shastra

The word Śāstra literally means "that which has been instructed/decreed", from the root √śās- which means "instruction/decree" combined with the ṣṭra-suffix.{{cite web | url=http://sanskrit.uohyd.ac.in/cgi-bin/scl/amarakosha/noun_gen.cgi?encoding=Unicode&rt=शास्त्र&gen=नपुं&jAwi=nA&level=1 |title=Knowledge-Net of Amarakosha (अमरकोश-ज्ञान-जालम्) }}{{cite web | title=शासना at Spokensanskrit.org | url=https://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&direct=au&script=hk&anz=all&tran_input=शासना+}}

Śāstra commonly refers to a treatise or text on a specific field of knowledge. In early Vedic literature, the word referred to any precept, rule, teaching, ritual instruction or direction. In late and post Vedic literature of Hinduism, Śāstra referred to any treatise, book or instrument of teaching, any manual or compendium on any subject in any field of knowledge, including religious. It is often a suffix, added to the subject of the treatise, such as

1. Yoga-śāstra
2. Nyāya-śāstra
3. Dharma-śāstra
4. Koka- or Kāma-śāstra,Alex Comfort and Charles Fowkes (1993), The Illustrated Koka Śāstra: Medieval Indian Writings on Love Based on the Kāma Sūtra, Simon & Schuster, {{ISBN|978-0684839813}}
5. Mokṣa-śāstra
6. Artha-śāstra
7. Alaṅkara-śāstra (rhetoric)
8. Kāvya-śāstra (poetics)
9. Saṅgīta-śāstra (music)
10. Nāṭya-śāstra (theatre & dance)
11. Vyākaraṇa-śāstra (Sanskrit grammar), and others.James Lochtefeld (2002), "Śāstra" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, page 626

In Buddhism, a "śāstra" is often a commentary written at a later date to explain an earlier scripture or sutra. For example, Yutang Lin says that a text written by him and not given by Buddha, cannot be called a "Sūtra"; it is called a "Śāstra". In Buddhism, Buddhists are allowed to offer their theses as long as they are consistent with the Sūtras, and those are called "Śāstras."[http://www.yogichen.org/gurulin/efiles/e0/e0103.html The Unification of Wisdom and Compassion Dr. Yutang Lin]

In Jainism, the term means the same as in Hinduism. An example of Jaina Śāstra is the 12th-century Yoga Śāstra of Hemchandracharya.Amritlal Savchand Gopani (1989), The Yoga Śāstra of Hemchandracharya: A 12th Century Guide to Jain Yoga, Prakrit Bharti Academy, {{oclc|21760707}}

Śāstra is sometimes the root of compounded Sanskrit words. A custodian of Śāstra, for example, is called Śāstradhāri (Sanskrit: शास्त्रधारी).[http://dict.hinkhoj.com/words/meaning-of-SHASTRADHARI-in-english.html disctionary meaning of Śāstradhāri]

The term is found in several passages of the Rigveda (2nd millennium BCE), such as in hymn VIII.33.16.

{{Blockquote|

नहि षस्तव नो मम शास्त्रे अन्यस्य रण्यति ।

यो अस्मान्वीर आनयत् ॥१६॥

|Rigveda 8.33.16|{{translation|"Neither in thy decree nor mine, but in another's he delights,The man who brought us unto this."}} [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_८.३३ Rig Veda ऋग्वेदः मण्डल ८] Wikisource}}

In this Rigvedic verse, the term means rule or instruction.

The Maitri Upanishad (mid to late 1st millennium BCE), similarly, mentions the materialist Charvakas and Brihaspati who disagreed that the Vedas are a treatise of knowledge, proposing relativism instead, in the following passage:

{{Blockquote|

बृहस्पतिर्वै शुक्रो भूत्वेन्द्रस्याभयायासुरेभ्यः क्षयायेमामविद्यामसृजत्

तया शिवमशिवमित्युद्दिशन्त्यशिवं शिवमिति वेदादिशास्त्रहिंसकधर्माभिध्यानमस्त्विति

|Maitri Upanishad 7.9|Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/342/mode/2up Maitri Upanishad 7.9], Oxford University Press, page 342[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/मैत्रायणि_उपनिषद् Maitri Upanishad 7.9] Wikisource}}

The term is found in other Upanishads as well as in Bhagavad Gita such as in verses 15.20, 16.23–16.24, and 17.1.Sanskrit: इति गुह्यतमं शास्त्रमिदमुक्तं मयानघ । एतद्बुद्ध्वा बुद्धिमान्स्यात्कृतकृत्यश्च भारत ॥ १५-२०॥;
English Translation: Winthrop Sargeant (2009), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0873958318}}

The {{IAST|Ṛigvedaprātiśākhya}} (11.36; 14.30) uses the term Shastra to refer to the {{IAST|prātiśākhya}} tradition. {{IAST|Kātyāyana}}, {{IAST|Patañjali}} and {{IAST|Pāṇini}}'s {{IAST|Aṣṭādhyāyī}} use the term. Similarly, the {{IAST|Vedāṅgajyotiṣa}} uses the term to refer to astronomical treatises. The term {{IAST|vedāṅgaśāstrāṇām}}, refers to the {{IAST|śāstra}} of the {{IAST|Vedāṅga}}s.

The term "{{IAST|śāstra}}" is found in Yaska's Nirukta (1.2, 14), where the reference is to Nirukta (etymology). An early use of the term {{IAST|śāstra}} with reference to the literature on dharma is found in the {{IAST|vārttika}} of {{IAST|Kātyāyana}}, who uses the expression {{IAST|dharmaśāstra}}Olivelle, P. (2006). Explorations in the Early History of the Dharmaśāstra in P. Olivelle (ed.) Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE, New York: Oxford Unuiversity Press, {{ISBN|0-19-568935-6}}, p.169

Shastras are predominantly post-Vedic literature, that is after about 500 BCE. However, it is unclear when various Shastras were composed and completed. The authenticity of the manuscripts is also unclear, as many versions of the same text exist, some with major differences. Patrick Olivelle, credited with a 2005 translation of Manu Dharma-sastra, published by the Oxford University Press, states the concerns in postmodern scholarship about the presumed authenticity and reliability of manuscripts as follows (abridged):

{{Blockquote|

The MDh (Manusmriti) was the first Indian legal text introduced to the western world through the translation of Sir William Jones in 1794. (...) All the editions of the MDh, except for Jolly's, reproduce the text as found in the [Calcutta] manuscript containing the commentary of Kulluka. I have called this as the "vulgate version". It was Kulluka's version that has been translated repeatedly: Jones (1794), Burnell (1884), Buhler (1886) and Doniger (1991). (...) The belief in the authenticity of Kulluka's text was openly articulated by Burnell (1884, xxix): "There is then no doubt that the textus receptus, viz., that of Kulluka Bhatta, as adopted in India and by European scholars, is very near on the whole to the original text."
This is far from the truth. Indeed, one of the great surprises of my editorial work has been to discover how few of the over fifty manuscripts that I collated actually follow the vulgate in key readings.

|Patrick Olivelle|Manu's Code of Law (2005)Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195171464}}, pages 353–354, 356–382}}

The literature of late 1st millennium BCE such as Arthashastra,Patrick Olivelle (2013), King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra, Oxford UK: Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199891825}}, pages 30–32 and Shastras of various fields of knowledge from the early 1st millennium period is of great interest as it helped the emergence of diverse schools and the spread of Indian religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism in and outside South Asia.Robert Lingat (1973), The Classical Law of India, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520018983}}, page 77;
Steven Collins (1993), The discourse of what is primary, Journal of Indian philosophy, Volume 21, pages 301–393Keay, John, India, A History, New York, Grove Press, 2000

The shastras are both descriptive and prescriptive. Among the various Shastras, Manu's code of law has been among the most studied as the colonial British government attempted to establish different laws in British India based on Sharia for Muslims and Manu's code of law.{{cite journal |last1=Rudolph |first1=Susanne Hoeber |last2=Rudolph |first2=Lloyd I. |date=August 2000 |title=Living with Difference in India |journal=The Political Quarterly |publisher=Wiley |volume=71 |issue=s1 |pages=20–38 |doi=10.1111/1467-923X.71.s1.4}}{{cite journal |last=Gaborieau |first=Marc |date=June 1985 |title=From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: Idiom, Ritual and Ideology of the Hindu-Muslim Confrontation in South Asia |journal=Anthropology Today |publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.2307/3033123 |jstor=3033123}}Pollock, Sheldon, From Discourse of Ritual to Discourse of Power in Sanskrit Culture, Journal of Ritual Studies 4:2, 1990, 315-45

The shastras are not consistent or single-consensus documents. Dharma-sastras, for example, contain opposing views and contradictory theories. This is in part because they represent an ideal of human behaviour, while at the same time recognising the need to account for likely failings. The shastras do not present life as it was lived. Rather they reveal an idea of what life should be. The shastra texts constitute one of the great bodies of literature of the ancient world.Doniger, Wendy, The Hindus, An Alternative History, Oxford University Press, 2010, {{ISBN|978-0-19-959334-7}} pbk

{{main|Sutra}}

Sutras are another genre of Indian texts that emerged in the 1st millennium BCE, particularly after the 600 BCE.Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195644418}}, page 205-206 Sutra (literally "binding thread") denotes a type of literary composition distinct from Shastra. In Sanskrit, "sutra" typically referred to one or more aphorisms; hence sutras use short, aphoristic, evocative statements. In contrast, a Shastra is typically longer, with more detail and explanations. An example of a Sutra is Patanjali's Yogasutras (considered a classic Hindu treatise), while an example of Shastra is Hemachandra's Yogasastra (considered a classic Svetambara Jain treatise), both on yoga.Olle Quarnström (2002), The Yogaśāstra of Hemacandra: A Twelfth Century Handbook of Śvetāmbara Jainism, Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0674009349}}

Shastras and Sutras are among the numerous other genres of literature that have survived from ancient and medieval India. Other genres include Vedas, Upanishads, Vedangas, Itihasa, Puranas, Bhasyas, and Subhashitas.Ludwik Sternbach (1973), Subhashita – A forgotten chapter in the histories of Sanskrit literature, in Indologica Taurinensia, Torino, Vol I, pages 169–254

{{div col}}

• Vaimānika Shāstra
• Dharmaśāstra
• Kamashastra (Kama Shastra)
• Yoga Vasistha
• Mokshopaya (mahayana uttaratantra shastra)
• Arthashastra
• Mahayana sutras
• Samudrika Shastra
• Shilpa Shastras

{{col div end}}

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{{Hindudharma}}

Category:Sanskrit words and phrases

Category:Sanskrit texts