:Environmentalism

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Environmentalism denotes a social movement that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism, and education in order to protect natural resources and ecosystems. Environmentalism as a movement covers broad areas of institutional oppression, including for example: consumption of ecosystems and natural resources into waste, dumping waste into disadvantaged communities, air pollution, water pollution, weak infrastructure, exposure of organic life to toxins. Because of these divisions, the environmental movement can be categorized into these primary focuses: environmental science, environmental activism, environmental advocacy, and environmental justice.{{cite web |title=American Environmental Justice Movement |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/enviro-j/ |access-date=15 April 2018 |website=www.iep.utm.edu |publisher=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}

An environmentalist is a person who may speak out about our natural environment and the sustainable management of its resources through changes in public policy or individual behaviour. This may include supporting practices such as informed consumption, conservation initiatives, investment in renewable resources, improved efficiencies in the materials economy, transitioning to new accounting paradigms such as ecological economics, renewing and revitalizing our connections with non-human life or even opting to have one less child to reduce consumption and pressure on resources.

In various ways (for example, grassroots activism and protests), environmentalists and environmental organizations seek to give the natural world a stronger voice in human affairs.Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (2005)

In general terms, environmentalists advocate the sustainable management of resources, and the protection (and restoration, when necessary) of the natural environment through changes in public policy and individual behaviour. In its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered around ecology, health, and human rights.

The environmental movement (a term that sometimes includes the conservation and green movements) is a diverse scientific, social, and political movement. Though the movement is represented by a range of organizations, because of the inclusion of environmentalism in the classroom curriculum,{{Cite book |author=Craig Kridel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GgMyFqxsXWoC&q=environmentalism%20in%20the%20classroom%20curriculum&pg=PA341 |title=Encyclopedia of Curriculum Studies |date=2010 |publisher=Sage Publications, Inc. |isbn=978-1-4129-5883-7 |page=341 |access-date=16 April 2010}}

{{cite web |author=Jennifer Sinsel |date=15 April 2010 |title=Earth Day Activities |url=http://www.lessonplanet.com/directory_articles/elementary_science_lesson_plans/15_April_2010/360/earth_day_activities |access-date=16 April 2010 |publisher=Lesson Planet}}

the environmental movement has a younger demographic than is common in other social movements (see green seniors).

{{See also|Environmental movement#History|Timeline of history of environmentalism}}

A concern for environmental protection has recurred in diverse forms, in different parts of the world, throughout history.

The earliest ideas of environmental protectionism can be found in Jainism, a religion from ancient India revived by Mahavira in the 6th century BC. Jainism offers a view that is in many ways compatible with core values associated with environmental activism, such as the protection of life by nonviolence, which could form a strong ecological ethos for global protection of the environment. Mahavira's teachings on the symbiosis between all living beings—as well as the five elements of earth, water, air, fire, and space—are core to environmental thought today.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajAEBAAAQBAJ&q=jainism+and+environmentalism&pg=PT160|title=Jainism: An Introduction|first=Jeffery D.|last=Long|year=2013|publisher=I.B.Tauris|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-85773-656-7}}{{cite web|url=http://fore.yale.edu/publications/books/cswr/jainism-introduction/|title=Jainism Introduction|publisher=Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology|website=fore.yale.edu}}

In West Asia, the Caliph Abu Bakr in the 630s AD commanded his army to "Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire," and to "Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food."{{citation |last1=Aboul-Enein |first1=H. Yousuf |last2=Zuhur |first2=Sherifa |date=2004 |title=Islamic Rulings on Warfare |publisher=Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College |isbn=978-1-58487-177-4|page=22}} Various Islamic medical treatises during the 9th to 13th centuries dealt with environmentalism and environmental science, including the issue of pollution. The authors of such treatises included Al-Kindi, Qusta ibn Luqa, Al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution, such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, and the mishandling of municipal solid waste. They also included assessments of certain localities' environmental impact.{{citation |last=Gari |first=L. |s2cid=85197649 |date=November 2002 |title=Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century |journal=Environment and History |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=475–88 |doi=10.3197/096734002129342747|url=http://www.environmentandsociety.org/node/3141 }}

In Europe, King Edward I of England banned the burning and sale of "sea-coal" in 1272 by proclamation in London, after its smoke had become a prevalent annoyance throughout the city.{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/perspect/london.htm |title=London's Historic 'Pea-Soupers' |access-date=2 August 2006 |author=David Urbinato |date=Summer 1994 |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002080012/http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/perspect/london.htm |archive-date=2 October 2006 }}{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/now/science/smog.html |title=Deadly Smog |access-date=2 August 2006 |date=17 January 2003 |publisher=PBS}} This fuel, common in London due to the local scarcity of wood, was given this early name because it could be found washed up on some shores, from where it was carted away on a wheelbarrow.

File:StRolloxChemical 1831.jpg, sparking the first modern environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century.]]

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At the advent of steam and electricity the muse of history holds her nose and shuts her eyes (H. G. Wells 1918).In the Fourth Year: Anticipations of a World Peace, (London: Chatto & Windus), p. 100.}}

The origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste.{{cite web |url=http://www.ametsoc.org/sloan/cleanair/ |title=History of the Clean Air Act |access-date=14 February 2006 |first=James R. |last=Fleming |author2=Bethany R. Knorr |publisher=American Meteorological Society |archive-date=10 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610133251/http://www.ametsoc.org/sloan/cleanair/ |url-status=dead }} The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (gaseous hydrochloric acid) given off by the Leblanc process, used to produce soda ash.{{Cite web |date=21 June 2018 |title=Climate Change First Became News 30 Years Ago. Why Haven't We Fixed It? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/07/embark-essay-climate-change-pollution-revkin/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114221303/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/07/embark-essay-climate-change-pollution-revkin/ |archive-date=14 January 2020 |access-date=24 November 2019 |website=Magazine |language=en}}

In industrial cities, local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and pollution, and initiating grass-roots movements to demand and achieve reforms.Harold L. Platt, Shock cities: the environmental transformation and reform of Manchester and Chicago (2005) [https://www.amazon.com/Shock-Cities-Environmental-Transformation-Manchester/dp/0226670767/ excerpt]. Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution.

{{See also|Environmental movement#United Kingdom}}

File:Walden Thoreau.jpg by Henry David Thoreau]]

File:John Muir - from Library-of-Congress (cropped).jpg also known as "John of the Mountains" and "Father of the National Parks",{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Barbara Kiely |title=John Muir |publisher=Gareth Stevens |year=2008 |isbn=978-0836883183 |page=10}} was a Scottish-born American{{cite book |title=America Goes Green: An Encyclopedia of Eco-Friendly Culture in the United States |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2013 |editor-last=Kennedy White |editor-first=Kim |location=Santa Barbara, California |page=xxiii |quote=John Muir (1838–1914) was a Scottish-born American citizen}}{{cite book |last=Fox |first=Stephen R. |url=https://archive.org/details/americanconserva00foxs |title=The American conservation movement : John Muir and his legacy |publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-299-10634-8}}{{rp|42}} naturalist, author, environmental philosopher, botanist, zoologist, glaciologist, and early advocate for the preservation of wilderness in the United States.]]

The late 19th century saw the passage of the first wildlife conservation laws. The zoologist Alfred Newton published a series of investigations into the Desirability of establishing a 'Close-time' for the preservation of indigenous animals between 1872 and 1903. His advocacy for legislation to protect animals from hunting during the mating season led to the formation of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and influenced the passage of the Sea Birds Preservation Act in 1869 as the first nature protection law in the world.{{cite book |author=G. Baeyens |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=3540740023 |title=Coastal Dunes: Ecology and Conservation |author2=M. L. Martinez |publisher=Springer |year=2007 |page=282}}{{Cite news |last=Makel |first=Jo |date=2 February 2011 |title=Protecting seabirds at Bempton Cliffs |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/humberside/hi/people_and_places/nature/newsid_9383000/9383787.stm |work=BBC News}}

The movement in the United States began in the late 19th century, out of concerns for protecting the natural resources of the West, with individuals such as John Muir and Henry David Thoreau making key philosophical contributions. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book Walden, which argues that people should become intimately close with nature. Muir came to believe in nature's inherent right, especially after spending time hiking in Yosemite Valley and studying both the ecology and geology. He successfully lobbied congress to form Yosemite National Park and went on to set up the Sierra Club in 1892. The conservationist principles as well as the belief in an inherent right of nature were to become the bedrock of modern environmentalism.

The prevailing belief regarding the origins of early environmentalism suggests that it emerged as a local response to the adverse impacts of industrialization in Western nations and communities. In terms of conservation efforts, there is a widespread view that the conservation movement began as a predominantly elite concern in North America, focusing on the preservation of local natural areas. A less prevailing view, however, attributes the roots of early environmentalism to a growing public concern about the influence of Western economic forces, particularly in connection with colonization, on tropical environments.{{Cite journal |last=Grove |first=Richard |date=3 May 1990 |title=The Origins of Environmentalism |journal=Nature |volume=345 |issue=6270 |pages=11–14|doi=10.1038/345011a0 |bibcode=1990Natur.345...11G |s2cid=46114051 }} Richard Grove, in a 1990 publication, points out that little attention has been given to the significance of the colonial experience, particularly the European colonial experience, in shaping early European environmentalism.

{{See also|Steady-state economy #Post-war economic expansion and emerging ecological concerns}}

File:BlueMarble-2001-2002.jpg from outer space provided both new insights and new reasons for concern over Earth's seemingly small and unique place in the universe (composite images of Earth generated by NASA in 2001 (left) and 2002 (right)).]]

In 1916, the National Park Service was founded by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson.{{Cite web |title=National Parks 101 |url=https://www.travelchannel.com/interests/national-parks/articles/national-parks-101 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610010957/https://www.travelchannel.com/interests/national-parks/articles/national-parks-101 |archive-date=10 June 2020 |access-date=9 June 2020 |website=Travel Channel |language=en}} Pioneers of the movement called for more efficient and professional management of natural resources. They fought for reform because they believed the destruction of forests, fertile soil, minerals, wildlife, and water resources would lead to the downfall of society.{{cite book |last=Chapman |first=Roger |url=https://archive.org/details/culturewarsencyc00chap |title=Culture wars: an encyclopedia of issues, viewpoints, and voices |publisher=M.E. Sharpe, Inc |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-7656-1761-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/culturewarsencyc00chap/page/n197 162] |url-access=limited}}

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| quote = "The conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem, it will avail us little to solve all others".

| source = Theodore Roosevelt (4 October 1907)Theodore Roosevelt, Address to the Deep Waterway Convention. Memphis, TN, 4 October 1907

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In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, several events illustrated the magnitude of environmental damage caused by humans. In 1954, a hydrogen bomb test at Bikini Atoll exposed the 23-man crew of the Japanese fishing vessel Lucky Dragon 5 to radioactive fallout. The incident is known as Castle Bravo, the largest thermonuclear device ever detonated by the United States and the first in a series of high-yield thermonuclear weapon design tests.{{cite web |last=Rowberry |first=Ariana |date=27 February 2014 |title=Castle Bravo: The Largest U.S. Nuclear Explosion |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2014/02/27/castle-bravo-the-largest-u-s-nuclear-explosion/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115122457/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2014/02/27/castle-bravo-the-largest-u-s-nuclear-explosion/ |archive-date=15 November 2019 |access-date=10 June 2020 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}} In 1967 the oil tanker {{SS|Torrey Canyon||2}} ran aground off the coast of Cornwall, and in 1969 oil spilled from an offshore well in California's Santa Barbara Channel. In 1971, the conclusion of a lawsuit in Japan drew international attention to the effects of decades of mercury poisoning on the people of Minamata.Most of the information in this section comes from John McCormick, The Global Environmental Movement, London: John Wiley, 1995.

At the same time, emerging scientific research drew new attention to existing and hypothetical threats to the environment and humanity. Among them were Paul R. Ehrlich, whose book The Population Bomb (1968) revived Malthusian concerns about the impact of exponential population growth. Biologist Barry Commoner generated a debate about growth, affluence and "flawed technology." Additionally, an association of scientists and political leaders known as the Club of Rome published their report The Limits to Growth in 1972, and drew attention to the growing pressure on natural resources from human activities.File:Suburbia by David Shankbone.jpg, aided by automobile ownership.]]

Another major literary force in the promotion of the environmental movement was Rachel Carson's 1962 book Silent Spring about declining bird populations due to DDT, an insecticide, pollutant, and man's attempts to control nature through the use of synthetic substances. Her core message for her readers was to identify the complex and fragile ecosystem and the threats facing the population.{{Cite book |last=Hunt |first=Michael H. |title=The World Transformed: 1945 to the present |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780199371020 |location=New York, New York |pages=215–217}} Her book sold over two million copies.{{cite news |last=Griswold |first=Eliza |date=21 September 2012 |title=How 'Silent Spring' Ignited the Environmental Movement |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/23/magazine/how-silent-spring-ignited-the-environmental-movement.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115230845/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/23/magazine/how-silent-spring-ignited-the-environmental-movement.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 |archive-date=15 January 2013 |access-date=22 February 2013 |newspaper=The New York Times}}

The book cataloged the environmental impacts of the indiscriminate spraying of DDT in the US and questioned the logic of releasing large amounts of chemicals into the environment without fully understanding their effects on human health and ecology. The book suggested that DDT and other pesticides may cause cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds.{{cite book |title=Silent Spring |first=Rachel |last=Carson |author-link=Rachel Carson |year=1962 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-8093-2218-3|title-link=Silent Spring }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}

The resulting public concern led to the creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 which subsequently banned the agricultural use of DDT in the US in 1972.{{Cite web |last=Eschner |first=Kat |title=Rachel Carson Wrote Silent Spring (Partly) Because of the Author of Stuart Little |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/rachel-carson-wrote-silent-spring-partly-because-author-stuart-little-180961962/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610010954/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/rachel-carson-wrote-silent-spring-partly-because-author-stuart-little-180961962/ |archive-date=10 June 2020 |access-date=10 June 2020 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}} The limited use of DDT in disease vector control continues to this day in certain parts of the world and remains controversial. The book's legacy was to produce a far greater awareness of environmental issues and interest into how people affect the environment. With this new interest in environment came interest in problems such as air pollution and petroleum spills, and environmental interest grew. New pressure groups formed, notably Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth (US), as well as notable local organizations such as the Wyoming Outdoor Council, which was founded in 1967. Greenpeace was created in 1971 as an organization that believed that political advocacy and legislation were ineffective or inefficient solutions and supported non-violent action. From 1962 to 1998, the environmental movement founded 772 national organizations in the United States.Erik W. Johnson, and Scott Frickel, "Ecological Threat and the Founding of U.S. National Environmental Movement Organizations, 1962–1998," Social Problems 58 (2011), 305–29. [https://www.academia.edu/download/42475589/Johnson.2011.pdf online]

In the 1970s, the environmental movement gained rapid speed around the world as a productive outgrowth of the counterculture movement.{{Cite news |date=11 December 1994 |title=Opinion {{!}} In Praise of the Counterculture |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/12/11/opinion/in-praise-of-the-counterculture.html |access-date=24 February 2023 |issn=0362-4331}}

The world's first political parties to campaign on a predominantly environmental platform were the United Tasmania Group of Tasmania, Australia, and the Values Party of New Zealand.{{cite web |last=Dann|first=Christine|title=The development of the first two Green parties New Zealand and Tasmania|url=http://www.globalgreens.org/literature/dann/chapterfive.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515170932/http://www.globalgreens.org/literature/dann/chapterfive.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 May 2011|work=From Earth's last islands. The global origins of Green politics|publisher=Global Greens|access-date=4 August 2011}}Bevan, RA (2001), Petra Kelly: The Other Green, New Political Science, vol. 23, no. 2, November, pp. 181–202 The first green party in Europe was the Popular Movement for the Environment, founded in 1972 in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel. The first national green party in Europe was PEOPLE, founded in Britain in February 1973, which eventually turned into the Ecology Party, and then the Green Party.

Protection of the environment also became important in the developing world; the Chipko movement was formed in India under the influence of Mhatmas Gandhi and they set up peaceful resistance to deforestation by literally hugging trees (leading to the term "tree huggers"). Their peaceful methods of protest and slogan "ecology is permanent economy" were very influential.

Another milestone in the movement was the creation of Earth Day. The first Earth Day was celebrated on April 22, 1970.{{Cite web |date=24 November 2009 |title=The first Earth Day |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-first-earth-day |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611013336/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-first-earth-day |archive-date=11 June 2020 |access-date=10 June 2020 |website=HISTORY |language=en}} It was created to give awareness to environmental issues. On 21 March 1971, United Nations Secretary-General U Thant spoke of a spaceship Earth on Earth Day, hereby referring to the ecosystem services the earth supplies to us, and hence our obligation to protect it (and with it, ourselves). Earth Day is now coordinated globally by the Earth Day Network,{{cite web |url=http://www.earthday.net/ |title=Resource temporarily unavailable |publisher=Earthday.net |access-date=22 April 2011}} and is celebrated in more than 192 countries every year.{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/earth-day-2019/story?id=62552199|title=Earth Day 2019: Everything you need to know|publisher=abcnews.go.com |date=22 April 2019}} Its founder, former Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson, was inspired to create this day of environmental education and awareness after seeing the oil spill off the coast of Santa Barbara in 1969.

In 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm, and for the first time united the representatives of multiple governments in discussion relating to the state of the global environment. It marked a turning point in the development of international environmental politics.John Baylis, Steve Smith. 2005. The Globalization of World Politics (3rd ed). Oxford. Oxford University Press. pp. 454–55 This conference led directly to the creation of government environmental agencies and the UN Environment Program.

By the mid-1970s, many felt that people were on the edge of environmental catastrophe. The back-to-the-land movement started to form and ideas of environmental ethics joined with anti-Vietnam War sentiments and other political issues. These individuals lived outside normal society and started to take on some of the more radical environmental theories such as deep ecology. Around this time more mainstream environmentalism was starting to show force with the signing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the formation of CITES in 1975. Significant amendments were also enacted to the United States Clean Air ActClean Air Act Extension of 1970, {{usstat|84|1676}}, {{uspl|91|604}}, 31 December 1970. and Clean Water Act.[http://www.glin.gov/download.action?fulltextId=68261&documentId=70515&glinID=70515 Pub.L. 95-217] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229205148/http://www.glin.gov/download.action?fulltextId=68261&documentId=70515&glinID=70515 |date=29 February 2012 }}, 27 December 1977.

{{Main|Environmental movement}}

File:Nancy_Pelosi_Goldman_prize_2016.jpg meets with the 2016 Goldman Environmental Prize recipients – six individuals who have made a profound impact in their communities and throughout the world by fighting for environmental justice.]]

On an international level, concern for the environment was the subject of a United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, attended by 114 nations. Out of this meeting developed the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the follow-up United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. Other international organizations in support of environmental policies development include the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (as part of NAFTA), the European Environment Agency (EEA), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Environmentalism continues to evolve to face up to new issues such as global warming, overpopulation, genetic engineering, and plastic pollution. However, research in 2013 showed a precipitous decline in the United States' public's interest in 19 different areas of environmental concern.{{cite journal|author=McCallum, M.L.|author2=G.W. Bury|name-list-style=amp|year=2013|title=Google search patterns suggest declining interest in the environment|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|doi=10.1007/s10531-013-0476-6|volume=22|issue=6|pages=1355–1367|bibcode=2013BiCon..22.1355M |s2cid=15593201}}File:Berkeley Tree Sitters - UC Berkeley Memorial Oak Grove.jpg in 2008]]Since the 2000s, the environmental movement has increasingly focused on climate change as one of the top issues. As concerns about climate change moved more into the mainstream, from the connections drawn between global warming and Hurricane Katrina to Al Gore's 2006 documentary film An Inconvenient Truth, more and more environmental groups refocused their efforts. In the United States, 2007 witnessed the largest grassroots environmental demonstration in years, Step It Up 2007, with rallies in over 1,400 communities and all 50 states for real global warming solutions.{{Cite web |title=Step It Up: Thousands Gather This Weekend for Largest-Ever Rally Against Global Warming |url=http://www.democracynow.org/2007/4/13/step_it_up_thousands_gather_this |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112115839/https://www.democracynow.org/2007/4/13/step_it_up_thousands_gather_this |archive-date=12 November 2022 |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=Democracy Now! |language=en}}

Publicity and widespread organizing of school strike for the climate began after Swedish schoolgirl Greta Thunberg staged a protest in August 2018 outside the Swedish Riksdag (parliament). The September 2019 climate strikes were likely the largest climate strikes in world history.{{Cite web |last=Barclay |first=Eliza |date=20 September 2019 |title=How big was the global climate strike? 4 million people, activists estimate |url=https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/9/20/20876143/climate-strike-2019-september-20-crowd-estimate |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921012020/https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/9/20/20876143/climate-strike-2019-september-20-crowd-estimate |archive-date=21 September 2019 |access-date=3 December 2019 |website=Vox |language=en}} In 2019, a survey found that climate breakdown is viewed as the most important issue facing the world in seven out of the eight countries surveyed.{{Cite news |last=Taylor |first=Matthew |date=18 September 2019 |title=Climate crisis seen as 'most important issue' by public, poll shows |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/sep/18/climate-crisis-seen-as-most-important-issue-by-public-poll-shows |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204213959/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/sep/18/climate-crisis-seen-as-most-important-issue-by-public-poll-shows |archive-date=4 December 2019 |access-date=3 December 2019 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}

Many religious organizations and individual churches now have programs and activities dedicated to environmental issues.{{cite web |title=Religious Environmental Organizations |url=http://www.gis.net/~rwe/links.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927003158/http://www.gis.net/~rwe/links.html |archive-date=27 September 2011 |website=Religious Witness for the Earth}} The religious movement is often supported by interpretation of scriptures.{{cite web |date=24 November 2002 |title=Evangelical Environmental Network & Creation Care Magazine |url=http://www.creationcare.org/resources/scripture.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20021124084848/http://www.creationcare.org/resources/scripture.php |archive-date=24 November 2002 |website=Creationcare.org |publisher=EEN}}

One notable strain of environmentalism comes from the philosophy of the conservation movement. Conservationists are concerned with leaving the environment in a better state than the condition they found it distinct from human interaction.{{Cite web |last=Harding |first=Russ |title=Conservationist or Environmentalist? |url=http://www.mackinac.org/9852 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203181206/http://www.mackinac.org/9852 |archive-date=2008-12-03 |access-date=2021-05-02 |website=Mackinac Center for Public Policy |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last=Dunlap |first=Thomas R. |date=1980 |title=Conservationists and Environmentalists: An Attempt at Definition |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3984106 |journal=Environmental Review |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=29–31 |doi=10.2307/3984106 |issn=0147-2496 |jstor=3984106 |s2cid=156539998}} The conservation movement is associated with the early parts of the environmental movement of the 19th and 20th century.{{Cite web |last=Harding |first=Russ |title=Conservationist or Environmentalist? |url=https://www.mackinac.org/9852 |access-date=2022-02-18 |website=Mackinac Center |language=en}}

The adoption of environmentalist into a distinct political ideology led to the development of political parties called "green parties", typically with a leftist political approach to overlapping issues of environmental and social wellbeing (green politics) .

{{excerpt|Bright green environmentalism}}

{{Main|Evangelical environmentalism}}

Evangelical environmentalism is an environmental movement in the United States in which some Evangelicals have emphasized biblical mandates concerning humanity's role as steward and subsequent responsibility for the care taking of Creation. While the movement has focused on different environmental issues, it is best known for its focus of addressing climate action from a biblically grounded theological perspective. This movement is controversial among some non-Christian environmentalists due to its rooting in a specific religion.

{{Main|Free-market environmentalism}}

Free market environmentalism is a theory that argues that the free market, property rights, and tort law provide the best tools to preserve the health and sustainability of the environment. It considers environmental stewardship to be natural, as well as the expulsion of polluters and other aggressors through individual and class action.

The concept of labor environmentalism refers to the efforts of trade unions to create environmental policies, advocate for environmental issues, and collaborate with environmental groups.{{Cite journal |last=Montesano |first=Francesco S. |last2=Biermann |first2=Frank |last3=Kalfagianni |first3=Agni |last4=Vijge |first4=Marjanneke J. |date=2024 |title=Greening labour? The role of the SDGs in fostering sustainability integration within trade unions |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14747731.2023.2234174 |journal=Globalizations |language=en |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=141–161 |doi=10.1080/14747731.2023.2234174 |issn=1474-7731 |pmc=10791064 |pmid=38234659}} Trade unions and international organizations such as the International Labour Organization face the dilemma of having to "navigate the structures of global capitalism and the economic growth paradigm, on the one hand, and the global ecological crisis on the other hand".

To promote green jobs, trade unions developed the concept of a just transition. This concept, for example in the context of climate change, focuses on the connection between energy transition and equitable approaches to decarbonization that support broader development goals.{{Cite web |title=How just transition can help deliver the Paris Agreement {{!}} UNDP Climate Promise |url=https://climatepromise.undp.org/research-and-reports/how-just-transition-can-help-deliver-paris-agreement |access-date=2025-02-17 |website=climatepromise.undp.org |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last=McCauley |first=Darren |last2=Heffron |first2=Raphael |date=2018-08-01 |title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301421518302301 |journal=Energy Policy |volume=119 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014 |issn=0301-4215 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10023/17583}}

{{excerpt|Radical environmentalism}}

{{Main|List of environmental organizations|Environmental movement#Environmental movements by country}}

{{unreferenced section|date=August 2023}}

Environmental organizations can be global, regional, national or local; they can be government-run or private (NGO). Environmentalist activity exists in almost every country. Moreover, groups dedicated to community development and social justice also focus on environmental concerns.

Some US environmental organisations, among them the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Environmental Defense Fund, specialize in bringing lawsuits (a tactic seen as particularly useful in that country). Other groups, such as the US-based National Wildlife Federation, Earth Day, National Cleanup Day, the Nature Conservancy, and The Wilderness Society, and global groups like the World Wide Fund for Nature and Friends of the Earth, disseminate information, participate in public hearings, lobby, stage demonstrations, and may purchase land for preservation.

More radical organizations, such as Greenpeace, Earth First!, and the Earth Liberation Front, have more directly opposed actions they regard as environmentally harmful.

When environmentalism first became popular during the early 20th century, the focus was wilderness protection and wildlife preservation. These goals reflected the interests of the movement's initial, primarily white middle and upper class supporters, including through viewing preservation and protection via a lens that failed to appreciate the centuries-long work of indigenous communities who had lived without ushering in the types of environmental devastation these settler colonial "environmentalists" now sought to mitigate. The actions of many mainstream environmental organizations still reflect these early principles.Sandler, R., & Phaedra, P. (2007). Environmental justice and environmentalism. (pp. 27–55). Numerous low-income minorities felt isolated or negatively impacted by the movement, exemplified by the Southwest Organizing Project's (SWOP) Letter to the Group of 10, a letter sent to major environmental organizations by several local environmental justice activists."SWOP Letter to the Group of 10 ." Southwest Organizing Project. N.p.. Web. 7 May 2013. <[http://www.swop.net/node/26]>. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514131800/http://www.swop.net/node/26|date=14 May 2010}} The letter argued that the environmental movement was so concerned about cleaning up and preserving nature that it ignored the negative side-effects that doing so caused communities nearby, namely less job growth. In addition, the NIMBY movement has transferred locally unwanted land uses (LULUs) from middle-class neighborhoods to poor communities with large minority populations. Therefore, vulnerable communities with fewer political opportunities are more often exposed to hazardous waste and toxins.{{Cite journal |last=Gerrard |first=Michael B. |date=1993–1994 |title=The Victims of NIMBY |url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/frdurb21&div=25&g_sent=1#505 |journal=Fordham Urban Law Journal |location=New York, NY}}

This has resulted in the PIBBY principle, or at least the PIMBY (Place-in-minorities'-backyard), as supported by the United Church of Christ's study in 1987.{{Cite journal |last=Roberts |first=R. Gregory |date=October 1998 |title=Environmental Justice and Community Empowerment: Learning from the Civil Rights Movement |url=http://www.wcl.american.edu/journal/lawrev/48/pdf/roberts.pdf?rd=1 |url-status=dead |journal=American University Law Review |location=Washington D.C. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326050221/http://www.wcl.american.edu/journal/lawrev/48/pdf/roberts.pdf?rd=1 |archive-date=26 March 2009}}

{{anchor|Environmental elitism}}

As a result, some minorities have viewed the environmental movement as elitist. Environmental elitism manifested itself in three different forms:

1. Compositional – Environmentalists are from the middle and upper class.
2. Ideological – The reforms benefit the movement's supporters but impose costs on nonparticipants.
3. Impact – The reforms have "regressive social impacts". They disproportionately benefit environmentalists and harm underrepresented populations.{{Cite journal |last=Morrison |first=Denton |date=September 1986 |title=Environmentalism and elitism: a conceptual and empirical analysis |journal=Environmental Management |location=New York |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=581–589 |bibcode=1986EnMan..10..581M |doi=10.1007/BF01866762 |s2cid=153561660}}

Many environmentalists believe that human interference with 'nature' should be restricted or minimised as a matter of urgency (for the sake of life, or the planet, or just for the benefit of the human species),Huesemann, Michael H., and Joyce A. Huesemann (2011). [http://www.newtechnologyandsociety.org Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment], New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia {{ISBN|0-86571-704-4}}, 464 pp. whereas environmental skeptics and anti-environmentalists do not believe that there is such a need.Bakari, Mohamed El-Kamel. "Globalization and Sustainable Development: False Twins?." New Global Studies 7.3: 23–56. One can also regard oneself as an environmentalist and believe that human 'interference' with 'nature' should be increased.Neil Paul Cummins "An Evolutionary Perspective on the Relationship Between Humans and Their Surroundings: Geoengineering, the Purpose of Life & the Nature of the Universe", Cranmore Publications, 2012. Nevertheless, there is a risk that the shift from emotional environmentalism into the technical management of natural resources and hazards could decrease the touch of humans with nature, leading to less concern with environment preservation.{{cite web |last=Vasconcelos |first=Vitor Vieira |date=2011 |title=The Environment Professional and the Touch with Nature |url=http://pt.scribd.com/doc/119009229/Environment-Professional-and-the-Touch-with-Nature |url-access=limited |work=Qualit@s |pages=1–10 |via=Pt.scribd.com |volume=1}} Increasingly, typical conservation rhetoric is being replaced with restoration approaches and larger landscape initiatives that seek to create more holistic impacts.{{Cite web |last=Mason |first=Matthew |title=Conservation: History and Future |url=https://www.environmentalscience.org/conservation |work=EnvironmentalScience.org}}

Others seek a balance that involves both caring deeply for the environment while letting science guide human actions affecting it. Such an approach would avoid the emotionalism which, for example, anti-GMO activism has been criticized for, and protect the integrity of science. Planting trees, for another example, can be emotionally satisfying but should also involve being conscious of ecological concerns such as the effect on water cycles and the use of nonnative, potentially invasive species.{{cite magazine |last=Das |first=Dibakar |date=September–October 2020 |title=When Environmentalism Clashes with Science |url= |access-date= |magazine=Skeptical Inquirer |publisher=Center for Inquiry |location=Amherst, New York |pages=54–55 |volume=44 |issue=5}}

{{excerpt|Anti-environmentalism}}

{{See also|List of climate activists}}

File:David Attenborough (cropped).jpg in May 2003]]

An environmentalist is a person who protects the environment. An environmentalist can be considered a supporter of the goals of the environmental movement, "a political and ethical movement that seeks to improve and protect the quality of the natural environment through changes to environmentally harmful human activities".{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/environmentalism|title=environmentalism - Ideology, History, & Types|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=23 July 2023 }} An environmentalist is engaged in or believes in the philosophy of environmentalism or one of the related philosophies.

The environmental movement has a number of subcommunities, with different approaches and focuses – each developing distinct movements and identities. Environmentalists are sometimes referred to by critics with informal or derogatory terms such as "greenie" and "tree-hugger",{{cite book|title=Oxford Dictionary of English|editor=Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson |publisher=Oxford University klkPress|year=2005|edition=2nd revised|isbn=978-0-19-861057-1}} with some members of the public associating the most radical environmentalists with these derogatory terms.{{Cite journal|last1=Tesch|first1=Danielle|last2=Kempton|first2=Willett|date=2004-01-01|title=Who is an Environmentalist? The Polysemy of Environmentalist Terms and Correlated Environmental Actions|url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/jea/vol8/iss1/4|journal=Journal of Ecological Anthropology|volume=8|issue=1|pages=67–83|doi=10.5038/2162-4593.8.1.4|issn=1528-6509|doi-access=free}}

Some of the notable environmentalists who have been advocating for environmental protection and conservation include:

File:Ac.garrett1.jpg campaigning for the 2004 Australian federal election]]

File:Al Gore.jpg, 2007 (former Vice President of the United States)]]

File:Hunter Lovins.jpg, 2007]]

File:Artist, naturalist, Sergio Rossetti Morosini, Pico Bone, Brigadeiro Mountain, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 2017.jpg, 2017]]

File:Phil Radford.jpg, 2011, (Greenpeace Executive Director)]]

File:19-10-2011 - Hakob Sanasaryan.jpg campaignning against illegal construction of a new ore-processing facility in Sotk, 2011]]

File:Uncle Kevin Buzzacott in Adelaide 2014.JPG 2014]]

Image:Voynet Montreuil 2008-01-06.jpg]]

File:Helena Gualinga - Web Summit Rio 2024 (53662696141).jpg, campaigner for the rights of Amazonian peoples and environmental protection.]]

{{div col|colwidth=18em}}

• Mariano Abarca (activist, assassinated in 2009)
• Edward Abbey (author)
• Ansel Adams (photographer, writer, activist)
• Bayarjargal Agvaantseren (conservationist)
• Qazi Kholiquzzaman Ahmad (environmental activist and economist)
• David Attenborough (broadcaster, naturalist)
• John James Audubon (naturalist)
• Judi Bari (environmentalist)
• Sundarlal Bahuguna (environmentalist)
• Patriarch Bartholomew I (priest)
• Frances Beinecke (environmentalist and former president of the Natural Resources Defense Council)
• David Bellamy (botanist)
• Thomas Berry (priest, historian, philosopher)
• Wendell Berry (farmer, philosopher)
• Chandi Prasad Bhatt (environmentalist)
• Wendy Bowman (environmental activist)
• Stewart Brand (writer, founder of Whole Earth Catalog)
• David Brower (writer, activist)
• Molly Burhans (cartographer, activist)
• Murray Bookchin (anarchist, philosopher, social ecologist)
• Erin Brockovich (environmental lawyer and activist)
• David Brower (writer, activist)
• Bob Brown (activist and politician)
• Lester Brown (environmental analyst, author)
• Carol Browner (lawyer and activist)
• Molly Burhans (faith-based environmentalist)
• Kevin Buzzacott (Aboriginal activist)
• Berta Caceres (environmental and indigenous rights activist)
• Helen Caldicott (medical doctor)
• James Cameron (filmmaker and environmentalist)
• Joan Carling (human rights defender)
• Rachel Carson (biologist, writer)
• Chevy Chase (comedian)
• Majora Carter (urban revitalization strategist)
• Charles III (King of the United Kingdom)
• Ng Cho-nam (environmentalist)
• Barry Commoner (biologist, politician)
• Mike Cooley (engineer, trade unionist)
• Jacques-Yves Cousteau (explorer, ecologist)
• Herman Daly (ecological economist and steady-state theorist)
• Peter Dauvergne (political scientist)
• Faiza Darkhani (environmentalist, women's rights activist, and educator)
• Laurie David (activist and producer)
• Marina DeBris (environmental artist)
• John Denver (musician)
• Usha Desai (physician)
• Leonardo DiCaprio (actor){{cite web | title=Leonardo DiCaprio | website=World Wildlife Fund | url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/leaders/leonardo-dicaprio | access-date=31 January 2016}}
• Michelle Dilhara (actress)
• René Dubos (microbiologist)
• Sylvia Earle (marine biologist)
• Paul R. Ehrlich (population biologist)
• Hans-Josef Fell (Green Party member in Germany)
• Jane Fonda (actor)
• Josh Fox (filmmaker)
• Mizuho Fukushima (politician, activist)
• Rolf Gardiner (rural revivalist)
• Peter Garrett (musician, politician)
• Jane Goodall (primatologist, anthropologist, and UN Messenger of Peace)
• Lois Gibbs (Founder of the Center for Health, Environment and Justice)
• Al Gore (former Vice President of the United States)
• Helena Gualinga (campaigner for the rights of Amazonian peoples and environmental protection)
• Tom Hanks (actor)
• Daryl Hannah (activist)
• James Hansen (scientist)
• Garrett Hardin (ecologist, ecophilosopher)
• Denis Hayes (environmentalist and solar power advocate)
• Julia Butterfly Hill (activist)
• Nicolas Hulot (journalist and writer)
• Robert Hunter (journalist, co-founder and first president of Greenpeace)
• Huey D. Johnson (environmentalist)
• Lisa P. Jackson (former administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency)
• Jorian Jenks (English farmer)
• Kathy Jetn̄il-Kijiner (poet and climate activist)
• Okefenokee Joe (singer, songwriter, TV host, activist)
• Naomi Klein (writer, activist)
• Winona LaDuke
• Aldo Leopold (ecologist)
• A. Carl Leopold (plant physiologist)
• Charles Lindbergh (aviator)
• James Lovelock (scientist)
• Amory Lovins (energy policy analyst)
• Hunter Lovins
• Caroline Lucas (politician)
• Mark Lynas (journalist, activist)
• Wangari Maathai (activist, Nobel Laureate)
• Desmond Majekodunmi (environmentalist)
• Jarid Manos (CEO of the Great Plains Restoration Council)
• Peter Max (graphic designer)
• Michael McCarthy (naturalist, journalist, author)
• Xiuhtezcatl Martinez (activist)
• Bill McKibben (writer, activist)
• David McTaggart (activist)
• Chico Mendes (activist)
• Mahesh Chandra Mehta (lawyer)
• Nathan Méténier
• Joni Mitchell (musician)
• George Monbiot (journalist)
• Sergio Rossetti Morosini (naturalist, activist)
• Nyombi Morris (CNN Environmentalist of tomorrow)
• John Muir (naturalist)
• Luke Mullen (actor, filmmaker)
• Hilda Murrell (botanist)
• Ralph Nader (activist)
• Seyyed Hossein Nasr (writer, philosopher)
• Gaylord Nelson (politician)
• Aniebiet Inyang Ntui (environmental advocate)
• Yolanda Ortiz (chemist)
• Eugene Pandala (architect, natural and cultural heritage conservator)
• Alan Pears (environmental consultant and energy efficiency pioneer)
• Medha Patkar (activist)
• Gifford Pinchot (first chief of the USFS)
• River Phoenix (actor, musician, activist)
• Jonathon Porritt (politician)
• John Wesley Powell (second director of the USGS)
• Barbara Pyle (executive producer of Captain Planet and the Planeteers)
• Tahir Qureshi
• Phil Radford (Greenpeace Executive Director)
• Bonnie Raitt (musician)
• Clovis Razafimalala
• Theodore Roosevelt (former President of the United States){{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/wildernesswarrio00brin_0 | url-access=registration | title=The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America | publisher=Harper Collins | author=Brinkley, Douglas | isbn=9780060565282| date=2009}}
• Hakob Sanasaryan (biochemist, activist)
• Habiba Sarobi (politician and activist)
• Ken Saro-Wiwa (writer, television producer, activist)
• E. F. Schumacher (author of Small Is Beautiful)
• Shimon Schwarzschild (writer, activist)
• Vandana Shiva (ecofeminist and activist)
• Marina Silva (politician and activist)
• Alicia Silverstone (author of The Kind Diet)
• Lauren Singer (activist and entrepreneur)
• Swami Sundaranand (photographer, mountaineer)
• Cass Sunstein (environmental lawyer)
• David Suzuki (scientist, broadcaster)
• Candice Swanepoel (model)
• Shōzō Tanaka (politician and activist)
• Rebecca Harrell Tickell (filmmaker, actress, activist)
• Tetsunari Iida (sustainable energy advocate)
• Saalumarada Thimmakka
• Henry David Thoreau (writer, philosopher)
• Stewart Udall (former United States Secretary of the Interior)
• Jo Valentine (politician and activist)
• Dominique Voynet (politician)
• Franz Weber (animal welfare activist)
• Christopher O. Ward (water infrastructure expert)
• Harvey Wasserman (journalist, activist)
• Alice Waters (activist and restaurateur)
• Paul Watson (activist and lecturer)
• Henry Williamson (naturalist, writer)
• Gabriel Willow (environmental educator, naturalist)
• Howard Zahniser (author of the 1964 Wilderness Act)

{{div col end}}

{{See also|List of environmental activists assassinated}}

In the early 1990s, multiple environmental activists in the United States became targets of violent attacks.{{Cite journal |last=Helvarg |first=David |date=2007-12-04 |title=The war on the greens |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10402659508425907 |journal=Peace Review |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3–4 |pages=393–397 |doi=10.1080/10402659508425907 |issn=1040-2659}} Every year, more than 100 environmental activists are murdered throughout the world.{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/jun/20/environmental-activist-murders-global-witness-report|title=Environmental activist murders set record as 2015 became deadliest year|first=Oliver|last=Holmes|date=20 June 2016|website=the Guardian|access-date=15 April 2018}} Most recent deaths are in Brazil, where activists combat logging in the Amazon rainforest.{{cite news|last1=Ulmanu|first1= Monica|last2=Evans|first2=Alan|last3=Brown|first3=Georgia|title=37 environmental defenders have been killed so far in 2018|url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ng-interactive/2018/feb/27/the-defenders-recording-the-deaths-of-environmental-defenders-around-the-world|access-date=26 May 2018|work=The Guardian|date=May 2018}}

116 environmental activists were assassinated in 2014,{{cite web|url=http://grist.org/news/map-116-environmental-activists-were-killed-in-just-one-year/|title=Map: 116 environmental activists were killed in just one year|date=5 March 2016|website=Grist.org|access-date=25 September 2016}} and 185 in 2015. This represents more than two environmentalists assassinated every week in 2014 and three every week in 2015.{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/3827939/environmental-activists-killed-2014-global-witness/|title= Environmental Activists Killed in Record Numbers in 2014|first=David|last= Stout|magazine=Time|date = 20 April 2015}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/environmental-activists/dangerous-ground/|title=On Dangerous Ground: Killings of land and environmental defenders in 2015 |work = Global Witness|date = 20 June 2016}} More than 200 environmental activists were assassinated worldwide between 2016 and early 2018.{{cite news |title=Cambodian forest defenders killed after confronting illegal loggers|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jan/31/cambodian-forest-defenders-killed-after-confronting-illegal-loggers|access-date=2 February 2018|work=The Guardian|date=31 January 2018}} A 2020 incident saw several rangers murdered in the Congo Rainforest by poaching squads. Occurrences like this are relatively common, and account for a large number of deaths.{{Cite news|last= Dahir|first=Abdi Latif |date=25 April 2020|title=12 Rangers Among 17 Killed in Congo Park Ambush |language= en-US|work=The New York Times|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/25/world/africa/congo-virunga-national-park-attack.html|access-date=29 May 2020|issn=0362-4331}}

In 2022, Global Witness reported that, in the preceding decade, more than 1,700 land and environmental defenders were killed, about one every two days.{{cite web |date=29 September 2022 |title=A deadly decade for land and environmental activists - with a killing every two days |url=https://www.globalwitness.org/en/press-releases/deadly-decade-land-and-environmental-activists-killing-every-two-days/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928232316/https://www.globalwitness.org/en/press-releases/deadly-decade-land-and-environmental-activists-killing-every-two-days/ |archive-date=28 September 2022 |website=Global Witness}} Brazil, Colombia, Philippines, and Mexico were the deadliest countries. Violence and intimidation against environmental activists have also been reported in Central and Eastern Europe.{{Cite web |title=Stop Persecution - of environmental activists in Europe and Asia! |url=https://stop-persecution.org/ |access-date=2024-11-09 |website=stop-persecution.org |language=en-GB}} In Romania, anti-logging activists have been killed,{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=Stop Persecution - Romanian timber mafia killing environmental defenders |url=https://stop-persecution.org/romanian-timber-mafia-killing-environmental-defenders |access-date=2024-11-09 |website=stop-persecution.org |language=en-GB}} while in Belarus, the government arrested several environmental activists and dissolved their organizations.{{Cite web |date=2020 |title=Stop Persecution - Belarusian authorities are escalating the persecution of environmental activists for civic engagement |url=https://stop-persecution.org/belarusian-authorities-are-escalating-the-persecution-of-environmental-activists-for-civic-engagement |access-date=2024-11-09 |website=stop-persecution.org |language=en-GB}}{{Cite web |last=Zelinka |first=Martin |title=Lukashenko regime labels Belarus' oldest environmental organization extremist |url=https://arnika.org/en/news/lukashenko-regime-labels-belarus-oldest-environmental-organization-extremist |access-date=2024-11-09 |website=arnika.org}} Belarus has also withdrawn from the Aarhus Convention.{{Cite web |last=Zelinka |first=Martin |title=Belarus has withdrawn from the Convention on environmental democracy |url=https://arnika.org/en/news/belarus-has-withdrawn-from-the-convention-on-environmental-democracy |access-date=2024-11-09 |website=arnika.org}}{{Cite web |date=2022-08-11 |title=UN experts slam Belarus for exiting environmental rights convention - Geneva Solutions |url=https://genevasolutions.news/climate-environment/un-experts-slam-belarus-for-exiting-environmental-rights-convention |access-date=2024-11-09 |website=genevasolutions.news |language=en}}

{{Further|Climate change in popular culture|Environmentalism in music}}

• Miss Earth is one of the Big Four international beauty pageants. (The other three are Miss Universe, Miss International, and Miss World.) Out of these four beauty pageants, Miss Earth is the only international beauty pageant that promotes environmental awareness. The Miss Earth winner is the spokesperson for the Miss Earth Foundation, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and other environmental organizations.
• Another area of environmentalism is to use art to raise awareness about misuse of the environment.{{cite web|title='Washed Up' Art Exhibition Raises Awareness of Plastic Pollution|url=https://www.wilson.edu/washed-art-exhibition-raises-awareness-plastic-pollution-0|publisher=Wilson College|access-date=2 October 2017|date=4 April 2016}}{{cite web|title=Unmasking Pollution with Climate Art|url=http://newsroom.unfccc.int/climate-action/art4climate-unmasking-pollution-with-climate-art/|website=UN Climate Change: Climate Action|publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|access-date=2 October 2017}}{{cite news|last1=Cerini|first1=Marianna|title=How limited edition sneakers designed by Kanye West are helping people breathe in China|url=http://www.cnn.com/style/article/sneaker-pollution-mask-designer/index.html|access-date=2 October 2017|agency=CNN|publisher=CNN|date=7 December 2016}} One example is trashion, using trash to create clothes, jewelry, and other objects for the home. Marina DeBris is one trashion artist, who focuses on ocean and beach trash to design clothes and for fund raising, education.

{{div col|colwidth=25em}}

• Climate movement
• Ecomodernism
• Environmental planning
• Environmental, social, and governance
• Greening
• Human impact on the environment
• List of climate scientists
• List of environmental organizations
• List of women climate scientists and activists
• Outline of environmentalism
• Religion and environmentalism

{{div col end}}

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