use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war
{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
There have been several instances of chemical weapons attacks during the Syrian Civil War,{{cite web|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Timeline-of-Syrian-Chemical-Weapons-Activity|title=Timeline of Syrian Chemical Weapons Activity, 2012-2018 | Arms Control Association|publisher=United Nations Arms Control Association|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019101949/https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Timeline-of-Syrian-Chemical-Weapons-Activity|archive-date=19 October 2019|url-status=live}} beginning in 2012, which were corroborated by national governments, the United Nations (UN), the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), Human Rights Watch (HRW), international organizations and media outlets.
Several chemical attacks occurred in different areas of Syria, including Khan al-Assal, Jobar, Saraqib, Ashrafiyat Sahnaya, Kafr Zita, Talmenes, Sarmin and Douma. The deadliest attacks were the August 2013 sarin attack in Ghouta (killing more than 1,729 people and injuring 3,600 patients), the April 2017 sarin attack in Khan Shaykhun (killing at least 89 people) and April 2018 Douma chemical attacks (killing 43 people and injuring 500 civilians), all of which were perpetrated by the military forces of Ba'athist Syria. The most common agent used is chlorine (with one study finding it was used in 91.5% of attacks), with sarin and sulphur mustard also reported.{{Cite news|date=2018-10-14|title=How chemical weapons have helped bring Assad close to victory|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-45586903|access-date=2020-12-13}} Almost half of the attacks between 2014 and 2018 were delivered via aircraft and less than a quarter were delivered from the ground, with the remaining attacks having an undetermined method of delivery. Since the start of uprisings across Syria in 2011, Syrian Arab Armed Forces and pro-Assad paramilitary forces have been implicated in more than 300 chemical attacks in Syria.{{Cite news |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=27 Jan 2023 |title=Syrian army responsible for Douma chemical weapons attack, watchdog confirms |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/27/syria-chemical-weapons-douma-opcw/}}
Investigations have found that both the Ba'athist government of Bashar al-Assad and ISIL militants have used chemical weapons, with the vast majority of attacks being carried out by the Assad regime. The OPCW-UN Joint Investigative Mechanism concluded that the Assad regime perpetrated the sarin attack in Khan Shaykhun, as well as three chlorine attacks. They also concluded ISIL militants used sulphur mustard.[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-opcw-timeline-idUSKBN1HG1M7 "Timeline of investigations into Syria's chemical weapons"]. Reuters. April 9, 2018. Investigations launched by the UN's Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic concluded that the government of Bashar al-Assad carried out 33 chemical attacks between 2013 and September 2018.Nebehay, Stephanie (September 12, 2018). [https://www.reuters.com/article/mideast-crisis-syria-warcrimes/u-n-war-crimes-team-documents-further-syrian-govt-use-of-banned-chlorine-idUSL5N1VY233 "U.N. war crimes team documents further Syrian govt. use of banned chlorine"]. Reuters. According to HRW, at least 85 confirmed chemical attacks occurred between 21 August 2013 and 25 February 2018, and concluded that the Ba'athist Syrian military forces were responsible for the majority of the attacks.[https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/04/04/syria-year-chemical-weapons-attacks-persist "Syria: A Year On, Chemical Weapons Attacks Persist"]. Human Rights Watch. April 4, 2018.{{Cite web|title=Timeline of Syrian Chemical Weapons Activity, 2012-2020 {{!}} Arms Control Association|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Timeline-of-Syrian-Chemical-Weapons-Activity|access-date=2020-12-13|website=www.armscontrol.org}} HRW stated that the actual number of attacks was likely higher than 85. According to a Global Public Policy Institute study, at least 336 chemical attacks occurred between 23 December 2012 and 18 January 2019. The report concluded that 98% of these attacks were carried out by pro-Assad forces and 2% by ISIL.{{Cite web|title=More Than 300 Chemical Attacks Launched During Syrian Civil War, Study Says|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/02/17/695545252/more-than-300-chemical-attacks-launched-during-syrian-civil-war-study-says|access-date=2020-12-13|website=NPR.org|language=en}}
Ghouta chemical attack in 2013 prompted the international community to pressure the Syrian Arab Armed Forces to agree to the supervised destruction of their chemical weapons. In April 2018, following at least 18 visits to Syria for inspections, the technical secretariat of the OPCW was unable to "verify that Syria had submitted a declaration that could be considered accurate and complete." The Khan Shaykhun chemical attack on 4 April 2017 drew international condemnation, and resulted in U.S. military action against the Ba'athist Syrian-controlled airbase at Shayrat. The Douma chemical attack on 7 April 2018 also drew a military response from the United States, United Kingdom and France. In April 2021, OPCW suspended Syria from its membership; criticising the Assad regime for not revealing its chemical weapon stockpiles and contravening the Chemical Weapons Convention.{{Cite news |last=Corder |first=Mike |date=21 April 2021 |title=States suspend Syria's OPCW rights over chemical attacks |work=AP News |url=https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524194220/https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276 |archive-date=24 May 2022}}{{Cite web |date=22 April 2021 |title=Conference of the States Parties adopts Decision to suspend certain rights and privileges of the Syrian Arab Republic under the CWC |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/conference-states-parties-adopts-decision-suspend-certain-rights-and |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303125905/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/conference-states-parties-adopts-decision-suspend-certain-rights-and |archive-date=3 March 2022 |website=OPCW}}{{Cite journal |date=22 April 2021 |title=Decision addressing the Possession and Use of Chemical Weapons by the Syrian Arab Republic |url=https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021/04/c25dec09%28e%29.pdf |journal= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319223356/https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021/04/c25dec09(e).pdf |archive-date=19 March 2022 |via=OPCW}}
Background
{{see also|Syria and weapons of mass destruction|Syria chemical weapons program|Authorization for the Use of Military Force Against the Government of Syria to Respond to Use of Chemical Weapons|Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons}}
At the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War in 2011 concerns were raised about both the security of Syria's chemical weapon sites and about the potential use of chemical weapons. In July 2012, Syrian Foreign Ministry spokesman Jihad Makdissi stated: "No chemical or biological weapons will ever be used... All of these types of weapons are in storage and under security and the direct supervision of the Syrian armed forces and will never be used unless Syria is exposed to external aggression."{{cite news|last=Black|first=Ian|title=Syria insists chemical weapons would only be used against outside forces|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/23/syria-chemical-weapons-own-goal|newspaper=The Guardian|date=24 July 2012|access-date=25 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618232839/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/23/syria-chemical-weapons-own-goal|archive-date=18 June 2017|url-status=live}} Journalist Patrick J. McDonnell wrote in the Los Angeles Times in May 2013:
"The Syrian government does not publicly acknowledge that it possesses chemical weapons, although international experts say it has a large arsenal, including sarin. Syrian authorities have vowed never to use such weapons against a domestic enemy, even if they were in Syria’s possession. At the same time, however, they have consistently depicted the rebellion against Assad as a foreign-based “conspiracy” hatched by Syria’s enemies abroad, and not as an internal revolt."{{cite news| last= J. McDonnell |first= Patrick |date= 6 May 2013 | url=https://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-un-syria-rebels-chemical-weapons-20130506-story.html | title=U.N.'s Carla del Ponte say Syrian Rebels May Have Used Sarin | newspaper= Los Angeles Times | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916111832/https://www.latimes.com/world/worldnow/la-fg-wn-un-syria-rebels-chemical-weapons-20130506-story.html | archive-date=16 September 2016}}
A Syrian defector who worked inside the chemical weapons network alleged that in January 2012 two senior Syrian officers moved about 100 kg of chemical weapons materials from a secret military base in Nasiriyah. The Syrian source also described construction of special trucks, which could transport and mix the weapons. These mobile mixers were constructed inside Mercedes or Volvo trucks that were similar to refrigerator trucks. Inside were storage tanks, pipes and a motor to drive the mixing machinery, the defector said.{{cite news|title=A defector's account of Syrian chemical weapons on the move|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/a-defectors-account-of-syrian-chemical-weapons-on-the-move/2012/12/18/d5130d86-492e-11e2-ad54-580638ede391_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=18 December 2012|access-date=20 December 2012|first=David|last=Ignatius|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121219150554/http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/a-defectors-account-of-syrian-chemical-weapons-on-the-move/2012/12/18/d5130d86-492e-11e2-ad54-580638ede391_story.html|archive-date=19 December 2012|url-status=live}} On 23 July 2012, the Syrian government confirmed for the first time that it had chemical weapons, but stated that they would only be used in instances of external aggression.{{cite web | last1=MacFarquhar | first1=Neil | last2=Schmitt | first2=Eric | title=Syria Threatens Chemical Attack on Foreign Force | website=The New York Times | date=21 July 2012 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/24/world/middleeast/chemical-weapons-wont-be-used-in-rebellion-syria-says.html | access-date=27 November 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723133640/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/24/world/middleeast/chemical-weapons-wont-be-used-in-rebellion-syria-says.html | archive-date=23 July 2012 | url-status=live }}
On 20 August 2012, President Barack Obama used the phrase "red line"{{cite web | url=http://www.spectator.co.uk/life/mind-your-language/8927441/that-red-line-were-not-supposed-to-cross-what-exactly-is-it/ | title=What, exactly, is a 'red line'? | publisher=The Spectator magazine | date=8 June 2013 | access-date=30 July 2013 | author=Wordsworth, Dot | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024133643/http://www.spectator.co.uk/life/mind-your-language/8927441/that-red-line-were-not-supposed-to-cross-what-exactly-is-it/ | archive-date=24 October 2013 | url-status=live }} in reference to the use of chemical weapons. Specifically, Obama said: "We have been very clear to the Assad regime, but also to other players on the ground, that a red line for us is we start seeing a whole bunch of chemical weapons moving around or being utilized. That would change my calculus. That would change my equation."{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2013/09/06/president-obama-and-the-red-line-on-syrias-chemical-weapons/|title=Analysis {{!}} President Obama and the 'red line' on Syria's chemical weapons|last=Kessler|first=Glenn|date=2013-09-06|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=2018-06-14|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614194350/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2013/09/06/president-obama-and-the-red-line-on-syrias-chemical-weapons/|archive-date=14 June 2018|url-status=live}}
In September 2012, the Syrian military began moving chemical weapons from Damascus to the port city of Tartus.{{cite news|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/us-russia-pounce-at-syrian-chemical-weapons-transfer/|title=Syria transferred chemical weapons to port city last month, raising alarm bells, report says|work=The Times of Israel|date=9 September 2012|access-date=18 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918221947/http://www.timesofisrael.com/us-russia-pounce-at-syrian-chemical-weapons-transfer/|archive-date=18 September 2012|url-status=live}} That same month, it was reported that the military had restarted testing of chemical weapons at a base on the outskirts of Aleppo.{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/syria-tested-chemical-weapons-in-desert-in-august-eyewitnesses-say-a-856206.html|title=Syria Tested Chemical Weapons Systems, Witnesses Say|work=Der Spiegel|date=17 September 2012|access-date=18 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918091651/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/syria-tested-chemical-weapons-in-desert-in-august-eyewitnesses-say-a-856206.html|archive-date=18 September 2012|url-status=live}} On 28 September 2012, US Defence Secretary Leon Panetta said that the Syrian government had moved its chemical weapons in order to secure them from approaching opposition forces.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19763642 |title=Syria 'moving chemical weapons to safety' – Panetta |publisher=BBC |date=28 September 2012 |access-date=25 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102221501/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19763642 |archive-date=2 November 2012 |url-status=live }} It emerged that the Russian government had helped set up communications between the United States and Syria regarding the status of Syria's chemical weapons. Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov stated that Syria had given the United States "explanations" and "assurances" that it was taking care of the weapons.{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/russia-helps-us-syria-establish-contact-turkey-in-shock/article3949104.ece|title=Russia helps U.S., Syria establish contact, Turkey in shock|work=The Hindu|date=29 September 2012|access-date=30 September 2012|location=Chennai, India|first=Atul|last=Aneja|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001134933/http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/russia-helps-us-syria-establish-contact-turkey-in-shock/article3949104.ece|archive-date=1 October 2012|url-status=live}} On 8 December, it was reported that members of the jihadist Al-Nusra Front had recently captured a Saudi-owned toxic chemicals plant outside of Aleppo.{{cite news|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/60077/World/Region/Syria-warns-terror-groups-may-use-chemical-arms.aspx|title=Syria warns 'terror groups' may use chemical arms|agency=AFP|date=8 November 2012|publisher=Ahram|access-date=28 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121211125807/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/60077/World/Region/Syria-warns-terror-groups-may-use-chemical-arms.aspx|archive-date=11 December 2012|url-status=live}} On 22 December 2012, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov stated that Syria had consolidated chemical weapons into one or two places to prevent rebels capturing them, and that recent moves that had alarmed Western governments were part of this consolidation.{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-russia-idUSBRE8BN0HS20121224 |title=Russia says Syria is acting to secure its chemical weapons |author=Steve Gutterman |publisher=Reuters |date=24 December 2012 |access-date=29 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121226223558/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/12/24/us-syria-crisis-russia-idUSBRE8BN0HS20121224 |archive-date=26 December 2012 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/12/201212221532021654.html |title=Syria 'secures chemical weapons stockpile' 23 Dec 2012 |publisher=Aljazeera.com |access-date=4 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709005902/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/12/201212221532021654.html |archive-date=9 July 2013 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/topic/syria/israel-vows-syria-strike-any-sign-chemical-arms-transfer |title=Israel vows Syria strike at any sign of chemical arms transfer January 28, 2013 |publisher=Blogs.aljazeera.com |date=28 January 2013 |access-date=4 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515011415/http://blogs.aljazeera.com/topic/syria/israel-vows-syria-strike-any-sign-chemical-arms-transfer |archive-date=15 May 2013 |url-status=live }} Brigadier General Mustafa al-Sheikh, a Syrian army defector, confirmed that most of the chemical weapons have been transported to Alawite areas in Latakia and near the coast. Some chemical munitions remain in bases around Damascus.{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-deal-risks-idUSBRE98902S20130910 |title=Dismantling Syria chemical weapons arsenal would be tough task |publisher=reuters |date=9 September 2013 |access-date=13 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130913010039/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/09/10/us-syria-crisis-deal-risks-idUSBRE98902S20130910 |archive-date=13 September 2013 |url-status=live }} In December 2012 McClatchy reported various chemical weapons experts' skepticism that Syria was preparing to use chemical weapons, noting their "limited utility" in a civil war situation with fluid battlelines, and Syria's comments that such use would be "suicide" in view of US threats of retaliation.mcclatchydc.com, 7 December 2012, [http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/12/07/176799/experts-skeptical-syria-is-preparing.html Experts skeptical Syria is preparing to use its chemical arsenal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150516094010/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/12/07/176799/experts-skeptical-syria-is-preparing.html |date=16 May 2015 }}
On 6 September 2013 a bill was filed in the US Congress to authorize the use of military force against the Syrian military, mainly in response to the use of sarin in the Ghouta attack on 21 August 2013.{{cite news|last=Cox|first=Ramsey|title=Reid files resolution to authorize force against Syria|url=https://thehill.com/blogs/floor-action/senate/161025-reid-files-resolution-to-authorize-force-against-syria/|access-date=9 September 2013|date=6 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714181332/http://thehill.com/blogs/floor-action/senate/320695-reid-files-use-of-force-resolution-against-syria|archive-date=14 July 2014|url-status=live}} On 9 September 2013, the U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry stated that the air strikes could be averted if Syria turned over "every single bit" of its chemical weapons stockpiles.{{cite news|title=Putin, Obama discussed Syria arms control idea last week: Kremlin|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-russia-usa-idUSBRE9890I020130910|access-date=11 October 2013|newspaper=Reuters|date=10 September 2013|author=Steve Gutterman|author2=Alexei Anishchuk|author3=Timothy Heritage|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015040039/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/09/10/us-syria-crisis-russia-usa-idUSBRE9890I020130910|archive-date=15 October 2013|url-status=live}} Hours after Kerry's statement, the Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov announced that Russia had suggested to Syria that it relinquish its chemical weapons.{{cite web|author=Julian Borger and Patrick Wintour|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/09/russia-syria-hand-over-chemical-weapons|title=Russia calls on Syria to hand over chemical weapons|publisher=Guardian (UK)|date=9 September 2013|access-date=18 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517232538/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/09/russia-syria-hand-over-chemical-weapons|archive-date=17 May 2015|url-status=live}} The Syrian foreign minister Walid al-Moallem immediately welcomed the proposal.{{cite news|title=Syrian official: Chemical weapons deal a 'victory'|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/09/15/syria-weapons-deal-victory/2816731/|access-date=15 September 2013|newspaper=USA Today|date=15 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130916063221/http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/09/15/syria-weapons-deal-victory/2816731/|archive-date=16 September 2013|url-status=live}}
In September 2013 the Syrian government entered into several international agreements for the destruction of its chemical weapons that stipulated an initial destruction deadline of 30 June 2014, a deadline apparently achieved in respect of declared chemical weapons.{{cite news|title=Last of Syria's chemical weapons shipped out|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27974379|publisher=BBC News|access-date=25 June 2014|date=2014-06-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140624212951/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27974379|archive-date=24 June 2014|url-status=live}} Prior to September 2013 the Syrian government had not publicly admitted to possessing chemical weapons, although Western intelligence services believed it to hold one of the world's largest stockpiles.{{cite web |publisher=Congressional Research Service |date=30 September 2013 |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/R42848.pdf |title=Syria's Chemical Weapons: Issues for Congress |access-date=12 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009201733/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/R42848.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2017 |url-status=live }}
On 17 August 2017, Reuters published a report detailing the extent of Syria's failure to abandon chemical weapons, citing information from investigators, inspectors and diplomatic sources.{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/mideast-crisis-syria-chemicalweapons/|title=How Syria continued to gas its people as the world looked on|last=Deutsch|first=Anthony|website=Reuters|access-date=17 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817105202/http://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/mideast-crisis-syria-chemicalweapons/|archive-date=17 August 2017|url-status=live}} According to a source cited in the report, "There are certainly some gaps, uncertainties, discrepancies" regarding Syria's chemical weapons arsenal. For example, the Syrian government inaccurately or even falsely declared the types, purposes and quantities of chemicals in its possession, and is suspected of continuing to hold at least 2,000 chemical bomb shells that should have been converted to conventional weapons.
Incidents
{{Location map+ | Syria
| width = 800
| float = right
| caption = The map marks the position of reported chemical weapons attacks in the Syrian Civil War. Yellow markers indicate chlorine attacks. Red indicate a more deadly chemical weapon agent.
| places =
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Aleppo
| label_size = 120
| position = right
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 30
| lat_deg = 36.1991962
| lon_deg = 37.1628428
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Kobanê
| label_size = 120
| position = right
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 10
| lat_deg = 36.889722
| lon_deg = 38.355556
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Latakia
| label_size = 120
| position = left
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 15
| lat_deg = 35.5277558
| lon_deg = 35.7896805
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Tartus
| label_size = 120
| position = left
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 15
| lat_deg = 34.9002926
| lon_deg = 35.890274
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Quneitra
| label_size = 120
| position = bottom
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 15
| lat_deg = 33.1250447
| lon_deg = 35.8254719
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Daraa
| label_size = 120
| position = top
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 15
| lat_deg = 32.6230389
| lon_deg = 36.1065674
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Raqqa
| label_size = 120
| position = top
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 15
| lat_deg = 35.9504961
| lon_deg = 39.0206909
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Deir ez-Zor
| label_size = 120
| position = top
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 15
| lat_deg = 35.3343129
| lon_deg = 40.1303101
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Al-Hasakah
| label_size = 120
| position = bottom
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 20
| lat_deg = 36.5030131
| lon_deg = 40.748291
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = As-Suwayda
| label_size = 120
| position = top
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 15
| lat_deg = 32.7130665
| lon_deg = 36.5661049
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Idlib
| label_size = 120
| position = left
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 15
| lat_deg = 35.9303437
| lon_deg = 36.6351128
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Hama
| label_size = 120
| position = right
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 20
| lat_deg = 35.1324041
| lon_deg = 36.756649
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Homs
| label_size = 120
| position = bottom
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 20
| lat_deg = 34.7234138
| lon_deg = 36.714592
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| mark = White pog.svg
| marksize = 30
| lat_deg = 33.5105739
| lon_deg = 36.3100076
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Qasr Abu Samrah
| label_size = 50
| position = right
| lat_deg = 35.3557362
| lon_deg = 36.9704962
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Khan Shaykhun
| label_size = 50
| position = top
| lat_deg = 35.4418619
| lon_deg = 36.6482449
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Al-Bayadah
| label_size = 50
| position = top
| lat_deg = 34.7491588
| lon_deg = 36.7283249
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Khan al-Asal
| label_size = 50
| position = bottom
| lat_deg = 36.167222
| lon_deg = 37.039167
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Saraqib
| label_size = 50
| position = right
| lat_deg = 35.8613742
| lon_deg = 36.7970538
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Al-Bahariyah
| label_size = 50
| position = right
| link = Al-Bahariyah
| lat_deg = 33.528653
| lon_deg = 36.525669
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label_size = 50
| position = left
| link = Jobar
| lat_deg = 33.5342371
| lon_deg = 36.3450721
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Ashrafiyat Sahnaya
| label_size = 50
| position = bottom
| link = Ashrafiyat Sahnaya
| lat_deg = 33.4463166
| lon_deg = 36.2513208
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Kafr Zita
| label_size = 50
| position = left
| mark = Yellow pog.svg
| link = Kafr Zita
| lat_deg = 35.373611
| lon_deg = 36.601667
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Al-Lataminah
| label_size = 50
| position = left
| mark = Yellow pog.svg
| link = Al-Lataminah
| lat_deg = 35.3205879
| lon_deg = 36.6225815
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Halfaya
| label_size = 50
| position = left
| mark = Yellow pog.svg
| link = Halfaya
| lat_deg = 35.2597073
| lon_deg = 36.6051579
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Adra
| label_size = 50
| position = top
| link = Adra, Syria
| lat_deg = 33.5994646
| lon_deg = 36.475296
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Al-Tamanah
| label_size = 50
| position = right
| mark = Yellow pog.svg
| link = Al-Tamanah
| lat_deg = 35.456667
| lon_deg = 36.746389
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Muadamiyat/Darayya
| label_size = 50
| position = left
| link = Darayya
| lat_deg = 33.4600885
| lon_deg = 36.2423515
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Harasta
| label_size = 50
| position = top
| link = Harasta
| lat_deg = 33.5628536
| lon_deg = 36.3712692
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Otaybah
| label_size = 50
| position = bottom
| link = Otaybah, Syria
| lat_deg = 33.486111
| lon_deg = 36.601111
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Ras al-Ayn
| label_size = 50
| position = bottom
| link = Ras al-Ayn, al-Hasakah Governorate
| lat_deg = 36.85
| lon_deg = 40.066667
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Salqin
| label_size = 50
| position = left
| link = Salqin
| lat_deg = 36.138333
| lon_deg = 36.453611
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Sheikh Maqsood
| label_size = 50
| position = top
| link = Sheikh Maqsood
| lat_deg = 36.236111
| lon_deg = 37.151667
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Talmenes
| label_size = 50
| position = top
| mark = Yellow pog.svg
| link = Talmenes
| lat_deg = 35.641111
| lon_deg = 36.735
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Sarmin
| label_size = 50
| position = right
| mark = Yellow pog.svg
| link = Sarmin
| lat_deg = 35.903333
| lon_deg = 36.725833
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Hbit
| label_size = 50
| position = left
| mark = Yellow pog.svg
| link = Hbit
| lat_deg = 35.4360578
| lon_deg = 36.5398407
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Qmenas
| label_size = 50
| position = bottom
| mark = Yellow pog.svg
| link = Qmenas
| lat_deg = 35.884722
| lon_deg = 36.678333
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Binnish
| label_size = 50
| position = top
| mark = Yellow pog.svg
| link = Binnish
| lat_deg = 35.955846
| lon_deg = 36.7146778
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Avdiko
| label_size = 50
| position = bottom
| link = Avdiko
| lat_deg = 36.8233021
| lon_deg = 38.3209991
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Dandaniya
| label_size = 50
| position = top
| link = Dandaniya
| lat_deg = 36.5767142
| lon_deg = 37.7623487
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Mare'
| label_size = 50
| position = right
| link = Mare'
| lat_deg = 36.482500
| lon_deg = 37.197222
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = Tell Brak
| label_size = 50
| position = right
| link = Tell Brak
| lat_deg = 36.6819114
| lon_deg = 41.0531616
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| lat_deg = 33.5237228
| lon_deg = 36.3524723
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| lat_deg = 33.460357
| lon_deg = 36.1971831
}}
{{Location map~ | Syria
| label = al-Salehiyah
| label_size = 50
| position = left
| lat_deg = 36.5126715
| lon_deg = 40.7527542
}}
}}
{{Clear}}Investigation conducted by Dr. Tobias Schneider and Theresa Lutkefend of the GPPi research institute documented 336 confirmed attacks involving chemical weapons in Syria between 23 December 2012 and 18 January 2019. The study concluded that 98% of the total chemical attacks were perpetrated by the Assad regime. Almost 90% of the attacks occurred after Ghouta chemical attack in August 2013.{{Cite journal |last=Schneider, Lutkefend |first=Tobias, Theresa |date=February 2019 |title=Nowhere to Hide: The Logic of Chemical Weapons Use in Syria |url=https://www.gppi.net/media/GPPi_Schneider_Luetkefend_2019_Nowhere_to_Hide_Web.pdf |journal= |pages=1–47 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216060712/https://www.gppi.net/media/GPPi_Schneider_Luetkefend_2019_Nowhere_to_Hide_Web.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2022 |via=GPPi}}{{Cite news |last=Lombardo |first=Clare |date=17 February 2019 |title=More Than 300 Chemical Attacks Launched During Syrian Civil War, Study Says |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/02/17/695545252/more-than-300-chemical-attacks-launched-during-syrian-civil-war-study-says }}
=Reported chemical weapons attacks=
The table below lists the reported attacks and the main points. See the main articles for details.{{#tag:ref|All times given are given in Eastern European Time (EET), or UTC+02:00 unless otherwise stated.|group=N}}
Investigations
=The UN mission to investigate alleged use of chemical weapons=
{{main|United Nations Mission to Investigate Alleged Uses of Chemical Weapons in the Syrian Arab Republic}}
The United Nations Mission to Investigate Allegations of the Use of Chemical Weapons in the Syrian Arab Republic was a fact-finding mission to investigate possible use of chemical weapons in Syria. On 16 September 2013 the mission published a report with focus on the Ghouta attacks.{{cite web |first1=Åke |last1=Sellström |author-link=Åke Sellström |first2=Scott |last2=Cairns |first3=Maurizio |last3=Barbeschi |title=Report of the United Nations Mission to Investigate Allegations of the Use of Chemical Weapons in the Syrian Arab Republic on the alleged use of chemical weapons in the Ghouta area of Damascus on 21 August 2013 |publisher=United Nations |date=16 September 2013 |url=https://disarmament-library.un.org/UNODA/Library.nsf/780cfafd472b047785257b1000501037/e4d4477c9b67de9085257bf800694bd2/$FILE/A%2067%20997-S%202013%20553.pdf |access-date=27 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917130833/http://www.un.org/disarmament/content/slideshow/Secretary_General_Report_of_CW_Investigation.pdf |archive-date=17 September 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }} On 12 December 2013, the UN mission delivered its final report.
=The UNHRC commission of inquiry=
{{main|Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic}}
The Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic was set up by the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) on 22 March 2011 to investigate human rights violations during the Syrian civil war. In its report dated 12 February 2014 they confirmed the use of sarin in the case of Khan Al-Assal (19 March 2013), Saraqib (29 April 2013) and Al-Ghouta (21 August 2013). The UNHRC commission also found that the sarin used in the Khan al-Asal attack bore "the same unique hallmarks" as the sarin used in the Ghouta attack and indicated that the perpetrators likely had access to chemicals from the Syrian Army's stockpile.{{cite news|title=Human rights situations that require the Council's attention – Session 25|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session25/Documents/A-HRC-25-65_en.doc|access-date=8 March 2014|publisher=United Nations Human Rights Council|date=12 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521155230/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session25/Documents/A-HRC-25-65_en.doc|archive-date=21 May 2014|url-status=live}}
In none of the incidents, however, was the commission's "evidentiary threshold" met in regards to identifying the perpetrators of the chemical attacks.{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/syria-crisis-chemical-idUSL6N0M21TT20140305|title=REFILE-Chemical weapons used in Syria appear to come from army stockpile -UN|date=5 March 2017|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=3 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529021109/http://www.reuters.com/article/syria-crisis-chemical-idUSL6N0M21TT20140305|archive-date=29 May 2017|url-status=live}}
A 2014 report by the UN enquiry commission stated that Syrian military forces perpetrated eight chemical attacks in April 2014:
"Reasonable grounds exist to believe that chemical agents, likely chlorine, were used on Kafr Zeita, Al-Tamana’a and Tal Minnis in eight incidents within a 10-day period in April. There are also reasonable grounds to believe that those agents were dropped in barrel bombs from government helicopters flying overhead."{{cite news |title=How all sides are committing war crimes in Syria |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2014/08/27/how-all-sides-are-committing-war-crimes-in-syria/ |access-date=30 May 2016 |newspaper=Washington Post}}{{cite web |date=13 August 2014 |title=Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic |url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/A.HRC.27.60_Eng.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318034925/https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/A.HRC.27.60_Eng.pdf |archive-date=18 March 2022 |publisher=The UN |page=1}}
In its report dated 13 August 2014 they accused Government forces of using chlorine gas in 8 incidents in Idlib and Hama governorates in April 2014.{{cite news|title=Human rights situations that require the Council's attention – Session 27|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session27/Documents/A_HRC_27_60_ENG.doc|access-date=12 September 2014|publisher=United Nations Human Rights Council|date=13 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912203911/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session27/Documents/A_HRC_27_60_ENG.doc|archive-date=12 September 2014|url-status=live}} In March 2017, the Commission documented conclusive evidence that Syrian aircraft dropped “toxic industrial chemicals, including chlorine,” between 21 July and 22 December 22, during the final period of the Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016).{{cite web | last1=Simon | first1=Ben | last2=Ahren | first2=Raphael | title=Syria regime, rebels committed war crimes in Aleppo – UN probe | website=The Times of Israel | date=1 March 2017 | url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/syria-regime-rebels-committed-war-crimes-in-aleppo-un-probe/ | access-date=27 November 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127195027/http://www.timesofisrael.com/syria-regime-rebels-committed-war-crimes-in-aleppo-un-probe/ | archive-date=27 November 2018 | url-status=live }}
Investigations launched by the UN's Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic concluded that the government of Bashar al-Assad carried out 33 chemical attacks between 2013 and September 2018. A further six attacks were documented by the Commission, but the perpetrators were not sufficiently identified.
=OPCW-UN Joint Mission in Syria=
{{main|OPCW-UN Joint Mission in Syria}}
The OPCW-UN Joint Mission in Syria was established in October 2013. The Mission was tasked to oversee the elimination of the Syrian chemical weapons program. The first OPCW-UN team arrived in Damascus on 1 October 2013. The mission officially ended on 30 September 2014.
=The Russian Khan al-Asal investigation=
{{main|Khan al-Assal chemical attack#The Russian investigation}}
Vitaly Churkin, Russia's ambassador to the UN, said that its Syrian ally had asked Russian experts to look into the Khan al-Assal attack. A Russian team investigated the Khan al-Asal incident on 19 March 2013. The Russian UN ambassador Vitaly Churkin delivered a report with analysis of the samples taken at the site to the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon on 9 July 2013. Churkin said the chemical agent was carried by a "Bashair-3 unguided projectile", which was produced by the Basha'ir al-Nasr Brigade, a rebel group affiliated with the Free Syrian Army.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23249104|title=Russia claims Syria rebels used sarin at Khan al-Assal|work=BBC News |date=9 July 2013|access-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702045606/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23249104|archive-date=2 July 2018|url-status=live}} However, following Churkin's announcement, Western governments said that they had yet to see any evidence that backs up the assertion that anyone besides the Assad regime had the ability to use chemical weapons.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23249104|title=Syria rebels accused of sarin use|date=2013-07-09|work=BBC News|access-date=2018-06-12|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702045606/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23249104|archive-date=2 July 2018|url-status=live}} The Russian report was not released.{{Cite news|url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/news/nation-world/world/article24755251.html|title=Russia gave UN 100-page report in July blaming Syrian rebels for Aleppo sarin attack|work=mcclatchydc|access-date=2018-06-12|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612184418/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/news/nation-world/world/article24755251.html|archive-date=12 June 2018|url-status=live}}
=The OPCW Fact-Finding Mission in Syria=
{{main|The OPCW Fact-Finding Mission in Syria}}
On 29 April 2014, the Director General Ahmet Üzümcü of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) announced the creation of an OPCW mission to establish the facts surrounding allegations of the use of chlorine gas for hostile purposes in Syria.{{cite web|url=http://www.opcw.org/index.php?eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=17385|title=SUMMARY REPORT OF THE WORK OF THE OPCW FACT-FINDING MISSION IN SYRIA|publisher=OPCW|date=16 June 2014|access-date=11 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826031721/http://www.opcw.org/index.php?eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=17385|archive-date=26 August 2014|url-status=live}} The Syrian Government has agreed to the mission.{{cite news|title=Report of the Secretary General on Security Council Resolution 2139|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/05/24/world/middleeast/24Nations-doc.html|access-date=26 May 2014|work=The New York Times|date=22 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140523191942/http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/05/24/world/middleeast/24Nations-doc.html|archive-date=23 May 2014|url-status=live}}
On 27 May 2014, members of the mission were ambushed and briefly held by gunmen in rebel-held territory as it headed toward Kafr Zita to investigate the alleged chlorine gas attacks.{{cite news|title=OPCW-UN fact-finding mission was ambushed|url=https://news.yahoo.com/opcw-un-fact-finding-mission-ambushed-082556909.html|agency=Associated Press|date=28 May 2014|access-date=15 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313024617/http://news.yahoo.com/opcw-un-fact-finding-mission-ambushed-082556909.html|archive-date=13 March 2016|url-status=live}} According to the Associated Press, the OPCW said that the captive members of the mission were later "released after the intervention by Syria's main opposition group." The opposition Hama Media Centre said the attack on the convoy was carried out by President Bashar al-Assad's forces.{{cite news|title=Chemical weapons team in Syria attacked but safe: OPCW|url=https://news.yahoo.com/chemical-fact-finding-team-abducted-syria-ministry-101222553.html|publisher=REUTERS|date=27 May 2014|access-date=15 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313024107/http://news.yahoo.com/chemical-fact-finding-team-abducted-syria-ministry-101222553.html|archive-date=13 March 2016|url-status=live}} In 2014, the OPCW Fact-Finding Mission in Syria concluded that the use of chlorine was systematic and widespread.
In its third report dated 18 December 2014, the mission concluded that chlorine was used in the villages of Talmenes, Al-Tamanah and Kafr Zita, but did not assign blame.{{cite web|url=https://photos.state.gov/libraries/netherlands/328666/pdfs/THIRDREPORTOFTHEOPCWFACTFINDINGMISSIONINSYRIA.pdf|title=THIRD REPORT OF THE OPCW FACT-FINDING MISSION IN SYRIA|publisher=OPCW|date=18 December 2014|access-date=25 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009195536/https://photos.state.gov/libraries/netherlands/328666/pdfs/THIRDREPORTOFTHEOPCWFACTFINDINGMISSIONINSYRIA.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2017|url-status=live}}
In early 2015 the mission disclosed previously undeclared traces of sarin and VX precursor compounds in a Ba'athist Syrian military research site, the Scientific Studies and Research Centre, where use of those compounds had not been previously declared.{{cite web | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11594763/UN-inspectors-find-undeclared-sarin-linked-chemicals-at-Syrian-military-site.html | title=UN inspectors find undeclared sarin-linked chemicals at Syrian military site | publisher=The Telegraph | date=9 May 2015 | access-date=9 May 2015 | author=Louisa Loveluck | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518135811/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11594763/UN-inspectors-find-undeclared-sarin-linked-chemicals-at-Syrian-military-site.html | archive-date=18 May 2015 | url-status=live }}{{cite news|last1=Deutsch|first1=Anthony|title=Exclusive: Weapons inspectors find undeclared sarin and VX traces in Syria – diplomats|date=8 May 2015 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-chemicals-exclus-idUSKBN0NT1YR20150508|work=Reuters|access-date=19 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520064826/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/05/08/us-mideast-crisis-syria-chemicals-exclus-idUSKBN0NT1YR20150508|archive-date=20 May 2015|url-status=live}}
=The UN-OPCW Joint Investigative Mechanism=
{{main|UN-OPCW Joint Investigative Mechanism}}
On 7 August 2015, the United Nations Security Council adopted resolution 2235 (2015) to establish a joint investigation mechanism (JIM) to identify the perpetrators responsible for the use of chemical weapons in Syria. The resolution was drafted by the United States, and adopted by all 15 members of the Security Council.{{cite news|title=U.S. and Russia to Back U.N. Vote on Chemical Attacks in Syria|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/07/world/asia/syria-chemical-attacks-un-resolution.html|publisher=nytimes|date=6 August 2015|access-date=3 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519144541/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/07/world/asia/syria-chemical-attacks-un-resolution.html|archive-date=19 May 2017|url-status=live}}{{cite news|title=Who is responsible for the use of chemical weapons in Syria|url=https://www.europanewswire.com/who-is-responsible-for-the-use-of-chemical-weapons-in-syria/|publisher=EuropaNewswire|date=7 August 2015|access-date=8 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191402/https://www.europanewswire.com/who-is-responsible-for-the-use-of-chemical-weapons-in-syria/|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=live}} In 2015, the OPCW-UN Joint Investigative Mechanism (OPCW-UN JIM) was established to identify the perpetrators of chemical attacks in Syria.
The JIM issued its first report on 12 February 2016.{{cite web|url=https://undocs.org/S/2016/142|title=First report of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons United Nations Joint Investigative Mechanism|date=12 February 2016|access-date=29 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409111247/http://undocs.org/S/2016/142|archive-date=9 April 2017|url-status=live}} The second was released on 10 June 2016,{{cite web|url=https://undocs.org/S/2016/530|title=Second report of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons United Nations Joint Investigative Mechanism|date=10 June 2016|access-date=29 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409111108/http://undocs.org/S/2016/530|archive-date=9 April 2017|url-status=live}} while the third report was issued on 30 August 2016.{{cite web|url=https://undocs.org/S/2016/738|title=Third report of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons United Nations Joint Investigative Mechanism|date=24 August 2016|access-date=29 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705183215/http://undocs.org/S/2016/738|archive-date=5 July 2017|url-status=live}} The third report blamed the Syrian government for two gas attacks in 2015, and accused ISIS of using mustard gas. In October 2016 the leaked fourth report of task force determined that Ba'athist Syrian regime had conducted at least three gas attacks in 2015.{{cite news|title=Syria blamed for 2015 'chemical attack'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37736184|access-date=14 February 2018|work=BBC News|date=22 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325114817/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37736184|archive-date=25 March 2018|url-status=live}}
On 26 October 2017, the JIM delivered the report (37 pages) to the UN.{{cite web|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0ByLPNZ-eSjJdcGZUb0hqalFOa0hhdEZ3WlBvZmRnajFRV3pr/view|title=OPCW-UN JIM 7th Report|access-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407194421/https://drive.google.com/file/d/0ByLPNZ-eSjJdcGZUb0hqalFOa0hhdEZ3WlBvZmRnajFRV3pr/view|archive-date=7 April 2019|url-status=live}}
In late 2017, the JIM released its report on the April Khan Shaykhun chemical attack, attributing responsibility for the incident to the Syrian government.[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=58051 Both ISIL and Syrian Government responsible for use of chemical weapons, UN Security Council told] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109063724/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=58051 |date=9 January 2018 }}, UN News Centre, 7 November 2017[http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/10/panel-blames-syrian-forces-khan-sheikhoun-attack-171026212414046.html UN panel blames Syrian forces for Khan Sheikhoun attack] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180409151533/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/10/panel-blames-syrian-forces-khan-sheikhoun-attack-171026212414046.html |date=9 April 2018 }}, Al-Jazeera, 27 October 2017[https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-un/syrian-government-to-blame-for-april-sarin-attack-u-n-report-idUKKBN1CV3GF Syrian government to blame for April sarin attack - U.N. report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124072208/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-un/syrian-government-to-blame-for-april-sarin-attack-u-n-report-idUKKBN1CV3GF |date=24 January 2018 }}, Reuters, 26 October 2017The Guardian, 23 January 2018 [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/23/rex-tillerson-russia-bears-responsibility-for-syria-chemical-attacks russia bears responsibility] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124050226/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/23/rex-tillerson-russia-bears-responsibility-for-syria-chemical-attacks |date=24 January 2018 }}
Reuters reported in 2018 that, according to OPCW and diplomatic sources, an OPCW chemical marker analysis linked the destroyed stockpile samples to sarin samples from 21 August 2013 Ghouta attack and also to interviewees' samples from Khan Sheikhoun and Khan Al-Assal attack sites. These findings were not released because they were outside the OPCW's mandate.{{cite news|last=Deutsch|first=Anthony|title=Exclusive: Tests link Syrian government stockpile to largest sarin attack - sources|newspaper=Reuters|date=30 January 2018|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-chemicalweapons-exclusiv/exclusive-tests-link-syrian-government-stockpile-to-largest-sarin-attack-sources-idUSKBN1FJ0MG|access-date=6 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227190216/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-chemicalweapons-exclusiv/exclusive-tests-link-syrian-government-stockpile-to-largest-sarin-attack-sources-idUSKBN1FJ0MG|archive-date=27 February 2018|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=Report Of The OPCW Fact-finding Mission In Syria Regarding An Alleged Incident In Khan Shaykhun, Syrian Arab Republic April 2017|url=https://www.opcw.org/fileadmin/OPCW/Fact_Finding_Mission/s-1510-2017_e_.pdf|publisher=OPCW Technical Secretariat|date=29 June 2017|page=50|access-date=6 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704104606/https://www.opcw.org/fileadmin/OPCW/Fact_Finding_Mission/s-1510-2017_e_.pdf|archive-date=4 July 2017|url-status=live}}
=The UN-OPCW Investigation and Identification Team=
On 8 April 2020, the OPCW Investigation and Identification Team (IIT), set up in 2018, issued its first report, determining that the Syrian Air Force was the perpetrator of the chemical weapon attacks in Latamenah.{{cite news|last1=Corder|first1=Mike|date=8 April 2020|title=Watchdog: Syrian Air Force Responsible for Chemical Attacks|work=U.S. News & World Report|agency=Associated Press|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2020-04-08/watchdog-syrian-air-force-responsible-for-chemical-attacks|access-date=11 April 2020}}
On 12 April 2021, the OPCW IIT released a second report, which concluded that there were reasonable grounds to believe that the Syrian Arab Air Force carried out a chlorine attack on eastern Saraqib on 4 February 2018.{{Cite web|title=OPCW Releases Second Report by Investigation and Identification Team|url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/opcw-releases-second-report-investigation-and-identification-team|access-date=2021-11-23|website=OPCW|language=en}} Findings of another OPCW investigation report published by the IIT in July 2021 revealed that the Syrian regime had engaged in confirmed chemical attacks at least 17 times, out of the reported 77 chemical weapon attacks attributed to the regime's security forces.{{Cite web |date=July 2021 |title=OPCW Confirms Chemical Weapons Use in Syria |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-07/news-briefs/opcw-confirms-chemical-weapons-use-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401005907/https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-07/news-briefs/opcw-confirms-chemical-weapons-use-syria |archive-date=1 April 2022 |website=Arms Control Association}}{{Cite news |date=4 June 2021 |title=Syria has likely used chemical weapons 17 times: International chemical weapons watchdog |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-has-likely-used-chemical-weapons-17-times-international-chemical-weapons-watchdog/article34724203.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606111350/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-has-likely-used-chemical-weapons-17-times-international-chemical-weapons-watchdog/article34724203.ece |archive-date=6 June 2021}} The third report published on 27 January 2023 by the OPCW-IIT concluded that the Assad regime was responsible for the 2018 Douma chemical attack which killed at least 43 civilians and injured over 500.{{Efn|Sources:
- {{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=OPCW Releases Third Report by Investigation and Identification Team |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2023/01/opcw-releases-third-report-investigation-and-identification-team |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127111421/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2023/01/opcw-releases-third-report-investigation-and-identification-team |archive-date=27 January 2023}}
- {{Cite journal |date=27 January 2023 |title=Third Report by the OPCW Investiogation and Identification Team |url=https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023/01/s-2125-2023%28e%29.pdf |journal= |pages=2–139 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127111959/https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023/01/s-2125-2023(e).pdf |archive-date=27 January 2023 |via=OPCW}}
- {{Cite web |date=27 Jan 2023 |title=Joint Statement on OPCW Report Finding Syrian Regime Responsible for Chemical Weapons Attack in Douma, Syria on April 7, 2018 |url=https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-opcw-report-finding-syrian-regime-responsible-for-chemical-weapons-attack-in-douma-syria-on-april-7-2018/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128024629/https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-opcw-report-finding-syrian-regime-responsible-for-chemical-weapons-attack-in-douma-syria-on-april-7-2018/ |archive-date=28 January 2023 |website=U.S Department of State}}
- {{Cite news |date=27 Jan 2023 |title=OPCW blames Syria gov't for 2018 chlorine gas attack in Douma |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/27/opcw-blames-syria-government-forces-for-2018-douma-chlorine-gas-attack}}
- {{Cite news |date=27 Jan 2023 |title=Watchdog blames Syria for 2018 Douma chemical attack |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-64424831 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128025152/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-64424831 |archive-date=28 Jan 2023}}
- {{Cite news |last=Chulov |first=Martin |date=27 Jan 2023 |title=Syrian regime found responsible for Douma chemical attack |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/27/syrian-regime-found-responsible-for-douma-chemical-weapons-attack |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127200237/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/27/syrian-regime-found-responsible-for-douma-chemical-weapons-attack |archive-date=27 Jan 2023}}
- {{Cite news |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=27 Jan 2023 |title=Syrian army responsible for Douma chemical weapons attack, watchdog confirms |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/27/syria-chemical-weapons-douma-opcw/}}}}
Other allegations
File:2015-08-21 Gedenken am Ernst-August-Platz in Hannover an die Giftgas-Opfer von Ghouta in Syrien, (18).JPG on the second anniversary of the Ghouta massacre (21 August 2015)]]
In February 2012 a defector from the Syrian Army, a lieutenant who worked in the chemical weapons department, told Turkish newspaper Hürriyet Daily News that "BZ-CS, Chlorine Benzilate, which damages people's nerves and makes them fade away, is being used in Baba Amr." He said that some Syrian soldiers had been supplied with gas masks for protection.[http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/defected-syria-general-vows-return-fight.aspx?pageID=238&nID=14223&NewsCatID=338 Chemical weapons used against Syrians, says defected soldier] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427202334/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/defected-syria-general-vows-return-fight.aspx?pageID=238&nID=14223&NewsCatID=338 |date=27 April 2015 }}. Hurriyet Daily News, 21 February 2012. Retrieved on 22 September 2014.
In December 2012, the Syrian government claimed that chemical plant SYSACCO {{convert|29|km|sp=us}} east of Aleppo was taken by rebel fighters from the Al-Nusra Front. The factory produces chlorine among other chemicals.{{cite news|title=Rebels could resort to chemical weapons, Syria warns|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20121208-syria-warns-rebels-may-resort-chemical-weapons-assad-united-nations-islamists/|agency=France 24|date=8 December 2012|access-date=14 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140515034725/http://www.france24.com/en/20121208-syria-warns-rebels-may-resort-chemical-weapons-assad-united-nations-islamists/|archive-date=15 May 2014|url-status=live}} On 5 November 2014, the Syrian UN-ambassador Bashar al-Jaafari, said "terrorist organizations stole about 200 tons of [chlorine gas] from" the factory.{{cite news|title=Al-Jaafari: Syria is committed to close cooperation with OPCW|url=http://www.sana.sy/en/?p=17034|publisher=SANA|date=6 November 2014|access-date=7 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107111410/http://www.sana.sy/en/?p=17034|archive-date=7 November 2014|url-status=live}}
In January 2013, US State Department cables showed a US investigation had found evidence that the Syrian military had used a chemical weapon on 23 December 2012, which was the first time an official investigation documented chemical weapon use in the conflict.{{cite web | last=Rogin | first=Josh | title=Exclusive: Secret State Department cable: Chemical weapons used in Syria | website=Foreign Policy | date=15 January 2013 | url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/15/exclusive-secret-state-department-cable-chemical-weapons-used-in-syria/ | access-date=27 November 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216054255/https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/15/exclusive-secret-state-department-cable-chemical-weapons-used-in-syria/ | archive-date=16 December 2018 | url-status=live }} On 4 June, the French foreign minister Laurent Fabius similarly declared certainty that the Syrian government had used sarin on multiple instances.{{cite news | title=France says it is 'certain' that Syrian government has used sarin gas | newspaper=Washington Post | date=4 June 2013 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/un-report-says-syria-atrocities-mount/2013/06/04/95ab5c46-cd2e-11e2-8573-3baeea6a2647_story.html | access-date=27 November 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127234302/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/un-report-says-syria-atrocities-mount/2013/06/04/95ab5c46-cd2e-11e2-8573-3baeea6a2647_story.html | archive-date=27 November 2018 | url-status=live }}
On 30 May 2013, Turkish newspapers reported that Turkish security forces had arrested Al-Nusra Front fighters in the southern provinces of Mersin and Adana near the Syrian border and confiscated 2 kg of sarin gas.{{cite news|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/news-316966-report-police-foil-al-nusra-bomb-attack-planned-for-adana.html |title=Report: Police foil al-Nusra bomb attack planned for Adana |date=30 May 2013 |access-date=19 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607172628/http://www.todayszaman.com/news-316966-report-police-foil-al-nusra-bomb-attack-planned-for-adana.html |archive-date=7 June 2013 }} The Turkish Ambassador to Moscow later said that tests showed the chemical seized was not sarin, but anti-freeze.{{cite news|title=No Chemical Arms Seized from Syrian Militants, Turkish Envoy Says|url=http://www.nti.org/gsn/article/no-chemical-arms-seized-syrian-militants-turkish-envoy-says/|access-date=12 September 2013|newspaper=Global Security Newswire|date=5 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111001043/http://www.nti.org/gsn/article/no-chemical-arms-seized-syrian-militants-turkish-envoy-says/|archive-date=11 November 2013|url-status=live}} In September six of those arrested in May were charged with attempting to acquire chemicals which could be used to produce sarin; the indictment said that it was "possible to produce sarin gas by combining the materials in proper conditions."Aydınlık, 12 September 2013, [http://www.aydinlikdaily.com/Al-Nusra-Linked-to-Chemical-Production-in-Turkey-591 Al-Nusra Linked to Chemical Production in Turkey] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920171737/http://www.aydinlikdaily.com/Al-Nusra-Linked-to-Chemical-Production-in-Turkey-591 |date=20 September 2013 }}
On 1 June 2013, the Syrian Army reported that it seized two cylinders holding the nerve agent sarin in an area it said was controlled by opposition fighters. The Syrian government declared the two cylinders "as abandoned chemical weapons" and told the OPCW that "the items did not belong to" them. On 14 June 2014, the Joint OPCW-UN Mission confirmed that the cylinders contained sarin. On 7 July 2014, the U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon informed the U.N. Security Council about the findings.{{cite news|url=http://www.straitstimes.com/news/world/middle-east/story/two-abandoned-cylinders-seized-syria-contained-sarin-un-20140708|title=Two 'abandoned' cylinders seized in Syria contained sarin: UN|newspaper=The Straits Times|agency=Reuters|date=8 July 2014|access-date=29 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708174331/http://www.straitstimes.com/news/world/middle-east/story/two-abandoned-cylinders-seized-syria-contained-sarin-un-20140708|archive-date=8 July 2014|url-status=live}}
In September 2015 a US official stated that ISIS was manufacturing and using mustard agent in Syria and Iraq, and had an active chemical weapons research team.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-34211838 |title=US official: 'IS making and using chemical weapons in Iraq and Syria' |author=Paul Blake |publisher=BBC |date=11 September 2015 |access-date=16 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914051234/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-34211838 |archive-date=14 September 2015 |url-status=live }}{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-manufacturing-and-using-chemical-weapons-in-iraq-and-syria-us-official-claims-10496094.html |title=Isis 'manufacturing and using chemical weapons' in Iraq and Syria, US official claims |author=Lizzie Dearden |newspaper=The Independent |date=11 September 2015 |access-date=16 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150913235633/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-manufacturing-and-using-chemical-weapons-in-iraq-and-syria-us-official-claims-10496094.html |archive-date=13 September 2015 |url-status=live }} In February 2016, the CIA Director John O. Brennan said on 60 Minutes that there were "a number of instances where ISIL has used chemical munitions on the battlefield".{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/cia-director-john-brennan-60-minutes-scott-pelley/|title=CIA Director John Brennan on 60 Minutes|author=Scott Pelley|newspaper=CBS News|date=14 February 2016|access-date=22 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218042453/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/cia-director-john-brennan-60-minutes-scott-pelley/|archive-date=18 February 2016|url-status=live}}
On 8 April 2016, a spokesman for the Jaysh al-Islam rebel group said that “weapons not authorized for use in these types of confrontations” had been used against Kurdish militia and civilians in Aleppo (160 killed or wounded).{{cite web|title=MAPPING MILITANT ORGANIZATIONS: Jaish al-Islam|url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/533|website=Stanford University|date=31 August 2017|access-date=12 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305192425/https://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/533|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=live}} He stated that “One of our commanders has unlawfully used a type of weapon that is not included in our list”.{{cite news|url=http://www.dw.com/en/concerns-grow-about-abuses-war-crimes-in-syria/a-19277777|title=Middle East Concerns grow about abuses, war crimes in Syria|work=Deutsche Welle|date=25 May 2016|access-date=11 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180410135845/http://www.dw.com/en/concerns-grow-about-abuses-war-crimes-in-syria/a-19277777|archive-date=10 April 2018|url-status=live}} He did not specify what substances were used but, according to Kurdish Red Crescent, the symptoms were consistent with the use of "chlorine gas or other agents".{{cite web|title=Kurdish Officials: Rebels May Have Used Chemicals in Aleppo|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/kurdish-officials-rebels-may-have-used-chemicals-aleppo/3276743.html|website=Voice of America|date=8 April 2016 |access-date=11 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411110119/http://www.voanews.com/content/kurdish-officials-rebels-may-have-used-chemicals-aleppo/3276743.html|archive-date=11 April 2016|df=dmy-all}} Jaysh al-Islam subsequently clarified that it was referring to “modified Grad rockets,” not chemical weapons.Sam Heller [https://www.thedailybeast.com/one-kurdish-neighborhood-in-the-crossfire One Kurdish Neighborhood in the Crossfire] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803134518/https://www.thedailybeast.com/one-kurdish-neighborhood-in-the-crossfire |date=3 August 2018 }}, Daily Beast, 15 April 2016
On 4 May 2017, the BBC reported that, according to a Western intelligence agency, Syria was violating the 2013 disarmament deal by producing chemical and biological munitions at Masyaf, Dummar, and Barzeh.{{cite news|title=Syria 'still producing chemical weapons'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-39796763|access-date=14 February 2018|work=BBC News|date=4 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213073816/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-39796763|archive-date=13 February 2018|url-status=live}}
On 27 June 2017, US officials stated that the Syrian government was preparing at a Syrian base for what seemed another chemical attack. The Trump administration warned that if another attack occurred, President Assad would pay a heavy price. This threat came as the intelligence community stated that the activity was similar to the preparations leading to the attack in Khan Sheikhoun.{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/06/26/politics/syria-chemical-weapons-white-house-warning/index.html|title=US: Syria may launch new chemical attack|author1=Madison Park |author2=Steve Brusk|website=CNN|date=27 June 2017 |access-date=8 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707143400/http://www.cnn.com/2017/06/26/politics/syria-chemical-weapons-white-house-warning/index.html|archive-date=7 July 2017|url-status=live}}
Around 16 February 2018, the SOHR and the U.S.-backed Kurdish YPG stated that Turkey was suspected of conducting a chemical gas attack in Afrin. Syrian state news agency SANA, citing a doctor in an Afrin hospital, stated the shelling caused choking in six people.{{cite news|title=Turkish army hit village in Syria's Afrin with suspected gas: Kurdish YPG, Observatory|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-afrin/turkish-army-hit-village-in-syrias-afrin-with-suspected-gas-kurdish-ypg-observatory-idUSKCN1G02JE|work=Reuters|date=16 February 2018|access-date=12 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426035941/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-afrin/turkish-army-hit-village-in-syrias-afrin-with-suspected-gas-kurdish-ypg-observatory-idUSKCN1G02JE|archive-date=26 April 2018|url-status=live}}
In April 2018, Human Rights Watch published a report based on seven data sources, including the UN investigations, and was able to confirm 85 chemical attacks between 21 August 2013 and 25 February 2018, including more than 50 perpetrated by the government (including 42 using chlorine, 2 using sarin and 7 using unspecified chemicals) and three by ISIS (using sulphur mustard), with the remainder not attributed.{{cite web | title=Syria: A Year On, Chemical Weapons Attacks Persist | website=Human Rights Watch | date=4 April 2018 | url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/04/04/syria-year-chemical-weapons-attacks-persist | access-date=27 November 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227215631/https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/04/04/syria-year-chemical-weapons-attacks-persist | archive-date=27 December 2018 | url-status=live }}
In October 2018, BBC Panorama and BBC Arabic investigated 164 reports of chemical attacks and were able to confirm 106 of them, 51 of which were certainly launched from the air and therefore could only have been perpetrated by the government or its allies.{{cite web | last=al-Maghafi | first=Nawal | title=How chemical weapons have helped Assad | website=BBC News | date=2018-10-15 | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-45586903 | access-date=2020-01-16}}
In February 2019, the German thinktank Global Public Policy Institute (GPPi) published a report that “credibly substantiated” 336 uses of chemical weapons in the Syrian war, 98% of them by the government or allied forces (including several attributed to the Syrian Army's elite Tiger Forces) and the remainder by ISIL.{{cite news | last=Loveluck | first=Louisa | title=Syrian military linked to more than 300 chemical attacks, report says | newspaper=Washington Post | date=2019-02-17 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrian-military-linked-to-more-than-300-chemical-attacks-report-says/2019/02/16/c6e128de-31d4-11e9-ac6c-14eea99d5e24_story.html | access-date=2020-01-16}}{{cite web | title=More Than 300 Chemical Attacks Launched During Syrian Civil War, Study Says | website=NPR.org | date=2019-02-17 | url=https://www.npr.org/2019/02/17/695545252/more-than-300-chemical-attacks-launched-during-syrian-civil-war-study-says | access-date=2020-01-16}}
In May 2019, there were reports of a chemical attack on Kabana in Latakia.{{cite web | title=Britain and US threaten response after reports of fresh chemical weapons attack in Syria | website=The Telegraph | date=2019-05-22 | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/05/22/britain-us-threaten-response-reports-fresh-chemical-weapons/ | access-date=2020-01-16}}
See also
Notes
{{Notelist}}{{Reflist|group=N}}
Further reading
- {{cite journal | last1=Edwards | first1=Brett | last2=Cacciatori | first2=Mattia | title=The politics of international chemical weapon justice: The case of Syria, 2011–2017 | journal=Contemporary Security Policy | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=39 | issue=2 | date=2018-01-25 | issn=1352-3260 | doi=10.1080/13523260.2017.1410614 | pages=280–297| s2cid=158240801 | url=https://purehost.bath.ac.uk/ws/files/164018033/The_Politics_of_International_Chemical_Weapon_Justice_Syria_2011_2017.pdf }}
- Eliot Higgins [https://www.bellingcat.com/news/mena/2018/06/14/chemical-munitions-used-syrian-government-2012-2018/ Chemical munitions used by the Syrian government 2012-2018] Bellingcat June 14, 2018
- Eliot Higgins [https://www.bellingcat.com/news/mena/2018/06/21/know-hexamine-syrias-sarin/ What We Know About Hexamine and Syria's Sarin] Bellingcat June 21, 2018
- {{cite journal | last=Koblentz | first=Gregory D. | title=Chemical-weapon use in Syria: atrocities, attribution, and accountability | journal=The Nonproliferation Review | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=26 | issue=5–6 | date=2019-09-02 | issn=1073-6700 | doi=10.1080/10736700.2019.1718336 | pages=575–598| s2cid=214356174 | doi-access=free }}
- {{cite news| title=Chemical attacks in Syria: A deadly history | last=Nair|first=Ajay|website=Sky News | date=9 April 2018 | url=https://news.sky.com/story/chemical-attacks-in-syria-a-deadly-history-11323747 | ref={{sfnref | Sky News | 2018}} | access-date=27 November 2018}}
- {{cite web | last=Sen | first=Ashish Kumar | title=A Brief History of Chemical Weapons in Syria | website=Atlantic Council | date=9 April 2018 | url=http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/a-brief-history-of-chemical-weapons-in-syria | access-date=27 November 2018}}
External links
- [https://www.gppi.net/2019/02/17/the-logic-of-chemical-weapons-use-in-syria the logic of chemical weapons use in syria] Report from Global Public Policy Institute (GPPi), a Berlin based think tank.