w:Anopheles gambiae

The Anopheles gambiae complex or Anopheles gambiae sensu lato was recognized as a species complex only in the 1960s. The A. gambiae complex consists of:{{cite web |website=The Walter Reed Biosystematics Unit (WRBU) |title=Anopheles gambiae Giles, 1902 |url=https://wrbu.si.edu/vectorspecies/mosquitoes/gambiae |date=2021 |access-date=2025-03-27 }}

• Anopheles arabiensis Patton, 1905
• Anopheles bwambae White, 1985
• Anopheles melas Theobald, 1903
• Anopheles merus Dönitz, 1902
• Anopheles quadriannulatus (Theobald, 1911){{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.91.15.6885 |vauthors=Besansky NJ, Powell JR, Caccone A, Hamm DM, Scott JA, Collins FH |title=Molecular phylogeny of the Anopheles gambiae complex suggests genetic introgression between principal malaria vectors |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=91 |issue=15 |pages=6885–8 |date=July 1994 |pmid=8041714 |pmc=44302 |bibcode=1994PNAS...91.6885B |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |vauthors=Wilkins EE, Howell PI, Benedict MQ |title=IMP PCR primers detect single nucleotide polymorphisms for Anopheles gambiae species identification, Mopti and Savanna rDNA types, and resistance to dieldrin in Anopheles arabiensis |journal=Malaria Journal |volume=5 |issue= 1|pages=125 |year=2006 |pmid=17177993 |pmc=1769388 |doi=10.1186/1475-2875-5-125 |doi-access=free }}
• Anopheles gambiae Giles, 1902 sensu stricto (s.s.){{Cite journal|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2011.0453|title=Epidemiological consequences of a newly discovered cryptic subgroup of Anopheles gambiae|year=2011|last1=Yakob|first1=Laith|journal=Biology Letters|volume=7|issue=6|pages=947–949|pmid=21693489|pmc=3210673}}
• {{visible anchor|Anopheles coluzzii}} Coetzee & Wilkerson in Coetzee et al., 2013
• Anopheles amharicus Hunt, Wilkerson & Coetzee in Coetzee et al., 2013

The individual species of the complex are morphologically difficult to distinguish from each other, although it is possible for larvae and adult females. The species exhibit different behavioural traits. For example, Anopheles quadriannulatus is both a saltwater and mineralwater species. A. melas and A. merus are saltwater species, while the remainder are freshwater species.{{cite journal | title=Anopheles gambiae complex and disease transmission in Africa | author=G.B. White | journal= Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene| year=1974 | volume=68 | issue=4 | pages=278–298 | doi=10.1016/0035-9203(74)90035-2| pmid=4420769 }}

Anopheles quadriannulatus generally takes its blood meal from animals (zoophilic), whereas Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto generally feeds on humans, i.e. is considered anthropophilic.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}

Identification to the individual species level using the molecular methods of Scott et al. (1993){{cite journal |author1=C. Fanello |author2=F. Santolamazza |author3=A. Della Torre |title=Simultaneous identification of species and molecular forms of the Anopheles gambiae complex by PCR-RFLP |journal=Medical and Veterinary Entomology |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=461–4 |year=2002 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2915.2002.00393.x |pmid=12510902|s2cid=28983355 }} can have important implications in subsequent control measures.

An. gambiae sensu stricto (s.s.) has been discovered to be currently in a state of diverging into two different species—the Mopti (M) and Savannah (S) strains—though as of 2007, the two strains are still considered to be a single species.

A mechanism of species recognition using the sound emitted by the wings and identified by Johnston's organ was proposed in 2010,{{cite journal |last1=Pennetier |first1=Cédric |last2=Warren |first2=Ben |last3=Dabiré |first3=K. Roch |last4=Russell |first4=Ian J. |last5=Gibson |first5=Gabriella |author-link5=Gabriella Gibson |year=2010 |title="Singing on the Wing" as a Mechanism for Species Recognition in the Malarial Mosquito Anopheles gambiae |url=http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03249004 |journal=Current Biology |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=131–136 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2009.11.040 |pmid=20045329 |s2cid=15185976 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2010CBio...20..131P }} however this mechanism has never been confirmed since, and the overall mechanism theory through "harmonic convergence" has been challenged.{{Cite journal |last1=Somers |first1=Jason |last2=Georgiades |first2=Marcos |last3=Su |first3=Matthew P. |last4=Bagi |first4=Judit |last5=Andrés |first5=Marta |last6=Alampounti |first6=Alexandros |last7=Mills |first7=Gordon |last8=Ntabaliba |first8=Watson |last9=Moore |first9=Sarah J. |last10=Spaccapelo |first10=Roberta |last11=Albert |first11=Joerg T. |date=2022-01-14 |title=Hitting the right note at the right time: Circadian control of audibility in Anopheles mosquito mating swarms is mediated by flight tones |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=eabl4844 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abl4844 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=8754303 |pmid=35020428|bibcode=2022SciA....8.4844S }}{{Citation |last1=Feugère |first1=L. |title=Chapter 26: The role of hearing in mosquito behaviour |date=2022-12-18 |work=Sensory ecology of disease vectors |pages=683–708 |editor-last=Ignell |editor-first=R. |url=https://brill.com/view/book/9789086869329/BP000027.xml |access-date=2024-05-30 |publisher=Brill {{!}} Wageningen Academic |doi=10.3920/978-90-8686-932-9_26 |isbn=978-90-8686-380-8 |last2=Simões |first2=P.M.V. |last3=Russell |first3=I.J. |last4=Gibson |first4=G. |editor2-last=Lazzari |editor2-first=C.R. |editor3-last=Lorenzo |editor3-first=M.G. |editor4-last=Hill |editor4-first=S.R.}}

An. gambiae s.s. genomes have been sequenced three times, once for the M strain, once for the S strain, and once for a hybrid strain.{{cite web |url=http://www.cns.fr/externe/English/Projets/Projet_AK/organisme_AK.html |title=Anopheles gambiae: First genome of a vector for a parasitic disease |publisher=Genoscope |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807095743/http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/spip/Anopheles-gambiae-vector-for-a.html |archive-date=2011-08-07}}{{cite journal|author=Lawniczak, M. K.|title=Widespread divergence between incipient Anopheles gambiae species revealed by whole genome sequences|journal=Science |date=Oct 22, 2010|volume=330|issue=6003|pages=512–4|pmid=20966253|doi=10.1126/science.1195755|pmc=3674514|bibcode=2010Sci...330..512L|display-authors=etal}} Currently, ~90 miRNA have been predicted in the literature (38 miRNA officially listed in miRBase) for An. gambiae s.s. based upon conserved sequences to miRNA found in Drosophila.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}} Holt et al., 2002 and Neafsey et al., 2016 find transposable elements to be ~13% of the genome, similar to Drosophila melanogaster (also in Diptera).{{cite journal | last1=Gilbert | first1=Clément | last2=Peccoud | first2=Jean | last3=Cordaux | first3=Richard | title=Transposable Elements and the Evolution of Insects | journal=Annual Review of Entomology | volume=66 | issue=1 | date=2021-01-07 | issn=0066-4170 | doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-070720-074650 | pages=355–372| pmid=32931312 | s2cid=221747772 | url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03376520/file/Gilbert_et_al_30Jan20_text%2BFig.pdf }} However they find the proportion of TE types to be very different from D. melanogaster with approximately the same composition of long terminal repeat retrotransposons, non-long terminal repeat retrotransposons and DNA transposons. These proportions are believed to be representative of the genus.

The genetics and genomics of sex chromosomes have been discovered and studied by Windbichler et al., 2007 and Galizi et al., 2014 (a Physarum polycephalum homing endonuclease which destroys X chromosomes), Windbichler et al., 2008 and Hammond et al., 2016 (methods to reduce the female population), Windbichler et al., 2011 (trans from yeast), Bernardini et al., 2014 (a method to increase the male population), Kyrou et al., 2018 (a female necessary exon and a homing endonuclease to drive it), Taxiarchi et al., 2019 (sex chromosome dynamics in general) and Simoni et al., 2020 (an X chromosome destroying site specific nuclease).{{cite journal | last1=Hay | first1=Bruce A. | last2=Oberhofer | first2=Georg | last3=Guo | first3=Ming | title=Engineering the Composition and Fate of Wild Populations with Gene Drive | journal=Annual Review of Entomology | volume=66 | issue=1 | date=2021-01-07 | issn=0066-4170 | doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043154 | pages=407–434| pmid=33035437 | s2cid=222257628 | doi-access=free }} See {{section link||Gene drive}} below for their applications.

An. gambiae has a high degree of polymorphism. This is especially true in the cytochrome P450s, Wilding et al., 2009 finding 1 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)/26 base pairs. This species has the highest amount of polymorphism in the CYPs of any insect known, much tending to be found in "scaffolds" that are found only in particular subpopulations. These are termed "dual haplotype regions" by Holt et al., 2002 who sequenced the {{visible anchor|PEST}} strain.{{cite book | editor-last=Gilbert | editor-first=Lawrence I. | title=Insect molecular biology and biochemistry | publisher=Academic Press | publication-place=Amsterdam Boston | year=2012 | isbn=978-0-12-384747-8 | oclc=742299021 | pages=x+563}}{{rp|241}}

In common with many chromosomes, An. gambiae codes for spindle and kinetochore-associated proteins. Hanisch et al., 2006 locate AgSka1, the spindle and kinetochore-associated protein 1 gene, at EAL39257.{{cite journal | last1=Cheeseman | first1=Iain M. | last2=Desai | first2=Arshad | title=Molecular architecture of the kinetochore–microtubule interface | journal=Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology | publisher=Nature Portfolio | volume=9 | issue=1 | year=2008 | issn=1471-0072 | doi=10.1038/nrm2310 | pages=33–46| pmid=18097444 | s2cid=34121605 }}

The entire Culicidae family may or may not conserve epigenetic mechanisms {{endash}} {{as of|2012|lc=yes}} this remains unresolved.{{cite journal | last1=Severson | first1=David W. | last2=Behura | first2=Susanta K. | title=Mosquito Genomics: Progress and Challenges | journal=Annual Review of Entomology | publisher=Annual Reviews | volume=57 | issue=1 | date=2012-01-07 | issn=0066-4170 | doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100651 | pages=143–166| pmid=21942845 }} Toward answering this question, Marhold et al., 2004 compare their own previous work in Drosophila melanogaster against new sequences of D. pseudoobscura and An. gambiae. They find all three do share the DNA methylation enzyme DNMT2 (DmDNMT2, DpDNMT2, and {{visible anchor|AgDNMT2}}). This suggests all Diptera may conserve an epigenetic system employing Dnmt2.

Hosts include Bos taurus, Capra hircus, Ovis aries and Sus scrofa.{{cite web | title=Anopheles gambiae | website=Invasive Species Compendium | publisher=CABI | date=2019-11-24 | url=http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/93919 | access-date=2022-01-26}}

Parasites include Plasmodium berghei (for which it also serves as a vector),{{cite journal | last1=Alout | first1=Haoues | last2=Labbé | first2=Pierrick | last3=Chandre | first3=Fabrice | last4=Cohuet | first4=Anna | title=Malaria Vector Control Still Matters despite Insecticide Resistance | journal=Trends in Parasitology | volume=33 | issue=8 | year=2017 | issn=1471-4922 | doi=10.1016/j.pt.2017.04.006 | pages=610–618 | s2cid=32524464 | pmid=28499699}}{{cite journal | last1=Minetti | first1=Corrado | last2=Ingham | first2=Victoria A | last3=Ranson | first3=Hilary | title=Effects of insecticide resistance and exposure on Plasmodium development in Anopheles mosquitoes | journal=Current Opinion in Insect Science | volume=39 | year=2020 | issn=2214-5745 | doi=10.1016/j.cois.2019.12.001 | pages=42–49| pmid=32109860 | bibcode=2020COIS...39...42M | s2cid=211563675 | url=https://archive.lstmed.ac.uk/13640/1/Effects%20of%20insecticide%20and%20exposure%20on%20Plasmodium%20in%20Anopheles%20mosquitoes%20-%20HRanson.pdf }}{{cite journal | last1=Caragata | first1=E.P. | last2=Dong | first2=S. | last3=Dong | first3=Y. | last4=Simões | first4=M.L. | last5=Tikhe | first5=C.V. | last6=Dimopoulos | first6=G. | title=Prospects and Pitfalls: Next-Generation Tools to Control Mosquito-Transmitted Disease | journal=Annual Review of Microbiology | publisher=Annual Reviews | volume=74 | issue=1 | date=2020-09-08 | issn=0066-4227 | doi=10.1146/annurev-micro-011320-025557 | pages=455–475| pmid=32905752 | s2cid=221625690 | doi-access=free }} and the bioinsecticides/entomopathogenic fungi Metarhizium robertsii and Beauveria bassiana. All three of these parasites combine with insecticides to reduce fitness {{endash}} see {{section link||Insecticides}} below. CRISPR/Cas9 and U6-gRNA are increasingly ({{as of|2020|lc=yes}}) being used together for knockout experiments in mosquitoes. Dong et al., 2018 develops and presents a new U6-gRNA+Cas9 technique in An. gambiae, and utilizes it to knock out fibrinogen related protein 1 (FREP1), thereby severely reducing infection of the mosquito by P. berghei and P. falciparum. However this also demonstrates the centrality of FREP1 to the insect's success, impairing all measured activities across all life stages. Yang et al., 2020 uses the Dong method to do the same with mosGILT, also severely reducing Plasmodium infection of the mosquito but also finding a vital life process is impaired, in mosGILT{{'}}s case ovary development.

Parasites/bioinsecticides and chemical insecticides synergistically reduce fitness. Saddler et al., 2015 finds even An. gambiae with knockdown resistance (kdr) are more susceptible to DDT if they are first infected with Plasmodium berghei and Farenhorst et al., 2009 the same for Metarhizium robertsii or Beauveria bassiana. This is probably due to an effect found by Félix et al., 2010 and Stevenson et al., 2011: An. gambiae alters various activities {{endash}} especially CYP6M2 {{endash}} in response to P. berghei invasion. CYP6M2 is known to somehow produce pyrethroid resistance, and pyrethroids and DDT share a mechanism of action.

Research relevant to the development of gene drive controls of An. gambiae have been performed by Windbichler et al., 2007, Windbichler et al., 2008, Windbichler et al., 2011, Bernardini et al., 2014, Galizi et al., 2014, Hammond et al., 2016, Kyrou et al., 2018, Taxiarchi et al., 2019 and Simoni et al., 2020. For specific genes involved see {{section link||Genome}} above. These can all be used in pest control because they induce infertility.

Fecundity of An. gambiae depends on the detoxification of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by catalase.{{cite journal |vauthors=DeJong RJ, Miller LM, Molina-Cruz A, Gupta L, Kumar S, Barillas-Mury C |title=Reactive oxygen species detoxification by catalase is a major determinant of fecundity in the mosquito Anopheles gambiae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=104 |issue=7 |pages=2121–6 |date=February 2007 |pmid=17284604 |pmc=1892935 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0608407104 |bibcode=2007PNAS..104.2121D |doi-access=free }} Reduction in catalase activity significantly reduces reproductive output of female mosquitoes, indicating that catalase plays a central role in protecting oocytes and early embryos from ROS damage.

An. gambiae invaded northeastern Brazil in 1930, which led to a malaria epidemic in 1938/1939.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00776-X |author=Killeen GF |title=Following in Soper's footsteps: northeast Brazil 63 years after eradication of Anopheles gambiae |journal=The Lancet Infectious Diseases |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=663–6 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14522266 }} The Brazilian government assisted by the Rockefeller Foundation in a programme spearheaded by Fred Soper eradicated these mosquitoes from this area. This effort was modeled on the earlier success in eradication of Aedes aegypti as part of the yellow fever control program. The exact species involved in this epidemic has been identified as An. arabiensis.{{cite journal |vauthors=Parmakelis A, Russello MA, Caccone A |title=Historical analysis of a near disaster: Anopheles gambiae in Brazil |journal=The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=176–8 |date=January 2008 |pmid=18187802 |doi= 10.4269/ajtmh.2008.78.176|url=http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18187802|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}

Kaufmann and Brown 2008 find the An. gambiae adipokinetic hormone (AKH) mobilizes carbohydrates but not lipids. Meanwhile AKH/Corazonin Peptide (ACP) does not mobilize (or inhibit mobilization) of either. Mugumbate et al., 2013 provides in solution and membrane bound structures from a nuclear magnetic resonance investigation.{{cite book | last1=Strand | first1=M.R. | last2=Brown | first2=M.R. | last3=Vogel | first3=K.J. | title=Advances in Insect Physiology | chapter=Mosquito Peptide Hormones | publisher=Elsevier | year=2016 | volume=51 | issn=0065-2806 | doi=10.1016/bs.aiip.2016.05.003 | pages=145–188 | s2cid=58546659 | pmid=30662099 | pmc=6338476| isbn=9780128024577 }}

{{Reflist|2}}

{{Scholia|topic}}

• {{cite web |url=https://www.vectorbase.org/organisms/anopheles-gambiae |publisher=VectorBase |title=Anopheles gambiae |access-date=2013-07-12 |archive-date=2019-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190127205740/https://www.vectorbase.org/organisms/anopheles-gambiae |url-status=dead }}
• {{UCSC genomes|anoGam1}}
• [http://www.diark.org/diark/species_list?query=Anopheles_gambiae DiArk]

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{{Authority control}}

gambiae

Category:Insect vectors of human pathogens

Category:Animal models

Category:Insects described in 1902