perfidious Albion

The use of the adjective "perfidious" to describe England has a long history; instances have been found as far back as the 13th century.{{cite journal |last=Schmidt |first=H. D. |title=The Idea and Slogan of 'Perfidious Albion' |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=14 |issue=4 |year=1953 |pages=604–616 |doi=10.2307/2707704 |jstor=2707704}} A very similar phrase was used in a sermon by 17th-century French bishop and theologian Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet:Jacques Bénigne Bossuet, "Sermon pour la fête de la Circoncision de Notre-Seigneur" in: Oeuvres complètes, Volume 5, Ed. Outhenin-Chalandre, 1840, [https://books.google.com/books?id=GPdJAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA264 p. 264]

{{verse translation|lang=fr|

'L'Angleterre, ah, la perfide Angleterre,

que le rempart de ses mers rendoit inaccessible aux Romains,

la foi du Sauveur y est abordée.

|

England, oh perfidious England, whose

sea ramparts made her unreachable to the Romans,

Now receives the true faith.}}

The coinage of the phrase in its current form is conventionally attributed to Augustin Louis de Ximénès, a French-Spanish playwright who wrote it in a poem entitled "{{lang|fr|italic=yes|L'Ère des Français}}", published in 1793:

{{verse translation|lang=fra|

Attaquons dans ses eaux la perfide Albion.

|

Let us attack perfidious Albion in her waters.}}

In this context, Great Britain's perfidy was political. In the early days of the French Revolution, when the revolution aimed at establishing a liberal constitutional monarchy along British lines, many in Great Britain had looked upon the Revolution with mild favour. Diminishing the threat that Royalist France posed to British interests was an additional factor encouraging support for the new regime.

However, following the turn of the revolution to republicanism with the overthrow and execution of Louis XVI, Britain, concerned that revolutionary fervor might spread to other countries, had allied itself with the other monarchies of Europe against the Revolution in France. This was seen by the revolutionaries in France as a "perfidious" betrayal.{{cite book | title=Dictionnaire des usages socio-politiques (1770-1815): Tome 4, Désignants socio-politiques 2 | publisher=Klincksieck | year=1989 | isbn=978-2-252-02694-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GOkSKE57mdYC&pg=PA38 | language=fr |pages=37–39}}

"{{lang|fr|La perfide Albion}}" became a stock expression in France in the 19th century, to the extent that the Goncourt brothers could refer to it as "a well-known old saying". It was utilised by French journalists whenever there were tensions between France and Britain, for example during the competition for colonies in Africa, culminating in the Fashoda Incident. The catch-phrase was further popularized by its use in {{ill|italic=yes|La Famille Fenouillard|fr}}, the first French comic strip, in which one of the characters fulminates against "Perfidious Albion, which burnt Joan of Arc on the rock of Saint Helena". (This sentence mixes two major incidents in French history that can be related to the UK's perfidy: Joan of Arc, whose execution may have been due to English influence; and Napoleon, who died in exile on Saint Helena. He may have died by being poisoned, according to the Swedish toxicologist Sten Forshufvud.{{cite journal |last1=Hoerner |first1=Jean-Michel |title=La Famille Fenouillard: une œuvre prémonitoire ? |journal=Hérodote |date=27 November 2007 |volume=127 |issue=4 |pages=190–198 |doi=10.3917/her.127.0190 }} There is however, significant speculation that the use of arsenic as a dye may be related to Napoleon's death.{{cite journal |last1=Mari |first1=Francesco |last2=Bertol |first2=Elisabetta |last3=Fineschi |first3=Vittorio |last4=Karch |first4=Steven B |title=Channelling the Emperor: What Really Killed Napoleon? |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |date=August 2004 |volume=97 |issue=8 |pages=397–399 |doi=10.1177/014107680409700812 |pmid=15286197 |pmc=1079564 }})

In German-speaking areas, the term "{{lang|de|das perfide Albion}}" became increasingly frequent, especially during the rule of the German Empire (1871–1918) against the backdrop of rising British-German tensions.{{cite web |title=Das perfide Albion |url=http://www.archelaus-cards.com/retail/archives/20090830.php |first=Alfred |last=Geiser |publisher=via Archelaus}}

• The term often refers to the Kingdom of England reneging on the Treaty of Limerick of 1691, which ended the Williamite War between the predominantly Roman Catholic Jacobite forces and the English forces loyal to William of Orange, giving favourable terms to the Irish Catholics, including the freedoms to worship, to own property and to carry arms, but those terms were soon repudiated by the Penal Laws of 1695.{{cite book |last1=Carruthers |first1=Gerard |last2=Kidd |first2=Colin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2g5EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA99

|title=Literature and Union: Scottish Texts, British Contexts |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018 |page=99 |isbn=9780198736233 |access-date=29 August 2018|via=Google Books}}{{cite book |last1=Schwoerer |first1=Lois G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FGmoPw2ZpXwC

|title=The Revolution of 1688-89: Changing Perspectives |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992 |page=236 |isbn=9780521526142 |access-date=29 August 2018|via=Google Books }}

• The Irish ballad "The Foggy Dew" includes the term in its lyrics. The song concerns the Easter Rising and the hypocrisy that England is concurrently fighting World War I so that "Small Nations might be free", while Ireland's struggle for freedom is forcibly suppressed.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwone/ireland_wwone_01.shtml |title=History – British History in depth: Ireland and World War One |publisher=BBC |access-date=18 March 2020}}{{cite web |last1=Giotto |first1=Labri |title=The Foggy Dew: Processes of change in an Irish Rebel song |url=https://o-em.org/index.php/fieldwork/62-the-foggy-dew-processes-of-change-in-an-irish-rebel-song?showall=1&limitstart= |website=Outreach Ethnomusicology – An Online Ethnomusicology Community |access-date=18 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200318164702/https://o-em.org/index.php/fieldwork/62-the-foggy-dew-processes-of-change-in-an-irish-rebel-song?showall=1&limitstart= |archive-date=18 March 2020}}
• In Portugal, the term was widely used after the 1890 British Ultimatum, after Cecil Rhodes' opposition to the Pink Map. Portugal and England had been allied since 1386.{{cite book |last1=Saramago |first1=José |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nvoffuz52oQC |title=The Revolution of 1688–89: Changing The Collected Novels of José Saramago |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2010 |page=122 |isbn=978-0547581002 |access-date=29 August 2018|via=Google Books}}
• Bastiat uses the term sarcastically in his satirical letter "The Candlemakers' Petition", first published in 1845.{{cite book |last1=Bastiat |first1=Frédéric |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oDya0ULoe-gC&pg=RA1-PA228 |title=The Bastiat Collection |publisher=Institute |year=2007 |page=228 |isbn=9781933550077 |access-date=29 August 2018|via=Google Books }}
• The Italian term "{{lang|it|perfida Albione}}" (perfidious Albion){{cite book|title=Mussolini e il fascismo |last=Palla |first=M. |date=1993 |publisher=Giunti |isbn=9788809202726 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N80yFWA3LrQC |page=112 |access-date=15 October 2014|via=Google Books}} was used in the propaganda of Fascist Italy to criticise the global dominion of the British Empire. Fascist propaganda depicted the British as ruthless colonialists, who exploited foreign lands and peoples to feed extravagant lifestyle habits like eating "five meals a day".{{cite book|title=Benito Mussolini privato e pubblico |last1=Borelli |first1=Gian Franco |last2=Luchinat |first2=Vittorio |date=2012 |publisher=INDEX |isbn=9788897982067 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=31LrByRam0EC |access-date=15 October 2014|via=Google Books}} The term was used frequently in Italian politics after the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, because despite having gained large colonial territories for itself, Britain approved of trade sanctions in the wake of Italian aggression against Ethiopia. The sanctions were depicted as an attempt to deny Italy its "rightful" colonial dominions, while at the same time, Britain was trying to extend its own influence and authority.{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1300&dat=19260531&id=RsETAAAAIBAJ&pg=6246,6116345 |newspaper=The Age |title=Italy's place in the sun |date=31 May 1926 |page=11 |access-date=15 October 2014|via=Google News}} The same term was used after World War I related to the so-called mutilated victory.H. James Burgwyn. "Italian Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period 1918–1940". BJC McKercher and Keith Neilson (eds.), Praeger Studies of Foreign Policies of the Great Powers.
• During the Vichy French regime, Philippe Pétain made frequent use of the term "blood-soaked Perfidious Albion" and described the UK as the relentless "eternal enemy" of France. Such sentiments were exacerbated by the British Attack on Mers-el-Kébir, which caused great bitterness in France and went a great way towards reinforcing the perfidious stereotype. Pétain further regarded England as always having been France's most implacable enemy, with Vichy propaganda mixing Anglophobia with racism and anti-Semitism to portray the British as a racially degenerate "mixed race" working for Jewish capitalists, in contrast to the "racially pure" peoples on the continent of Europe who were building a "New Order."
• The father of Israeli novelist Amos Oz wrote pamphlets for the Irgun that attacked "perfidious Albion" during the British rule in Palestine.{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.608054|title='Perfidious America': Behind Netanyahu's hostility to Kerry |last=Gorenberg |first=Gershom |date=31 July 2014 |work=Haaretz |access-date=4 August 2014}}
• After their victory against England at the 1950 World Cup, the president of the Spanish Football Federation (Armando Muñoz Calero) sent a telegram to Spanish dictator Francisco Franco that read, "we have beaten Perfidious Albion."[https://www.espn.co.uk/football/club/spain/164/blog/post/2709872/spanish-stars-premier-league-moves-have-been-of-benefit "Spanish stars' Premier League moves have been of mutual benefit"]. ESPN.
• It is used by Ian Smith in his memoirs (The Great Betrayal, 1997) to describe his opposition on the British handling of Rhodesian independence.{{cite book |last1=White |first1=Luise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0KNBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1

|title=Unpopular Sovereignty: Rhodesian Independence and African Decolonization |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2015 |page=101 |isbn=9780226235196 |access-date=29 August 2018|via=Google Books }}

• In his book I'm Not the Only One (2004), British politician George Galloway expressed the opinion that Kuwait is "clearly a part of the greater Iraqi whole, stolen from the motherland by perfidious Albion".{{cite news|last=Hitchens|first=Christopher|url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/641kyjkk.asp?page=3|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304193653/http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/641kyjkk.asp?page=3|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 4, 2010|title=Unmitigated Galloway|work=Weekly Standard|date=30 May 2005|pages=1–3}} This essay is reprinted in {{cite book|editor1-last=Cottee|editor1-first=Simon |editor1-link=Simon Cottee|editor2-last=Cushman|editor2-first=Thomas|url=https://archive.org/details/christopherhitch00thom|url-access=registration|title=Christopher Hitchens and His Critics: Terror, Iraq, and the Left|location=New York & London|publisher=New York University Press|year=2008|pages=[https://archive.org/details/christopherhitch00thom/page/140 140]-50, 144-46, 149}} The text of Galloway's book differs in reprints.
• In 2012, Fabian Picardo, the Chief Minister of Gibraltar, used the phrase to describe the UK government's position on the UN Decolonisation Committee: "Perfidious Albion, for this reason ... The position of the United Kingdom is as usual so nuanced that it's difficult to see where they are on the spectrum, but look that's what Britain's like and we all love being British".{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V39hgN_LyrI&t=9m25s |title=Fabian Picardo (Chief Minister of Gibraltar) discusses politics in Spain and Gibraltar|date=2 February 2013 |via=YouTube}}
• The term was used in reference to a possible United Kingdom withdrawal from the European Union in the run up to the referendum on the issue in 2016. An article in the French newspaper {{lang|fr|italic=yes|Le Parisien}} claimed that a poll showing that only 54% of French people supported UK membership of the EU (compared to 55% of British people) showed that "the British will always be seen as the Perfidious Albion".{{cite news |last1=Samuel |first1=Henry |title=French more keen on Brexit than British, says major poll |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/01/french-more-keen-on-brexit-than-british-says-major-poll/|access-date=10 June 2016 |work=The Telegraph |date=1 April 2016}} In contrast, the editor of the Financial Times, Lionel Barber, has written that "Too many people in the UK are under the illusion that most European countries cannot wait to see the back of perfidious Albion."{{cite news |last1=Barber |first1=Lionel |title=Could Brexit be a good thing for Europe? |url=https://next.ft.com/content/918d5c56-031b-11e6-99cb-83242733f755 |access-date=10 June 2016 |work=Financial Times |date=16 April 2016}} Eventually, the United Kingdom voted to leave the EU.{{cite news |last1=Erlanger |first1=Steven |title=Britain Votes to Leave E.U.; Cameron Plans to Step Down |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/25/world/europe/britain-brexit-european-union-referendum.html|access-date=1 August 2016 |work=New York Times |date=23 June 2016 |ref=EU Exit}}
• In arguing for a "hard" Brexit, and the EU rejecting a possible extension requested by the UK of the deadline to leave the EU, the Brexit-supporting British MP Mark Francois said to the Bruges Group in April 2019: "My message to the European Council ... If you now try to hold on to us against our will, you will be facing Perfidious Albion on speed. It would therefore be much better for all our sakes if we were to pursue our separate destinies, in a spirit of mutual respect."{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2019/apr/09/brexit-latest-developments-news-theresa-may-visits-berlin-and-paris-as-gauke-plays-down-prospect-of-early-breakthrough-in-talks-with-labour-live-news?page=with:block-5cac8a7c8f08ce46f07ebd92#block-5cac8a7c8f08ce46f07ebd92|title=Brexit: ERG Tories tells Brussels it will regret letting 'Perfidious Albion' remain in EU beyond Friday – live news|last1=Sparrow|first1=Andrew|date=9 April 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=9 April 2019|last2=Jones|first2=Sam|issn=0261-3077|last3=Oltermann|first3=Philip}}

• Anti-British sentiment
• Perfidy
• Western betrayal
• Old fox

;Other places

• Axis of evil
• Great Satan
• Yellow Peril

{{Reflist}}

Category:Anti-British sentiment

Category:British Empire

Category:France–United Kingdom relations

Category:Political pejoratives

Category:Political catchphrases

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