahead? |first=Bryan |last=Bender |work=Politico |date=13 June 2019}} is executing a step-wise approach to incremental technology development and scouting for resources for a crewed base, projected for the 2030s, according to Chinese state media Xinhua News Agency.{{cite news|date=19 September 2012|title=China has no timetable for manned moon landing: chief scientist|work=Xinhua|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/sci/2012-09/19/c_131861211.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005141100/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/sci/2012-09/19/c_131861211.htm|archive-date=October 5, 2012}} India's Chandrayaan programme is focused in understanding the lunar water cycle first, and on mapping mineral location and concentrations from orbit and in situ. Russia's Luna-Glob programme is planning and developing a series of landers, rovers and orbiters for prospecting and science exploration, and to eventually employ in situ resource utilization (ISRU) methods with the intent to construct and operate their own crewed lunar base in the 2030s.{{cite news |url=https://themoscowtimes.com/news/russia-plans-to-colonize-moon-by-2030-newspaper-reports-35270| title=Russia Plans to Colonize Moon by 2030, Newspaper Reports| newspaper=The Moscow Times| date=8 May 2014| access-date=8 May 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170719174220/https://themoscowtimes.com/news/russia-plans-to-colonize-moon-by-2030-newspaper-reports-35270 |archive-date=19 July 2017 |df=dmy-all}}{{cite web |url=http://www.mat.ucm.es/~aegora/eventos/escorial2016/IKI%20-%20Maxim%20Litvak.pdf |title=The vision of the Russian Space Agency on the robotic settlements in the Moon |first=Maxim |last=Litvak |publisher=IKI/Roscosmos |year=2016}}

The US has been studying the Moon for decades and in 2019 it started to implement the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program to support the crewed Artemis program, both aimed at scouting and exploiting lunar resources to facilitate a long-term crewed base on the Moon, and depending on the lessons learned, then move on to a crewed mission to Mars.[https://www.nasa.gov/topics/moon-to-mars/overview Moon to Mars.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725184925/https://www.nasa.gov/topics/moon-to-mars/overview/ |date=2019-07-25 }} NASA. Accessed on 23 July 2019. NASA's lunar Resource Prospector rover was planned to prospect for resources on a polar region of the Moon, and it was to be launched in 2022. The mission concept was in its pre-formulation stage, and a prototype rover was being tested when it was cancelled in April 2018.[https://www.nasa.gov/resource-prospector Resource Prospector] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308094333/https://www.nasa.gov/resource-prospector/ |date=2019-03-08 }}. Advanced Exploration Systems, NASA. 2017.{{cite web |last=Grush |first=Loren |date=April 27, 2018 |title=NASA scraps a lunar surface mission – just as it's supposed to focus on a Moon return |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/4/27/17287154/nasa-lunar-surface-robotic-mission-resource-prospector-moon |work=The Verge}}{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2018/04/new-nasa-leader-faces-an-early-test-on-his-commitment-to-moon-landings/ |title=New NASA leader faces an early test on his commitment to Moon landings |first=Eric |last=Berger |work=ARS Technica |date=27 April 2018}} Its science instruments will be flown instead on several commercial lander missions contracted by NASA's CLPS program, that aims to focus on testing various lunar ISRU processes by landing several payloads on multiple commercial robotic landers and rovers. The first payload contracts were awarded on February 21, 2019,{{cite web |url=https://www.spaceflightinsider.com/organizations/nasa/nasa-selects-experiments-to-fly-aboard-commercial-lunar-landers/ |title=NASA selects experiments to fly aboard commercial lunar landers |first=Derek |last=Richardson |work=Spaceflight Insider |date=February 26, 2019}}{{cite web |url=https://newatlas.com/nasa-12-experiments-moon-selection/58594/ |title=NASA picks 12 lunar experiments that could fly this year |first=David |last=Szondy |work=New Atlas |date=21 February 2019}} and will fly on separate missions. The CLPS will inform and support NASA's Artemis program, leading to a crewed lunar outpost for extended stays.

A European non-profit organization has called for a global synergistic collaboration between all space agencies and nations instead of a "Moon race"; this proposed collaborative concept is called the Moon Village.{{cite news |url=https://spacenews.com/urban-planning-for-the-moon-village/ |title=Urban planning for the Moon Village |first=Jeff |last=Foust |work=Space News |date=26 December 2018}} Moon Village seeks to create a vision where both international cooperation and the commercialization of space can thrive.Jan Wörner, ESA Director General. [http://m.esa.int/About_Us/Ministerial_Council_2016/Moon_Village Moon Village: A vision for global cooperation and Space 4.0] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016151130/https://m.esa.int/About_Us/Ministerial_Council_2016/Moon_Village|date=2019-10-16}}. April 2016.{{Cite web |last=David |first=Leonard |date=2016-04-26 |title=Europe Aiming for International 'Moon Village' |url=https://www.space.com/32695-moon-colony-european-space-agency.html |access-date=2024-05-16 |website=Space.com |language=en}}[http://m.esa.int/About_Us/DG_s_news_and_views/Moon_Village_humans_and_robots_together_on_the_Moon Moon Village: humans and robots together on the Moon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604065818/http://m.esa.int/About_Us/DG_s_news_and_views/Moon_Village_humans_and_robots_together_on_the_Moon |date=2019-06-04 }}. ESA. 1 March 2016.

Some early private companies like Shackleton Energy Company,{{cite web |title=Mining the Moon's Water: Q&A with Shackleton Energy's Bill Stone |publisher=space.com |last=Wall |first=Mike |date=14 January 2011 |url=https://www.space.com/10619-mining-moon-water-bill-stone-110114.html|access-date=April 30, 2023}} Deep Space Industries, Planetoid Mines, Golden Spike Company, Planetary Resources, Astrobotic Technology, and Moon Express are planning private commercial scouting and mining ventures on the Moon.{{cite news |last=Hennigan |first=W. J. |date=2011-08-20 |title=MoonEx aims to scour Moon for rare materials |url=http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-moon-venture-20110408,0,1715396.story |access-date=2011-04-10 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |quote=MoonEx's machines are designed to look for materials that are scarce on Earth but found in everything from a Toyota Prius car battery to guidance systems on cruise missiles.}}

In 2024, an American startup called Interlune announced plans to mine Helium on the Moon for export back on Earth. The first mission plans to use NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services program to arrive on the Moon. {{Cite web |last=Eaton |first=Kit |date=Mar 14, 2024 |title=Space Startup Interlune Emerges From Stealth Mode to Start Moon Mining Effort |url=https://www.inc.com/kit-eaton/space-startup-interlune-emerges-from-stealth-mode-to-start-moon-mining-effort.html}}

The extensive lunar maria are composed of basaltic lava flows. Their mineralogy is dominated by a combination of five minerals: anorthites (CaAl₂Si₂O₈), orthopyroxenes ({{chem2|(Mg,Fe)SiO3}}), clinopyroxenes ({{chem2|Ca(Fe,Mg)Si2O6}}), olivines ({{chem2|(Mg,Fe)2SiO4}}), and ilmenite ({{chem2|FeTiO3}}), all abundant on the Moon.{{cite web | url=https://isru.msfc.nasa.gov/lib/Documents/PDF%20Files/Significant_Lunar_Minerals.pdf | title=Significant Lunar Minerals | publisher=NASA | work=In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) | access-date=23 August 2018 | archive-date=27 December 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227154652/https://isru.msfc.nasa.gov/lib/Documents/PDF%20Files/Significant_Lunar_Minerals.pdf }} It has been proposed that smelters could process the basaltic lava to break it down into pure calcium, aluminium, oxygen, iron, titanium, magnesium, and silica glass.

{{cite web |title=Mining and Manufacturing on the Moon |publisher=NASA |url=http://aerospacescholars.jsc.nasa.gov/HAS/cirr/em/6/6.cfm |access-date=2007-01-14

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206083416/http://aerospacescholars.jsc.nasa.gov/HAS/cirr/em/6/6.cfm |archive-date=2006-12-06 }} The European Space Agency has awarded funding to Metalysis in 2020 to further develop the FFC Cambridge process to extract titanium from regolith while generating oxygen as a byproduct.{{cite web |title=Metalysis gets ESA development contract for FFC process |url=https://www.iom3.org/resource/metalysis-gets-esa-development-contract-for-ffc-process.html |publisher=Institute of Materials, Minerals & Mining}} Raw lunar anorthite could also be used for making fiberglass and other ceramic products. Another proposal envisions the use of fluorine brought from Earth as potassium fluoride to separate the raw materials from the lunar rocks.{{cite web |last=Landis |first=Geoffrey |title= Refining Lunar Materials for Solar Array Production on the Moon |publisher=NASA

|url=http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2005/TM-2005-214014.pdf |access-date=2007-03-26 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061009034854/http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2005/TM-2005-214014.pdf |archive-date=2006-10-09 }}

{{main |Space law|Outer Space Treaty|Moon Treaty}}

Although Luna landers scattered pennants of the Soviet Union on the Moon, and United States flags were symbolically planted at their landing sites by the Apollo astronauts, no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon's surface,{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q6 |title=Can any State claim a part of outer space as its own? |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |access-date=28 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q6 |archive-date=21 April 2010 }}

and the international legal status of mining space resources is unclear and controversial.{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/26644-moon-asteroids-resources-space-law.html |title=Mining the Moon? Space Property Rights Still Unclear, Experts Say |first=Leonard |last=David |website=Space.com |date=25 July 2014}}{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/10621-moon-mining-legal-issues.html |title=Moon Mining Idea Digs Up Lunar Legal Issues |first=Mike |last=Wall |website=Space.com |date=14 January 2011}}

The five treaties and agreements

• The 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "Outer Space Treaty").
• The 1968 Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (the "Rescue Agreement").
• The 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (the "Liability Convention").
• The 1975 Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (the "Registration Convention").
• The 1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "Moon Treaty"). of international space law cover "non-appropriation of outer space by any one country, arms control, the freedom of exploration, liability for damage caused by space objects, the safety and rescue of spacecraft and astronauts, the prevention of harmful interference with space activities and the environment, the notification and registration of space activities, scientific investigation and the exploitation of natural resources in outer space and the settlement of disputes."{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties.html |title=United Nations Treaties and Principles on Space Law |author=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |website=unoosa.org |access-date=23 February 2019}}

Russia, China, and the United States are party to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty (OST),{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q4 |title=How many States have signed and ratified the five international treaties governing outer space? |date=1 January 2006 |publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs |access-date=28 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q4 |archive-date=21 April 2010 }} which is the most widely adopted treaty, with 104 parties.[http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2016_CRP03E.pdf Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space Legal Subcommittee: Fifty-fifth session.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119121421/http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2016_CRP03E.pdf|date=2019-01-19}} Vienna, Austria, 4–15 April 2016. Item 6 of the provisional agenda: Status and application of the five United Nations treaties on outer space. The OST treaty offers imprecise guidelines to newer space activities such as lunar and asteroid mining,Senjuti Mallick and Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan. [https://www.orfonline.org/research/if-space-is-the-province-of-mankind-who-owns-its-resources-47561/ If space is 'the province of mankind', who owns its resources?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510233544/https://www.orfonline.org/research/if-space-is-the-province-of-mankind-who-owns-its-resources-47561/|date=2020-05-10}}.The Observer Research Foundation. 24 January 2019. Quote 1: "The Outer Space Treaty (OST) of 1967, considered the global foundation of the outer space legal regime, […] has been insufficient and ambiguous in providing clear regulations to newer space activities such as asteroid mining." *Quote2: "Although the OST does not explicitly mention "mining" activities, under Article II, outer space including the Moon and other celestial bodies are "not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty" through use, occupation or any other means." and it therefore remains under contention whether the extraction of resources falls within the prohibitive language of appropriation or whether the use encompasses the commercial use and exploitation. Although its applicability on exploiting natural resources remains in contention, leading experts generally agree with the position issued in 2015 by the International Institute of Space Law (ISSL) stating that, "in view of the absence of a clear prohibition of the taking of resources in the Outer Space Treaty, one can conclude that the use of space resources is permitted.""Institutional Framework for the Province of all Mankind: Lessons from the International Seabed Authority for the Governance of Commercial Space Mining." Jonathan Sydney Koch. "Institutional Framework for the Province of all Mankind: Lessons from the International Seabed Authority for the Governance of Commercial Space Mining." Astropolitics, 16:1, 1–27, 2008. {{doi|10.1080/14777622.2017.1381824}}

The 1979 Moon Treaty is a proposed framework of laws to develop a regime of detailed rules and procedures for orderly resource exploitation.Louis de Gouyon Matignon. [https://www.spacelegalissues.com/the-1979-moon-agreement/ The 1979 Moon Agreement.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106195831/https://www.spacelegalissues.com/the-1979-moon-agreement/|date=2019-11-06}}. Space Legal Issues. 17 July 2019.J. K. Schingler and A. Kapoglou. [https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lunarisru2019/pdf/5124.pdf "Common Pool Lunar Resources."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725221645/https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lunarisru2019/pdf/5124.pdf|date=2020-07-25}}. Lunar ISRU 2019: Developing a New Space Economy Through Lunar Resources and Their Utilization. July 15–17, 2019, Columbia, Maryland. This treaty would regulate exploitation of resources if it is "governed by an international regime" of rules (Article 11.5),{{Cite web |last=United Nations |date=5 December 1979 |title=Moon Agreement |url=https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-agreement.html |access-date=2024-05-16 |website=www.unoosa.org |quote=Resolution 34/68 Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. 89th plenary meeting; 5 December 1979.}} but there has been no consensus and the precise rules for commercial mining have not been established.Fabio Tronchetti. [http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/lsc/2017/symp-01.pdf Current International Legal Framework Applicability to Space Resource Activities.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020113017/http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/lsc/2017/symp-01.pdf|date=2020-10-20}}. IISL/ECSL Space Law Symposium 2017, Vienna, Austria. 27 March 2017. The Moon Treaty was ratified by very few nations, and thus suggested to have little to no relevancy in international law.{{cite web| url =http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1954/1 | title =The Moon Treaty: failed international law or waiting in the shadows? | last =Listner | first =Michael| date =24 October 2011| website =The Space Review}}James R. Wilson. [https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1325&context=elr Regulation of the Outer Space Environment Through International Accord: The 1979 Moon Treaty.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803120755/https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1325&context=elr|date=2020-08-03}}. Fordham Environmental Law Review, Volume 2, Number 2, Article 1, 2011. The last attempt to define acceptable detailed rules for exploitation, ended in June 2018, after S. Neil Hosenball, who was the NASA General Counsel and chief US negotiator for the Moon Treaty, decided that negotiation of the mining rules in the Moon Treaty should be delayed until the feasibility of exploitation of lunar resources had been established.{{cite web |url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/3408/1 |title=Simply fix the Moon Treaty |first=Vidvuds |last=Beldavs |work=The Space Review |date=15 January 2018}}

Seeking clearer regulatory guidelines, private companies in the US prompted the US government, and legalized space mining in 2015 by introducing the US Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015.[https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/2262 H.R. 2262 – U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act. 114th Congress (2015–2016)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119195538/https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/2262|date=2015-11-19}}. Sponsor: Representative McCarthy, Kevin. 5 December 2015. Similar national legislations legalizing extraterrestrial appropriation of resources are now being replicated by other nations, including Luxembourg, Japan, China, India and Russia.{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/feb/06/asteroid-mining-space-minerals-legal-issues |title=Asteroid mining could be space's new frontier: the problem is doing it legally |work=The Guardian |first=Rob |last=Davies |date=6 February 2016}}{{cite web |last1=Ridderhof |first1=R. |title=Space Mining and (U.S.) Space Law |url=https://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/2015/12/space-mining-and-u-s-space-law/ |website=Peace Palace Library |access-date=26 February 2019 |date=18 December 2015 |archive-date=27 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227062034/https://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/2015/12/space-mining-and-u-s-space-law/ }}{{Cite web|url = http://www.regblog.org/2015/12/31/rathz-space-commerce-regulation/|title = Law Provides New Regulatory Framework for Space Commerce {{!}} RegBlog|website = www.regblog.org|date = 31 December 2015|access-date = 2016-03-28}} This has created an international legal controversy on mining rights for profit. A legal expert stated in 2011 that the international issues "would probably be settled during the normal course of space exploration." In April 2020, U.S. President Donald Trump signed an executive order to support moon mining.{{cite web|url=https://www.space.com/trump-moon-mining-space-resources-executive-order.html|title=Trump signs executive order to support Moon mining, tap asteroid resources|website=Space.com|date=6 April 2020 |first=Mike |last=Wall}}

• {{annotated link|Colonization of the Moon}}
• {{annotated link|Exploration of the Moon}}
• {{annotated link|Geology of the Moon}}
• In situ resource utilization

{{reflist}}

{{The Moon}}

Category:Mining in space

Category:Natural resources

Category:Exploration of the Moon

Category:Space colonization

Category:Industry in space

Category:Self-sustainability

Category:Space manufacturing