optimism

File:Оптимист и пессимист.jpg, 1893]]

Researchers operationalize the term "optimism" differently depending on their research. As with any trait characteristic, there are several ways to evaluate optimism, such as the Life Orientation Test (LOT), an eight-item scale developed in 1985 by Michael Scheier and Charles Carver.{{Cite book|title=Social Psychology Alive|last1=Breckler|first1=Steven J.|last2=Olson|first2=James|last3=Wiggins|first3=Elizabeth|year=2006|publisher=Thomson Learning|isbn=0534578349|location=Belmont, Calif.|pages=[https://archive.org/details/socialpsychology0000brec/page/190 190]|url=https://archive.org/details/socialpsychology0000brec|url-access=registration}}

Dispositional optimism and pessimism are typically assessed by asking people whether they expect future outcomes to be beneficial or negative (see below).{{cite journal |title=Dispositional optimism and physical well-being: the influence of generalized outcome expectancies on health |last1=Scheier |first1=M. F. |last2=Carver |first2=C. S. |year=1987 |journal=Journal of Personality |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1987.tb00434.x |pmid= 3497256|volume=55 |issue=2|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1987.tb00434.x|url-access=subscription |pages=169–210}} The LOT returns separate optimism and pessimism scores for each individual. {{clarify|reason=what does it mean for scores to correlate behaviourally?|text=Behaviourally,|date=August 2023}} these two scores correlate around r=0.5. Optimistic scores on this scale predict better outcomes in relationships,{{cite journal |title=Social relationships and health |journal=Science |date=1988-07-29 |pages=540–545 |volume=241 |issue=4865 |doi=10.1126/science.3399889 |pmid=3399889 |first1=J. |last1=House |first2=K. |last2=Landis |first3=D |last3=Umberson|bibcode=1988Sci...241..540H|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.3399889|url-access=subscription }} higher social status,{{cite journal |title=Depression and socio-economic risk factors: 7-year longitudinal population study |journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry |date=2007-04-01 |issn=0007-1250 |pmid=17401034 |pages=293–298 |volume=190 |issue=4 |doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.105.020040 |first1=Vincent |last1=Lorant |first2=Christophe |last2=Croux |first3=Scott |last3=Weich |first4=Denise |last4=Deliège |first5=Johan |last5=Mackenbach |first6=Marc |last6=Ansseau |doi-access=free }} and reduced loss of well-being following adversity.{{cite book |title=On the self-regulation of behavior |last1=Carver |first1=C. S. |last2=Scheier |first2=M. F. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |location=New York|isbn=9780521572040 |url=https://archive.org/details/onselfregulation0000carv|url-access=registration }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}} Health-preserving behaviors {{Vague|reason=specify whether this is a mere correlation or whether there is some directionality; also specify who is exhibiting the behavior and whose health is being preserved or damaged (e.g. the same person?)|text=are associated with|date=August 2023}} optimism while health-damaging behaviors are associated with pessimism.{{cite journal |title=Mental and physical health of spouse caregivers: The role of personality |journal=Psychology and Aging |pages=367–375 |volume=7 |issue=3 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.7.3.367 |first1=Karen |last1=Hooker |first2=Deborah |last2=Monahan |first3=Kim |last3=Shifren |first4=Cheryl |last4=Hutchinson|year=1992 |pmid=1388857|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0882-7974.7.3.367|url-access=subscription }}

Some have argued that optimism is the opposite end of a single dimension with pessimism,{{Cite book|title=Positive Psychiatry: A Clinical Handbook|last1=Jeste|first1=Dilip V.|last2=Palmer|first2=Barton W.|date=2015-04-28|publisher=American Psychiatric Pub|isbn=9781585625192|language=en}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}} with any distinction between them reflecting factors such as social desirability. Confirmatory modelling, however, supports a two-dimensional model{{cite journal |title=Separating optimism and pessimism: A robust psychometric analysis of the Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) |journal=Psychological Assessment |pages=433–438 |volume=18 |issue=4 |doi=10.1037/1040-3590.18.4.433 |pmid=17154764 |first1=Philipp Yorck |last1=Herzberg |first2=Heide |last2=Glaesmer |first3=Jürgen |last3=Hoyer|year=2006 |s2cid=14674536 }} and the two dimensions {{clarify|reason=if they predict different outcomes doesn't this imply that at least one of them is a poor predictor? I think I have some idea of this phrase is intent, but it needs to be worded better.|text=predict different outcomes|date=August 2023}}.{{cite journal |title=Distinguishing optimism from pessimism in older adults: Is it more important to be optimistic or not to be pessimistic? |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |pages=1345–1353 |volume=73 |issue=6 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.73.6.1345 |first1=Susan |last1=Robinson-Whelen |first2=Cheongtag |last2=Kim |first3=Robert C. |last3=MacCallum |first4=Janice K. |last4=Kiecolt-Glaser|year=1997 |pmid=9418282 |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.73.6.1345 |url-access=subscription}} Genetic modelling confirms this independence, showing that pessimism and optimism are inherited as independent traits, with the typical correlation between them emerging as a result of a general well-being factor and family environment influences. Patients with high dispositional optimism appear to have stronger immune systems since optimism buffers against psychological stressors.{{Cite book|title=MD Anderson Manual of Psychosocial Oncology|last1=Duffy|first1=James D.|last2=Valentine|first2=Alan|year=2010|publisher=McGraw Hill Professional|isbn=9780071624381|location=New York City|page=38}} Optimists appear to live longer.{{cite news |last1=Abbott |first1=Eileen |title=Optimists live longer. Here's why. |url=https://thehill.com/changing-america/well-being/longevity/470527-optimists-live-longer-heres-why |access-date=30 January 2020 |work=Changing America |date=14 November 2019 |language=en}}

Explanatory style is distinct from dispositional theories of optimism. While related to life-orientation measures of optimism, {{clarify|reason=is this a synonym for "explanatory style" or something different? Why are we sometimes using one term and sometimes the other?|text=attributional style|date=August 2023}} theory suggests that dispositional optimism and pessimism are reflections of the ways people explain events, i.e., that attributions cause these dispositions.{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Sport Psychology: Sport, Exercise, and Performing Arts|last1=Hackfort|first1=Dieter|last2=Schinke|first2=Robert J.|last3=Strauss|first3=Bernd|publisher=Academic Press|year=2019|isbn=9780128131503|location=London|page=202}} An optimist would view defeat as temporary, as something that does not apply to other cases, and as something that is not their fault.{{Cite book|title=Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology, Second edition|last1=Snyder|first1=C. R.|last2=Lopez|first2=Shane J.|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195187243|location=New York|page=137}} Measures of attributional style distinguish three dimensions among explanations for events: Whether these explanations draw on internal versus external causes; whether the causes are viewed as stable versus unstable; and whether explanations apply globally versus being situationally specific. In addition, the measures distinguish attributions for positive and negative events.

Optimistic people attribute internal, stable, and global explanations to good things. Pessimistic explanations attribute these traits of stability, globality, and internality to negative events, such as relationship difficulty.{{cite book |last1=Gillham |first1=Jane E. |last2=Shatté |first2=Andrew J. |last3=Reivich |first3=Karen J. |last4=Seligman |first4=Martin E. P. |editor1-last=Chang |editor1-first=Edward C. |title=Optimism and Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice |year=2001 |publisher=American Psychological Association |location=Washington, DC |pages=[https://archive.org/details/optimismpessimis0000unse/page/53/mode/1up 53]–75 |isbn=978-1-55798-691-7 |chapter=Optimism, Pessimism, and Explanatory Style|url=https://archive.org/details/optimismpessimis0000unse|url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/optimismpessimis0000unse/page/53/mode/1up|chapter-url-access=registration}} Models of optimistic and pessimistic attributions show that attributions themselves are a cognitive style – individuals who tend to focus on the global explanations do so for all types of events, and the styles correlate among each other. In addition, individuals vary in how optimistic their attributions are for good events and on how pessimistic their attributions are for bad events. Still, these two traits of optimism and pessimism are un-correlated.{{Cite journal|title = The structure of attributional style: Cognitive styles and optimism–pessimism bias in the Attributional Style Questionnaire|journal = Personality and Individual Differences|date = 2014-08-01|pages = 79–85|volume = 66|doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.022|first1 = Caimei|last1 = Liu|first2 = Timothy C.|last2 = Bates|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886914001810|url-access=subscription}}

There is much debate about the relationship between explanatory style and optimism. Some researchers argue that optimism is simply the lay-term for what researchers know as explanatory style.{{cite journal |first=C. |last=Peterson |title=The Future of Optimism |journal=American Psychologist |volume=55 |issue=1 |year=2000 |pages=44–55 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.44 |pmid=11392864|s2cid=22373177 |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0003-066X.55.1.44|url-access=subscription }} More commonly, it is found that explanatory style is distinct from dispositional optimism,{{multiref2

|1={{cite journal |first1=L. |last1=Abramson |first2=B. |last2=Dykman |first3=D. |last3=Needles |title=Attributional Style and Theory: Let No One Tear Them Asunder |journal=Psychological Inquiry |volume=2 |issue=1 |year=1991 |pages=11–13 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli0201_2|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327965pli0201_2|url-access=subscription }}

|2={{cite journal |first=H. |last=Zullow |title=Explanations and Expectations: Understanding the 'Doing' Side of Optimism |journal=Psychological Inquiry |volume=2 |issue=1 |year=1991 |pages=45–49 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli0201_13|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327965pli0201_13|url-access=subscription }} }} so the two should not be used interchangeably as they are marginally correlated at best. More research is required to "bridge" or further differentiate these concepts.

File:Optimistic Personality.png

As with all psychological traits, differences in both dispositional optimism and pessimism and in attributional style{{cite journal |first1 = P.|last1 = Schulman|first2 = D.|last2 = Keith|first3 = M.|last3 = Seligman|title = Is Optimism Heritable? A Study of Twins|journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy|volume = 31|issue = 6|year = 1993|pages = 569–574|doi = 10.1016/0005-7967(93)90108-7|pmid = 8347115|doi-access = free}} are heritable. Both optimism and pessimism are strongly influenced by environmental factors, including the family environment. Optimism may be indirectly inherited as a reflection of underlying heritable traits such as intelligence, temperament, and alcoholism. Evidence from twin studies shows that the inherited component of the dispositional optimism is about 25 percent, making this trait a stable personality dimension{{Cite book|title=The SAGE Encyclopedia of Lifespan Human Development|last=Bornstein|first=Marc H.|date=2018-01-15|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=9781506353326|language=en}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}} and a predictor of life outcomes.{{Cite book|chapter=Internal World of Transformational Leaders|first1=Micha|last1=Popper|first2=Ofra|last2=Mayseless|title=Transformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead|editor-last1=Avolio|editor-first1=Bruce|editor-last2=Yammarino|editor-first2=Francis|publisher=Emerald Group Publishing Limited|year=2013|isbn=9781781905999|location=Bingley, U.K.|page=[https://archive.org/details/transformational0000unse_n8p4/page/246/mode/1up 247]|url=https://archive.org/details/transformational0000unse_n8p4|url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/transformational0000unse_n8p4/page/237/mode/1up|chapter-url-access=registration}} Its genetic origin interacts with environmental influences and other risks, to determine the vulnerability to depression across the lifespan.{{Cite book|title=Risk Factors in Depression|editor-last1=Dobson|editor-first1=Keith|editor-last2=Dozois|editor-first2=David|publisher=Academic Press|year=2008|isbn=9780080450780|location=San Diego, Calif.|page=[https://archive.org/details/riskfactorsindep0000dobs/page/213/mode/1up 213]|url=https://archive.org/details/riskfactorsindep0000dobs|url-access=registration|chapter=Dispositional Pessimism Across the Lifespan|first1=John R.Z.|last1=Abela|first2=Randy P.|last2=Auerbach|first3=Martin E.P.|last3=Seligman

|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/riskfactorsindep0000dobs/page/195/mode/1up|chapter-url-access=registration}} Many theories assume optimism can be learned, and research supports a modest role of family-environment acting to raise (or lower) optimism and lower (or raise) neuroticism and pessimism.

Work utilising brain imaging and biochemistry suggests that at a biological trait level, optimism and pessimism reflect brain systems specialised for the tasks of processing and incorporating beliefs regarding good and bad information respectively.

The Life Orientation Test (LOT) was designed by Scheier and Carver (1985){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} to assess dispositional optimism – expecting positive or negative outcomes. It is one of the more popular tests of optimism and pessimism. It was often used in early studies examining these dispositions' effects in health-related domains.{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Health Psychology|last1=Christensen|first1=Alan|last2=Martin|first2=René|last3=Smyth|first3=Joshua|publisher=Springer Science+Business Media|year=2004|isbn=9780306483363|location=New York|page=159}} Scheier and Carver's initial research, which surveyed college students, found that optimistic participants were less likely to show an increase in symptoms like dizziness, muscle soreness, fatigue, blurred vision, and other physical complaints than pessimistic respondents.{{Cite book|title=Social Psychology Alive|last1=Breckler|first1=Steven|last2=Olson|first2=James|last3=Wiggins|first3=Elizabeth|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth|year=2005|isbn=978-0534578343|location=Belmont, Calif.|page=[https://archive.org/details/socialpsychology0000brec/page/190 190]|url=https://archive.org/details/socialpsychology0000brec|url-access=registration}}

There are eight items and four filler items in the test. Four are positive items (e.g. "In uncertain times, I usually expect the best") and four are negative items e.g. "If something can go wrong for me, it will."{{cite journal |last1 = Scheier|first1 = Michael F.|last2 = Carver|first2 = Charles S.|title = Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies|journal = Health Psychology|date = 1985|volume = 4|issue = 3|pages = 219–247|doi = 10.1037/0278-6133.4.3.219|pmid = 4029106|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0278-6133.4.3.219|url-access=subscription}} The LOT has been revised twice—once by the original creators (LOT-R) and also by Chang, Maydeu-Olivares, and D'Zurilla as the Extended Life Orientation Test (ELOT). The Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) consists of six items, each scored on a five-point scale from "Strongly disagree" to "Strongly agree" and four filler items.{{Cite journal|title = Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test.|journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|pages = 1063–1078|volume = 67|issue = 6|doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063|first1 = Michael F.|last1 = Scheier|first2 = Charles S.|last2 = Carver|first3 = Michael W.|last3 = Bridges|pmid=7815302|date=December 1994|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.67.6.1063|url-access=subscription}} Half of the coded items are phrased optimistically, the other half in a pessimistic way. Compared with its previous iteration, LOT-R offers good internal consistency over time despite item overlaps, making the correlation between the LOT and LOT-R extremely high.

The Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ){{cite journal |last1=Peterson |first1=Christopher |last2=Semmel |first2=Amy |last3=von Baeyer |first3=Carl |last4=Abramson |first4=Lyn Y. |last5=Metalsky |first5=Gerald I. |last6=Seligman |first6=Martin E. P. |title=The Attributional Style Questionnaire |journal=Cognitive Therapy and Research |date=September 1982 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=287–299 |doi=10.1007/BF01173577|s2cid=30737751|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01173577|url-access=subscription }} is based on the explanatory style model of optimism. Subjects read a list of six positive and negative events (e.g. "you have been looking for a job unsuccessfully for some time"), and are asked to record a possible cause for the event. They then rate whether this is internal or external, stable or changeable, and global or local to the event. There are several modified versions of the ASQ including the Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire (EASQ), the Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanations (CAVE), and the ASQ designed for testing the optimism of children.

Optimism and health are correlated moderately.{{cite journal |last1=Peterson |first1=Christopher |last2=Park |first2=Nansook |last3=Kim |first3=Eric S. |title=Can optimism decrease the risk of illness and disease among the elderly? |journal=Aging Health |date=February 2012 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=5–8 |doi=10.2217/ahe.11.81|url=https://www.futuremedicine.com/doi/10.2217/ahe.11.81|url-access=subscription}} Optimism explains between 5–10% of the variation in the likelihood of developing some health conditions (correlation coefficients between .20 and .30),{{cite book |last1=Peterson |first1=Christopher |last2=Bossio |first2=Lisa M. |editor1-last=Chang |editor1-first=Edward C. |title=Optimism and Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice |year=2001 |publisher=American Psychological Association |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1-55798-691-7 |pages=127–145 |chapter=Optimism and Physical Well-Being}} notably including cardiovascular disease,{{multiref2

|1={{cite journal |last1=Scheier |first1=Michael F. |last2=Matthews |first2=Karen A. |last3=Owens |first3=Jane F. |last4=Magovern |first4=George J. |last5=Lefebvre |first5=R. Craig |last6=Abbott |first6=R. Anne |last7=Carver |first7=Charles S. |title=Dispositional optimism and recovery from coronary artery bypass surgery: The beneficial effects on physical and psychological well-being |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |year=1989 |volume=57 |issue=6 |pages=1024–1040 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1024 |pmid=2614656 |display-authors=3|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.57.6.1024|url-access=subscription}}

|2={{cite journal |author1-link=Laura Kubzansky |last1=Kubzansky |first1=Laura D. |last2=Sparrow |first2=David |last3=Vokonas |first3=Pantel |last4=Kawachi |first4=Ichiro |title=Is the Glass Half Empty or Half Full? A Prospective Study of Optimism and Coronary Heart Disease in the Normative Aging Study |journal=Psychosomatic Medicine |date=November 2001 |volume=63 |issue=6 |pages=910–916 |doi=10.1097/00006842-200111000-00009 |pmid=11719629|citeseerx=10.1.1.492.6714 |s2cid=19463805|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/doc/10.1.1.492.6714 }}

|3={{cite journal |last1=Giltay |first1=Erik J. |last2=Geleijnse |first2=Johanna M. |last3=Zitman |first3=Frans G. |last4=Hoekstra |first4=Tiny |last5=Schouten |first5=Evert G. |title=Dispositional Optimism and All-Cause and Cardiovascular Mortality ina Prospective Cohort of Elderly Dutch Men and Women |journal=Archives of General Psychiatry |date=November 2004 |volume=61 |issue=11 |pages=1126–35 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.61.11.1126 |pmid=15520360|doi-access=}} }} stroke,{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Eric S. |last2=Park |first2=Nansook |last3=Peterson |first3=Christopher |title=Dispositional Optimism Protects Older Adults From Stroke: The Health And Retirement Study |journal=Stroke |date=October 2011 |volume=42 |issue=10 |pages=2855–2859 |doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.613448 |pmid=21778446|doi-access=free }} and depression.{{multiref2

|1={{cite journal|last1=Giltay|first1=Erik J.|last2=Zitman|first2=Frans G.|last3=Kromhout|first3=Daan|title=Dispositional optimism and the risk of depressive symptoms during 15 years of follow-up: The Zutphen Elderly Study|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|date=March 2006|volume=91|issue=1|pages=45–52|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2005.12.027|pmid=16443281|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165032705004143|url-access=subscription}}

|2={{cite journal|last1=Patton|first1=George C.|last2=Tollit|first2=Michelle M.|last3=Romaniuk|first3=Helena|last4=Spence|first4=Susan H.|author-link4=Susan H. Spence |last5=Sheffield|first5=Jeannie|last6=Sawyer|first6=Michael G.|title=A Prospective Study of the Effects of Optimism on Adolescent Health Risks|journal=Pediatrics|date=February 2011|volume=127|issue=2|pages=308–16|doi=10.1542/peds.2010-0748|pmid=21220404|doi-access=free|hdl=10072/44257|hdl-access=free}} }}

The relationship between optimism and health has also been studied with regard to physical symptoms, coping strategies, and negative effects for those suffering from rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, and fibromyalgia. Among individuals with these diseases, optimists are not more likely than pessimists to report pain alleviation due to coping strategies, despite differences in psychological well-being between the two groups.{{cite book |first1=Glenn |last1=Affleck |first2=Howard |last2=Tennen |first3=Andrea |last3=Apter |chapter=Optimism, Pessimism, and Daily Life With Chronic Illness |title=Optimism & Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice |editor-first=E. |editor-last=Chang |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=American Psychological Association |year=2001 |pages=147–168 |isbn=9781557986917|url=https://archive.org/details/optimismpessimis0000unse|url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/optimismpessimis0000unse/page/147/mode/1up|chapter-url-access=registration}} A meta-analysis confirmed the assumption that optimism is related to psychological well-being: "Put simply, optimists emerge from difficult circumstances with less distress than do pessimists."{{cite book |first1=Michael F. |last1=Scheier |first2=Charles S. |last2=Carver |first3=Michael W. |last3=Bridges |chapter=Optimism, Pessimism, and Psychological Well-Being |title=Optimism & Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice |editor-first=E. |editor-last=Chang |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=American Psychological Association |year=2001 |pages=189–216 |isbn=978-1-55798-691-7|url=https://archive.org/details/optimismpessimis0000unse|url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/optimismpessimis0000unse/page/189/mode/1up|chapter-url-access=registration}} Furthermore, the correlation appears to be attributable to coping style: "That is, optimists seem intent on facing problems head-on, taking active and constructive steps to solve their problems; pessimists are more likely to abandon their effort to attain their goals."

Optimists may respond better to stress: pessimists have shown higher levels of cortisol (the "stress hormone") and trouble regulating cortisol in response to stressors.{{cite web|last=Bergland|first=Christopher|title=Optimism Stabilizes Cortisol Levels and Lowers Stress|website=Psychology Today: The Athlete's Way|date=2013-07-24|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-athletes-way/201307/optimism-stabilizes-cortisol-levels-and-lowers-stress}} Another study by Scheier examined the recovery process for a number of patients that had undergone surgery. The study showed that optimism was a strong predictor of the rate of recovery. Optimists achieved faster results in "behavioral milestones" such as sitting in bed, walking around, etc. They also were rated by staff as having a more favorable physical recovery. At a six-month follow-up, optimists were quicker to resume normal activities.

A number of studies have been done on optimism and psychological well-being. One 30-year study undertaken by Lee et al. (2019){{Cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Micah K. |last2=Boag |first2=Russell James |last3=Strickland |first3=Luke |date=2019-12-01 |title=All models are wrong, some are useful, but are they reproducible? Commentary on Lee et al. (2019) |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s42113-019-00054-x |journal=Computational Brain & Behavior |language=en |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=239–241 |doi=10.1007/s42113-019-00054-x |issn=2522-087X|hdl=20.500.11937/77774 |hdl-access=free }} assessed the overall optimism and longevity of cohorts of men from the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study and women from the Nurses' Health Study. The study found a positive correlation between higher levels of optimism and exceptional longevity, defined as a lifespan exceeding 85 years.

Another study conducted by Aspinwall and Taylor (1990){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} assessed incoming freshmen on a range of personality factors such as optimism, self-esteem, locus of self-control, etc.{{cite journal |last1=Scheier |first1=Michael F. |last2=Carver |first2=Charles S. |title=Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update |journal=Cognitive Therapy and Research |date=April 1992 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=201–228 |doi=10.1007/BF01173489|s2cid=6849439|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01173489|url-access=subscription }} Freshmen who scored high on optimism before entering college had lower levels of psychological distress than their more pessimistic peers while controlling for the other personality factors. Over time, the more optimistic students were less stressed, less lonely, and less depressed than their pessimistic counterparts. This study suggests a strong link between optimism and psychological well-being.

Low optimism may help explain the association between caregivers' anger and reduced sense of vitality{{clarify|reason=whose reduced sense of vitality? the caregivers' or those given care?|date=August 2023}}.{{Cite journal|last1=López|first1=J.|last2=Romero-Moreno|first2=R.|last3=Márquez-González|first3=M.|last4=Losada|first4=A.|date=2015-04-01|title=Anger and Health in Dementia Caregivers: Exploring the Mediation Effect of Optimism|journal=Stress and Health|language=en|volume=31|issue=2|pages=158–165|doi=10.1002/smi.2539|pmid=24123699|issn=1532-2998|doi-access=free}}

A meta-analysis of optimism supported findings that optimism is positively correlated with life satisfaction, happiness,{{cite web|first=Sarbjit|last=Singh|title=How Optimism Affects Happiness|date=May 2019|website=Love Equals|url=https://loveequals.net/blogs/sports/how-optimism-affects-happiness}}{{better source needed|date=August 2023}} and psychological and physical well-being, and negatively correlated with depression and anxiety.{{cite journal |last1=Alarcon |first1=Gene M. |last2=Bowling |first2=Nathan A. |last3=Khazon |first3=Steven |title=Great expectations: A meta-analytic examination of optimism and hope |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |date=May 2013 |volume=54 |issue=7 |pages=821–827 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2012.12.004|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886912005818|url-access=subscription}}

Seeking to explain the correlation,{{Specify|reason=which one?|date=August 2023}} researchers find that optimists choose healthier lifestyles. For example, optimists smoke less, are more physically active, consume more fruit, vegetables, and whole-grain bread, and are more moderate in alcohol consumption.{{cite journal|last1=Giltay|first1=Erik J.|last2=Geleijnse|first2=Johanna M.|last3=Zitman|first3=Frans G.|last4=Buijsse|first4=Brian|last5=Kromhout|first5=Daan|title=Lifestyle and dietary correlates of dispositional optimism in men: The Zutphen Elderly Study|journal=Journal of Psychosomatic Research|date=November 2007|volume=63|issue=5|pages=483–490|doi=10.1016/j.jpsychores.2007.07.014|pmid=17980220|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022399907002917|url-access=subscription}}

Research {{as of|2017|alt=to date}} has demonstrated that optimists are less likely to have certain diseases{{Specify|date=February 2025}} or develop certain diseases{{Specify|date=February 2025}} over time. Research has not {{as of|2017|alt=yet}} been able to demonstrate the ability to change an individual's level of optimism through psychological interventions, and thereby perhaps alter the course of disease or likelihood for development of disease.{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}}

An article by Mayo Clinic argues that steps to change self-talk from negative to positive may shift individuals from a negative to a more positive/optimistic outlook.{{cite web | url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/stress-management/in-depth/positive-thinking/art-20043950 | title=Positive thinking: Stop negative self-talk to reduce stress | publisher=Mayo Clinic | date=March 4, 2014 | access-date=September 18, 2014 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916091418/http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/stress-management/in-depth/positive-thinking/art-20043950 | archive-date=September 16, 2014 }} Strategies claimed to be of value include surrounding oneself with positive people, identifying areas of change, practicing positive self-talk, being open to humor, and following a healthy lifestyle.

There is also the notion of "learned optimism" in positive psychology, which holds that joy is a talent that can be cultivated and can be achieved through specific actions such as challenging negative self talk or overcoming "learned helplessness".{{Cite book|title=You Can't Make Me!: From Chaos to Cooperation in the Elementary Classroom|last=Rockwell|first=Sylvia|publisher=Corwin Press|year=2006|isbn=978-1412916615|location=Thousand Oaks, Calif.|page=[https://archive.org/details/youcantmakemefro0000rock/page/110/mode/1up 110]|url=https://archive.org/details/youcantmakemefro0000rock|url-access=registration}} However, criticism against positive psychology argues that it places too much importance on "upbeat thinking, while shunting challenging and difficult experiences to the side"—threatening to become toxic positivity.{{Cite web|first=Jen Rose|last=Smith|title=When does a good attitude become toxic positivity?|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/09/17/health/toxic-positivity-mental-health-wellness/index.html|access-date=2020-11-29|website=CNN|date=17 September 2020}}

A study involving twins found that optimism is largely inherited at birth.{{Cite book|first1=Kevin L.|last1=Rand|first2=Amanda M.|last2=Shea|chapter=Optimism Within the Context of Disability|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195398786/page/48/mode/2up|chapter-url-access=registration|title=The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Disability|editor-last=Wehmeyer|editor-first=Michael L.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=9780195398786|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195398786/page/56/mode/1up 56]|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195398786|url-access=registration}} Along with the recognition that childhood experiences determine an individual's outlook, such studies demonstrate the genetic basis for optimism reinforces the recognized difficulty in changing or manipulating the direction of an adult's disposition from pessimist to optimist.

One of the earliest forms of philosophical optimism was Socrates' theory of moral intellectualism, which formed part of his model of enlightenment through the process of self-improvement.{{Cite book|title=Transformative Philosophy: Socrates, Wittgenstein, and the Democratic Spirit of Philosophy|last=Wallgren|first=Thomas|year=2006|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-1361-5|location=Lanham, Md.|page=60}} According to the philosopher, it is possible to live a virtuous life by attaining moral perfection through philosophical self-examination. He maintained that knowledge of moral truth is necessary and sufficient for leading a good life. In his philosophical investigations, Socrates followed a model that did not merely focus on the intellect or reason but a balanced practice that also considered emotion as an important contributor to the richness of human experience.{{Cite book|title=Plato's Socrates as Narrator: A Philosophical Muse|last=Schultz|first=Anne-Marie|date=2013-06-07|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-8330-4|location=Lanham, Md.|page=28}}

Distinct from a disposition to believe that things will work out, there is a philosophical idea that, perhaps in ways that may not be fully comprehended, the present moment is in an optimum state. This view that all of nature—past, present, and future—operates by laws of optimization along the lines of Hamilton's principle in the realm of physics is countered by views such as idealism, realism, and philosophical pessimism. Philosophers often link the concept of optimism with the name of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who held that we live in the best of all possible worlds ({{lang|fr|le meilleur des mondes possibles}}){{clarify|reason=is this supposed to be another way of stating the previous clause somehow?|text=, or that God created a physical universe that applies the laws of physics.|date=August 2023}} The concept was also reflected in an aspect of Voltaire's early philosophy, one that was based on Isaac Newton's view that described a divinely ordered human condition.{{Cite book|title=The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last=Craig|first=Edward|year=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-34409-3|location=Oxon|page=[https://archive.org/details/shorterroutledge0000unse/page/1052/mode/1up 1052]|url=https://archive.org/details/shorterroutledge0000unse|url-access=registration}} This philosophy would also later emerge in Alexander Pope's Essay on Man.

Leibniz proposed that it was not God's power to create a perfect world, but he created the best among possible worlds.{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge Companion to Voltaire|last=Cronk|first=Nicholas|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780521849739|location=Cambridge|page=125}} In one of his writings, he responded to Blaise Pascal's philosophy of awe and desperation in the face of the infinite by claiming that infinity should be celebrated. While Pascal advocated for making man's rational aspirations more humble, Leibniz was optimistic about the capacity of human reason to extend itself further.{{Cite book|first=Ohad|last=Nachtomy|chapter=On Living Mirrors and Mites: Leibniz's Encounter with Pascal on Infinity and Living Things Circa 1696|title=Oxford Studies in Early Modern Philosophy, Volume 8|editor-last1=Garber|editor-first1=Daniel|editor-last2=Rutherford|editor-first2=Donald|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|isbn=9780198829294|location=9780198829294|pages=176}}

This idea was mocked by Voltaire in his satirical novel Candide as baseless optimism of the sort exemplified by the beliefs of one of its characters, Dr. Pangloss, which are the opposite of his fellow traveller Martin's pessimism and emphasis on free will. The optimistic position is also called Panglossianism which became an term for excessive, even stupendous, optimism.{{Cite book|title=The Politics of Regret: On Collective Memory and Historical Responsibility|last=Olick|first=Jeffrey|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=9780415956833|location=New York|page=169}} The phrase "panglossian pessimism" has been used{{by whom|date=June 2017}} to describe the pessimistic position that, since this is the best of all possible worlds, it is impossible for anything to get any better. Conversely, philosophical pessimism might be associated{{by whom|date=June 2017}} with an optimistic long-term view because it implies that no change for the worse is possible. Voltaire found it difficult to reconcile Leibniz's optimism with human suffering as demonstrated by the earthquake that devastated Lisbon in 1755 and the atrocities committed by the pre-revolutionary France against its people.{{Cite book|title=The Handy Philosophy Answer Book|last=Zack|first=Naomi|year=2009|publisher=Visible Ink Press|isbn=978-1-57859-277-7|location=Detroit|page=[https://archive.org/details/the-handy-philosophy-answer-book/page/137/mode/1up 137]|url=https://archive.org/details/the-handy-philosophy-answer-book}}

As defined by Nicholas Rescher, philosophical optimalism holds that this universe exists because it is better than the alternatives.{{cite journal|last=Rescher|first=Nicholas|title=Optimalism and axiological metaphysics|journal=The Review of Metaphysics|date=June 2000|volume=53|issue=4|pages=807–35|jstor=20131443 |issn=0034-6632|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20131443|url-access=subscription}} While this philosophy does not exclude the possibility of a deity, it also does not require one, and is compatible with atheism.{{cite web|last=Steinhart|first=Eric|title=Platonic Atheism|url=https://www.ericsteinhart.com/articles/platonicatheism.pdf|year=2010|access-date=26 July 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710200257/http://www.ericsteinhart.com/articles/platonicatheism.pdf|archive-date=10 July 2011}} Rescher explained that the concept can stand on its own feet, arguing that there is no necessity to seeing optimalism realization as divinely instituted because it is a naturalistic theory in principle.{{Cite book|title=Issues in the Philosophy of Religion|last=Rescher|first=Nicholas|publisher=Transaction Books|year=2013|isbn=9783938793701|location=Piscataway, N.J.|page=80}}

Psychological optimalism, as defined by the positive psychologist Tal Ben-Shahar, means willingness to accept failure while remaining confident that success will follow, a positive attitude he contrasts with negative perfectionism.{{cite book|first=Tal |last=Ben-Shahar|title=The Pursuit of Perfect: How to Stop Chasing Perfection and Start Living a Richer, Happier Life|url=https://archive.org/details/pursuitofperfect00bens|url-access=registration|access-date=26 July 2011|date=11 March 2009|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|isbn=978-0-07-160882-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/pursuitofperfect00bens/page/7 7]}} Perfectionism can be defined as a persistent compulsive drive toward unattainable goals and valuation based solely in terms of accomplishment.{{Citation|last1=Parker|first1=W. D.|last2=Adkins|first2=K. K.|title = Perfectionism and the gifted|journal=Roeper Review|volume=17|issue=3|pages=173–176|year=1994|doi=10.1080/02783199509553653|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02783199509553653|url-access=subscription}} Perfectionists reject the realities and constraints of human ability. They cannot accept failures, delaying any ambitious and productive behavior in fear of failing again.{{cite web|last=Horne|first=Amanda|title=Positive Psychology News Daily|url=https://positivepsychologynews.com/news/amanda-horne/200909035149|date=2009-09-03|access-date=July 24, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614124828/http://positivepsychologynews.com/news/amanda-horne/200909035149|archive-date=June 14, 2011}} This neuroticism can even lead to clinical depression and low productivity.{{Citation|title=Perfectionism: Impossible Dream|newspaper=Psychology Today|date=May 1995|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19950501-000002.html|url-status=dead|access-date=2011-07-26|archive-date=2013-01-04|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130104131133/http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19950501-000002.html}}{{better source needed|date=August 2023}} As an alternative to negative perfectionism, Ben-Shahar suggests the adoption of optimalism. Optimalism allows for failure in pursuit of a goal, and expects that while the trend of activity is towards the positive, it is not necessary always to succeed while striving towards goals. This basis in reality, prevents the optimalist from being overwhelmed in the face of failure.

Optimalists accept failures and learn from them, encouraging further pursuit of achievement. Ben-Shahar believes that optimalists and perfectionists show distinct motives. Optimalists tend to have more intrinsic, inward desires, with a motivation to learn, while perfectionists are highly motivated by a need to prove themselves worthy consistently.

Two additional facets of optimalism have been described: product optimalism and process optimalism. The former is described as an outlook that seeks to realize the best possible result, while the latter seeks maximization of the chances of achieving the best possible result.{{Cite book|title=Being and Value and Other Philosophical Essays|last=Rescher|first=Nicholas|year=2013|publisher=Ontos Verlag|isbn=978-3-938793-88-6|location=Frankfurt|page=11}}

Some sources also distinguish the concept from optimism since it does not focus on how things are going well but on whether things are going as well as possible.{{Cite book|title=Axiogenesis: An Essay in Metaphysical Optimalism|last=Rescher|first=Nicholas|year=2010|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-4932-4|location=Lanham, Md.|pages=41}}

• {{annotated link|Affirmations (New Age)}}
• {{annotated link|Agathism}}
• {{annotated link|Explanatory style}}
• {{annotated link|Mood (psychology)}}
• {{annotated link|Moral idealism}}
• {{annotated link|New Thought}}
• {{annotated link|Optimism bias}}
• {{annotated link|Pessimism}}
• {{annotated link|Philosophy}}
• {{annotated link|Philosophy of happiness}}
• {{annotated link|Positive mental attitude}}
• {{annotated link|Positive psychology}}
• {{annotated link|Pronoia (psychology)}}
• {{annotated link|Self-efficacy}}
• {{annotated link|Silver lining (idiom)}}
• {{annotated link|Toxic positivity}}

{{Reflist|30em}}

• {{cite book

| last = Ehrenreich

| first = Barbara

| author-link = Barbara Ehrenreich

| title = Bright-Sided: How Positive Thinking Is Undermining America

| url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780312658854

| url-access = registration

| access-date = 2013-07-29

| year = 2010

| publisher = Picador

| isbn = 9780312658854

| page = 256

}}

• {{cite book|last1=Huesemann|first1=Michael H.|first2=Joyce A.|last2=Huesemann|year=2011|title=Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment|chapter=Technological Optimism and Belief in Progress|publisher=New Society Publishers|location=Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada|isbn=978-0865717046}}
• {{cite book|last=Seligman|first=M.E.P.|year=2006|title=Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life|publisher=Vintage|isbn=1400078393}}
• {{cite book|last=Sharot|first=Tali|year=2012|title=The Optimism Bias: Why We're Wired to Look on the Bright Side|url=https://archive.org/details/optimismbiaswhyw0000shar|url-access=registration|publisher=Vintage|isbn=9780307473516}}

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