Ali#Arbitration

{{See also|Birthplace of Ali ibn Abi Talib|Early Muslims|Hadith of warning}}

File:'Alî mounted on his blue mule.jpg epic Siyer-i nebi]]

Ali was born in Mecca to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and his wife Fatima bint Asad around 600 CE.{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} His date of birth is possibly 13 Rajab,{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}}{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} which is the occasion celebrated annually by Shia Muslims.{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=239}} Ali may have been the only person born inside the Ka'ba,{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}}{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}}{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} the holiest site of Islam, which is located in Mecca. Ali's father was a leading member of the Banu Hashim, a clan within the Meccan tribe of Quraysh.{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}} Abu Talib also raised his nephew Muhammad after his parents died. Later, when Abu Talib fell into poverty, Ali was taken in at the age of about five and raised by Muhammad and his wife Khadija.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}}

Aged about eleven,{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} Ali was among the first to accept Muhammad's teachings and profess Islam. Ali did so either after Khadija or after Khadija and Muhammad's successor, Abu Bakr. While the precise order here is debated among Shia and Sunni scholars,{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} the earliest sources place Ali before Abu Bakr.{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} Muhammad's call to Islam in Mecca lasted from 610 to 622, during which Ali assiduously supported the small Muslim community, especially the poor.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} Some three years after his first revelation,{{sfn|Rubin|1995|p=130}} Muhammad gathered his relatives for a feast, invited them to Islam, and asked for their assistance.{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=12}} Aged about fourteen,{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=12}}{{Sfn|Abbas|2021|p=34}} Ali was the only relative there who offered his support, after which Muhammad told his guests that Ali was his brother and his successor,{{sfn|Gleave|2008}}{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=12}} according to the Sunni historian al-Tabari ({{Died in|923}}). The Shia interpretation of this episode is that Muhammad had already designated Ali as his successor.{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=12}}{{sfn|Rubin|1995|pp=136–7}}

{{See also|Laylat al-Mabit|Event of the mubahala|Military career of Ali|Hadith of the position|Ghadir Khumm}}

When tipped off about an assassination plot in 622, Muhammad escaped to Yathrib, now known as Medina, but Ali stayed behind as his decoy.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}}{{sfn|Huart|2012a}} That Ali risked his life for Muhammad is said to be the reason for the revelation of the Quranic passage, "But there is also a kind of man who gives his life away to please God."{{sfn|Mavani|2013|p=71, 98}}{{sfn|Abbas|2021|pp=46, 206}}{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}} This emigration marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar (AH). Ali too escaped Mecca after returning the goods entrusted to Muhammad there.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} Later in Medina, Muhammad selected Ali as his brother when he paired Muslims for fraternity pacts.{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}} Around 623–625, Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage,{{sfn|Kassam|Blomfield|2015}}{{sfn|Buehler|2014|p=186}} aged about twenty-two at the time.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} Muhammad had earlier turned down marriage proposals for Fatima by some of his companions, notably, Abu Bakr and Umar.{{sfn|Klemm|2005|p=186}}{{sfn|Buehler|2014|p=186}}{{sfn|Qutbuddin|2006|p=248}}

{{Main|Event of the mubahala}}

File:83_Imam_Ali_searching_of_Doldol_from_Khavaran_Nameh.jpgian epic Khavarannama]]

A Christian envoy from Najran, located in South Arabia, arrived in Medina circa 632 and negotiated a peace treaty with Muhammad.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=13{{ndash}}14}}{{Sfn|Schmucker|2012}} The envoy also debated with Muhammad the nature of Jesus, human or divine.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=16}}{{Sfn|Osman|2015|p=110}} Linked to this episode is verse 3:61 of the Quran,{{sfn|Nasr|Dagli|Dakake|Lumbard|2015|pp=|p=379}} which instructs Muhammad to challenge his opponents to {{Transliteration|ar|mubahala}} ({{Lit|mutual cursing}}),{{Sfn|Haider|2014|p=35}} perhaps when their debate had reached a deadlock.{{Sfn|Osman|2015|p=110}} Even though the delegation ultimately withdrew from the challenge,{{Sfn|Schmucker|2012}} Muhammad appeared for the occasion of {{Transliteration|ar|mubahala}}, accompanied by Ali, his wife Fatima, and their two sons, Hasan and Husayn.{{Sfn|Haider|2014|p=36}}{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}} The inclusion of these four by Muhammad in the {{Transliteration|ar|mubahala}} ritual, as his witnesses and guarantors,{{Sfn|McAuliffe|2023}}{{Sfn|Fedele|2018|p=56}} likely raised their religious rank within the community.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=16}}{{sfn|Lalani|2006|p=29}} If the word 'ourselves' in the verse is a reference to Ali and Muhammad, as Shia authors argue, then the former naturally enjoys a similar religious authority in the Quran as the latter.{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|p=72}}{{Sfn|Bill|Williams|2002|p=29}}File:Levha (panel) in honor of Imam 'Ali.jpg

In Medina, Ali acted as Muhammad's secretary and deputy.{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=13}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} He was also one of the scribes tasked with committing the Quran to writing.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} In 628, Ali wrote down the terms of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, the peace treaty between Muslims and Meccan pagans. In 630, divine orders pushed Muhammad to replace Abu Bakr with Ali for a key Quranic announcement in Mecca,{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=14}}{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2014}} according to the canonical Sunni source {{Transliteration|ar|Sunan al-Nasa'i}}.{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}} Ali also helped ensure that the Conquest of Mecca in 630 was bloodless and later destroyed the idols housed in Ka'ba.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} In 631, Ali was sent to preach Islam in Yemen,{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} as a consequence of which the Hamdanids peacefully converted.{{sfn|Huart|2012a}}{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}} Ali also peacefully resolved a blood feud between Muslims and the Banu Jadhima.{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}}

{{Main|Military career of Ali}}

File:Sword and shield reproduction from Bab al Nasr gate Cairo Egypt.jpg in Cairo, Egypt]]

Ali accompanied Muhammad in all of his military missions except the Expedition of Tabuk in 630, during which Ali was left behind in charge of Medina.{{sfn|Huart|2012a}} The hadith of the position is linked to this occasion, "Are you not content, Ali, to stand to me as Aaron stood to Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me?" This statement appears in the canonical Sunni sources {{transliteration|ar|Sahih al-Bukhari}} and {{transliteration|ar|Sahih Muslim}}, among others.{{sfn|Miskinzoda|2015|p=69}} For the Shia, this hadith signifies Ali's usurped right to succeed Muhammad.{{sfn|Miskinzoda|2015|pp=76–7}} In the absence of Muhammad, Ali commanded the expedition to Fadak in 628.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}}{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}}

File:Hazrat Ali slays Marhab.JPG

Ali was renowned for his bravery on the battlefield,{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} and for his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies.{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=46}} He was the standard-bearer in the Battle of Badr (624) and the Battle of Khaybar (628).{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=13}} He vigorously defended Muhammad in the Battle of Uhud (625) and the Battle of Hunayn (630),{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} and Muslims' victory in the Battle of Khaybar has been attributed to his courage,{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} where he is said to have torn off the iron gate of the enemy fort.{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}} Ali also defeated the pagan champion Amr ibn Abd Wudd in the Battle of the Trench in 627.{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}} According to al-Tabari,{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}} Muhammad reported hearing a divine voice at Uhud, "[There is] no sword but Zulfiqar [Ali's sword], [there is] no chivalrous youth ({{Transliteration|ar|fata}}) but Ali."{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2014}}{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} Ali and another companion, Zubayr, apparently oversaw the killing of the Banu Qurayza men for treachery in 626{{Ndash}}627,{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} though the historicity of this account has been doubted.{{sfn|Faizer|2006}}{{sfn|Donner|2010|pp=72–3}}{{sfn|Arafat|1976}}

File:Investiture of Ali Edinburgh codex.jpg, fol. 162r, 1307–8 Ilkhanid manuscript illustration)]]

On his return trip from the Hajj pilgrimage in 632, Muhammad halted the large caravan of pilgrims at the Ghadir Khumm and addressed them after the congregational prayer.{{sfn|Dakake|2007|pp=34–9}} After the prayer,{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|p=79}} Muhammad delivered a sermon to a large number of Muslims in which he emphasized the importance of the Quran and his {{Transliteration|ar|ahl al-bayt}} ({{Lit|people of the house}}, his family).{{Sfn|Amir-Moezzi|2014}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=16}}{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|p=80}}{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012b}} Taking Ali by the hand, Muhammad then asked if he was not {{transliteration|ar|awla}} ({{Lit|have more authority over|closer to}}) the believers than themselves,{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012b}}{{Sfn|Lalani|2000|p=70–71}} this is evidently a reference to verse 33:6 of the Quran.{{Sfn|Dakake|2007|p=34}}{{Sfn|Lalani|2000|p=71}} When they affirmed,{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012b}} Muhammad then declared, "He whose {{transliteration|ar|mawla}} I am, Ali is his {{transliteration|ar|mawla}}."{{sfn|Dakake|2007|pp=34–7}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012b}} {{Transliteration|ar|Musnad Ibn Hanbal}}, a canonical Sunni source, adds that Muhammad repeated this statement three or four more times and that Umar congratulated Ali after the sermon, "You have now become the {{Transliteration|ar|mawla}} of every faithful man and woman."{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=15}}{{sfn|Mavani|2013|p=80}} Muhammad had earlier alerted Muslims about his impending death.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012d}}{{sfn|Amir-Moezzi|2014}}{{sfn|Jones|2009}} Shia sources describe the event in greater detail, linking the announcement to verses 5:3 and 5:67 of the Quran.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012d}}

The authenticity of the Ghadir Khumm is rarely contested,{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012b}}{{sfn|Mavani|2013|p=20}}{{sfn|Dakake|2007|p=35}}{{sfn|Amir-Moezzi|2014}} as its "among the most extensively acknowledged and substantiated" reports in classical Islamic sources.{{sfn|Lalani|2011}} However, {{transliteration|ar|mawla}} is a polysemous Arabic word and its interpretation in the context of the Ghadir Khumm is split along sectarian lines. Shia sources interpret {{transliteration|ar|mawla}} as 'leader', 'master', and 'patron',{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=20}} while Sunni sources interpret it as love or support for Ali.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}}{{sfn|Dakake|2007|p=45}} Shias, therefore, view the Ghadir Khumm as the investiture of Ali with Muhammad's religious and political authority,{{sfn|Mavani|2013|p=2}}{{sfn|Dakake|2007|p=47}}{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}} while Sunnis regard it as a statement about the rapport between the two men,{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}}{{sfn|Amir-Moezzi|2014}}{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=21}} or that Ali should execute Muhammad's will.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} Shias point to the extraordinary nature of the announcement,{{sfn|Dakake|2007|p=45}} give Quranic and textual evidence,{{sfn|Mavani|2013|p=70}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012d}}{{sfn|Amir-Moezzi|2014}} and argue to eliminate other meanings of {{Transliteration|ar|mawla}} in the hadith except for authority,{{sfn|Dakake|2007|p=46}} while Sunnis minimize the importance of the Ghadir Khumm by casting it as a simple response to earlier complaints about Ali.{{sfn|Dakake|2007|pp=44–5}} During his caliphate, Ali is known to have asked Muslims to come forward with their testimonies about the Ghadir Khumm,{{sfn|Lalani|2006|p=590}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=253}}{{sfn|McHugo|2017|loc=§2.IV}} presumably to counter challenges to his legitimacy.{{sfn|Dakake|2007|p=41}}

{{See also|Succession to Muhammad|Saqifa|Attack on Fatima's house|Fadak|Sermon of Fadak|Hadith of Muhammad's inheritance|Burial of Fatima|Sunni view of Ali#Political views|Election of Uthman|Siege of Uthman|Assassination of Uthman}}

File:Ambigram_-_Muhammad_and_Ali2.svg depicting Muhammad (right) and Ali (left) written in a single word. The 180-degree inverted form shows both words.]]

Muhammad died in 632 when Ali was in his early thirties.{{Sfn|Afsaruddin|2013|p=51}} As he and other close relatives prepared for the burial,{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=39}}{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=18}} a group of the Ansar (Medinan natives, {{Literal translation|helpers}}) gathered at the Saqifa to discuss the future of Muslims or to retake control of their city, Medina. Abu Bakr and Umar were among the few representatives of the Muhajirun (Meccan converts, {{Literal translation|migrants}}) at the Saqifa.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=30–2}} The case of Ali was unsuccessfully brought up at the Saqifa in his absence,{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=37}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=35}} and, ultimately, those present there appointed Abu Bakr to leadership after a heated debate that is said to have become violent.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=31–33}} Clan rivalries at the Saqifa played a key role in favor of Abu Bakr,{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=39}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=18–9}} and the outcome may have been different in a broad council (Shura) with Ali as a candidate.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=36, 40}}{{sfn|McHugo|2017|loc=§1.III}} In particular, the Quraysh tradition of hereditary succession strongly favored Ali,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=5}}{{sfn|Mavani|2013|p=34}}{{sfn|Keaney|2021|loc=§3.1}} even though his youth weakened his case.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}}{{Sfn|Afsaruddin|2013|p=51}} By contrast, the succession (caliphate) of Abu Bakr is often justified on the basis that he led some of the prayers in Muhammad's final days,{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=39}}{{sfn|Walker|2014|p=3}} but the veracity and political significance of such reports have been questioned.{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=39}}{{sfn|Lecomte|2012}}{{sfn|Shaban|1971|p=16}}

While the appointment of Abu Bakr was met with little resistance in Medina,{{sfn|Walker|2014|p=3}} the Banu Hashim and some companions of Muhammad soon gathered in protest at Ali's house.{{sfn|Khetia|2013|pp=31–2}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=32}} Among them were Zubayr and Muhammad's uncle Abbas.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=32}} These protestors held Ali to be the rightful successor to Muhammad,{{sfn|Buehler|2014|p=186}}{{sfn|Fedele|2018}} probably in reference to the Ghadir Khumm.{{sfn|Amir-Moezzi|2014}} Among others,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=43}} al-Tabari reports that Umar then led an armed mob to Ali's residence and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and his supporters did not pledge their allegiance to Abu Bakr.{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=40}}{{sfn|Buehler|2014|p=186}}{{sfn|Qutbuddin|2006|p=249}}{{sfn|Cortese|Calderini|2006|p=8}} The scene soon grew violent,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=43}}{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=41}} but the mob retreated after Ali's wife, Fatima, pleaded with them.{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=40}} Abu Bakr later placed a successful boycott on the Banu Hashim,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=43–4}} who eventually abandoned their support for Ali.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=43–4}}{{sfn|Jafri|1979|pp=40–1}} Most likely, Ali himself did not pledge his allegiance to Abu Bakr until Fatima died within six months of her father, Muhammad.{{sfn|Soufi|1997|p=86}} In Shia sources, the death (and miscarriage) of the young Fatima are attributed to an attack on her house to subdue Ali by the order of Abu Bakr.{{sfn|Khetia|2013|p=78}}{{sfn|Buehler|2014|p=186}}{{sfn|Fedele|2018}} Sunnis categorically reject these reports,{{sfn|Abbas|2021|p=98}} but there is evidence in their early sources that a mob entered Fatima's house by force and arrested Ali,{{Sfn|Soufi|1997|p=|pp=84–5}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|pp=17–20}}{{sfn|Khetia|2013|p=35}} an incident that Abu Bakr regretted on his deathbed.{{Sfn|Soufi|1997|p=84}}{{sfn|Khetia|2013|p=38}} Likely a political move to weaken the Banu Hashim,{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=47}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=50}}{{sfn|Mavani|2013|p=116}}{{sfn|Soufi|1997|pp=104–105}} Abu Bakr had earlier confiscated from Fatima the rich lands of Fadak, which she considered her inheritance (or a gift) from her father.{{Sfn|Sajjadi|2018}}{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012c}} The confiscation of Fadak is often justified in Sunni sources with a hadith about prophetic inheritance, the authenticity of which has been doubted partly because it contradicts Quranic injunctions.{{sfn|Sajjadi|2018}}{{sfn|Soufi|1997|p=100}}

In the absence of popular support, Ali eventually accepted the temporal rule of Abu Bakr, probably for the sake of Muslim unity.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=141}}{{sfn|Momen|1985|pp=19–20}}{{sfn|McHugo|2017|p=40}} In particular, Ali turned down proposals to forcefully pursue the caliphate.{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=44}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} He nevertheless viewed himself as the most qualified candidate for leadership by virtue of his merits and his kinship with Muhammad.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=141, 253}}{{sfn|Mavani|2013|p=113{{ndash}}114}}{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=62}} Evidence suggests that Ali further considered himself as the designated successor of Muhammad.{{sfn|Mavani|2013|pp=114, 117}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=253}}{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=79}} Unlike Muhammad's lifetime,{{sfn|Anthony|2013}}{{sfn|Mavani|2013|p=117}} Ali retired from public life during the caliphates of Abu Bakr and his successors, Umar and Uthman.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}}{{sfn|Anthony|2013}}{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}} Ali did not participate in the Ridda wars and the early Muslim conquests,{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}} though he remained an advisor to Abu Bakr and Umar on government and religious matters.,{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}}{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}} However, their conflicts with Ali is also well-documented,{{sfn|Aslan|2005|p=122}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=42, 52–54, 213–4}}{{sfn|Abbas|2021|p=94}} but largely ignored in Sunni sources.{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=45}}{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=78}} These tensions were epitomized during the proceedings of the electoral council in 644 when Ali refused to be bound by the precedence of the first two caliphs.{{sfn|Mavani|2013|p=117}}{{sfn|Anthony|2013}} In contrast, Shia sources view Ali's pledge to Abu Bakr as a (coerced) act of political expediency ({{transliteration|ar|taqiya}}).{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=81}} The conflicts with Ali are probably magnified in Shia sources.{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=45}}

Before his death in 634, Abu Bakr designated Umar as his successor.{{Sfn|Dakake|2007|p=50}} Ali was not consulted about this appointment, which was initially resisted by some senior companions.{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|pp=47–8}} Ali himself did not press any claims this time and kept aloof from public affairs during the caliphate of Umar,{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=20}} who nevertheless consulted Ali in certain matters.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a|p=382}} For instance, Ali is credited with the idea of adopting the migration to Medina (Hijrah) as the beginning of the Islamic calendar.{{Sfn|Huart|2012a}} Yet Ali's political advice was probably ignored.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} For example, Umar devised a state register ({{Transliteration|ar|diwan}}) to distribute excess state revenues according to Islamic precedence,{{Sfn|Afsaruddin|2013|p=32}} but Ali held that those revenues should be equally distributed among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad and Abu Bakr.{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=32}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} Ali was also absent from the strategic meeting of notables near Damascus.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} Ali did not participate in Umar's military expeditions,{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=46}}{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} although he does not seem to have publicly objected to them.{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} Umar likely opposed the combination of prophethood and caliphate in the Banu Hashim,{{sfn|Glassé|2001|p=40}}{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=158}} and he thus prevented Muhammad from dictating his will on his deathbed,{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=16}}{{sfn|Abbas|2021|p=89}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=22}} possibly fearing that he might expressly designate Ali as his successor.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=66–7}} Nevertheless, perhaps realizing the necessity of Ali's cooperation in his collaborative scheme of governance, Umar made some limited overtures to Ali and the Banu Hashim during his caliphate.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=62, 65}} For instance, Umar returned Muhammad's estates in Medina to Ali, but kept Fadak and Khayber.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=62–64}} By some accounts, Umar also insisted on marrying Ali's daughter Umm Kulthum, to which Ali reluctantly agreed when the former enlisted public support for his demand.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=67}}

File:Balami - Tarikhnama - the election of 'Othman as the caliphate of Medina (cropped).jpg]]

Before his death in 644,{{sfn|Pellat|1983}} Umar tasked a small committee with choosing the next caliph among themselves.{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=50}} Ali and Uthman were the strongest candidates in this committee,{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=52}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=43}} whose members were all early companions of Muhammad from the Quraysh tribe.{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=50}} Another member, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, was given the deciding vote either by the committee or by Umar.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=71}}{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=51}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=21}} After deliberations, Ibn Awf appointed his brother-in-law Uthman as the next caliph,{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=54}}{{Sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=60}} when the latter promised to follow the precedent of the first two caliphs.{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=54}} By contrast, Ali rejected this condition,{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=54}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=21}} or gave an evasive answer.{{Sfn|Keaney|2021|loc=§3.4}} The Ansar were not represented in the committee,{{Sfn|Shaban|1971|pp=62–3}}{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=51}} which was evidently biased toward Uthman.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=71–2}}{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=|pp=52–3}}{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=21}} Both of these factors worked against Ali,{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=51}}{{Sfn|Abbas|2021|p=116}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=68}} who could have not been simply excluded from the proceedings.{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=|pp=52{{ndash}}53, 55}}

Uthman was widely accused of nepotism,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=87}} corruption,{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|1970|p=67}}{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=84}} and injustice.{{Sfn|Dakake|2007|p=52}} Ali too criticized Uthman's conduct,{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}}{{Sfn|Gleave|2008}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=|pp=108, 113}} including his lavish gifts for his kinsmen.{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=53}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=108}} Ali also protected outspoken companions, such as Abu Dharr and Ammar,{{Sfn|Hinds|1972a|p=467}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=109}} and overall acted as a restraining influence on Uthman.{{Sfn|Hinds|1972a|p=467}} Some supporters of Ali were part of the opposition movement,{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=63}}{{Sfn|Daftary|2014|p=30}} joined in their efforts by Talha and Zubayr, both senior companions of Muhammad, and by his widow Aisha.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=98}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=100–2}}{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=63}} Among such supporters of Ali were Malik al-Ashtar and other religiously learned {{Transliteration|ar|qurra}} ({{Lit|Quran readers}}).{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=59}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=108}} These supporters wanted to see Ali as the next caliph but there is no evidence that he coordinated with them.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=107–8}} Ali also rejected the requests to lead the rebels,{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=22}} although he probably sympathized with their grievances.{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=62}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=22}} He was therefore considered a natural focus for the opposition,{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|p=49}} at least morally.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}}

As their grievances mounted, provincial dissidents poured into Medina in 656.{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}} The Egyptian opposition sought the advice of Ali, who urged them to negotiate with Uthman.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=121}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=118–9}} Ali similarly asked the Iraqi opposition to refrain from violence, which they heeded.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=128}} He also repeatedly mediated between Uthman and the dissidents,{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{Sfn|Anthony|2013|p=31}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=111}} to address their economical and political grievances.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|1970|p=68}}{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}} In particular, Ali negotiated and guaranteed the agreement that ended the first siege.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=111, 119}}{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}} He then convinced Uthman to publicly repent,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=122}} but the caliph soon retracted his statement, possibly pressed by his secretary Marwan ibn al-Hakam.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=123}} Egyptian rebels laid siege to Uthman's residence for a second time when they intercepted an official letter ordering their punishment. They demanded the caliph's abdication but he refused and maintained his innocence about the letter,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=112}} for which Marwan is often blamed in the early sources.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=127}}{{sfn|Levi Della Vida|Khoury|2012}} Ali also sided with Uthman,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=112}} but the caliph apparently accused him about the letter.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=126}} This is probably when Ali refused to further intercede for Uthman,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=112}}{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|p=49}} who was assassinated soon afterward by Egyptian rebels.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=127}}{{Sfn|Hinds|1972a}}{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=152}} Ali played no role in the deadly attack,{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}}{{Sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=65}} and his son Hasan was injured while guarding Uthman's besieged residence at the request of Ali.{{Sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}}{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012f}}{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=63}} He also convinced the rebels to deliver water to Uthman's house during the siege.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=112}}{{Sfn|Hinds|1972a|p=467}}

{{See also|Election of Ali to the caliphate|Administrative policies of Ali|Battle of the Camel|Battle of Siffin|Kharijites|Battle of Nahrawan|Second Syria campaign of Ali}}

File:The swearing of allegiance to Ali at Kufa after the murder of Osman. A dark-skinned youth, possibly Belal, holds Ali's double-bladed sword, Zulfikar. From a manuscript of Maktel-i Ali Resul by Lami'i Celebi, late 16th century or early 17th century.jpg

When Uthman was assassinated in 656 by Egyptian rebels,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=127}} the potential candidates for caliphate were Ali and Talha. The Umayyads had fled Medina, leaving the provincial rebels and the Ansar in control of the city. Among the Egyptians, Talha enjoyed some support, but the Iraqis and most of the Ansar supported Ali.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=141}} The majority of the Muhajirun,{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=22}}{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=157}} and key tribal figures also favored Ali at this time.{{Sfn|Lapidus|2002|p=56}} The caliphate was offered by these groups to Ali, who, after some hesitation,{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=22}}{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{Sfn|Gleave|2008}} publicly took the oath of office.{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=81}}{{Sfn|Bahramian|2015}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=142–3}} Malik al-Ashtar might have been the first to pledge his allegiance to Ali.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=142–3}} Talha and Zubayr, who both aspired to the caliphate,{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=24}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=70}} also gave their pledges to Ali, most likely willingly,{{Sfn|Gleave|2008}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=143}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012f}} but later broke their oaths.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=147}}{{Sfn|Gleave|2008}}{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=64}} Ali probably did not force anyone to pledge,{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=81}} and there is little evidence of any violence, even though many broke with Ali later, claiming that they had pledged under duress.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=144–5}} At the same time, the supporters, who were in majority in Medina, might have intimidated others.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=144}}

File:Ali Receiving the Bay'a (Swearing of Allegiance) (painting, recto; text, verso), folio from a manuscript of Maktel-i Ali Resul of Lami‘i Chelebi, late 16th century.jpg

Ali thus filled the power vacuum created by the regicide.{{Sfn|Shaban|1971|p=71}}{{Sfn|Anthony|2013|p=31}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=85}} His election, irregular and without a council,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=141}} faced little public opposition in Medina,{{Sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=65}}{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|1970|p=69}}{{Sfn|Shaban|1971|p=71}} but the rebels' support for him left him exposed to accusations of complicity in Uthman's assassination.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} Even though underprivileged groups readily rallied around Ali,{{sfn|Shaban|1971|p=72}}{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=24}} he had limited support among the powerful Quraysh, some of whom aspired to caliphate.{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=158}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=141}} Within the Quraysh, two camps opposed Ali: the Umayyads, who believed that the caliphate was their right after Uthman, and those who wished to restore the caliphate of Quraysh on the same principles laid by Abu Bakr and Umar. This second group was likely the majority within the Quraysh.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=147}}{{Sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=65}} Ali was indeed vocal about the divine prerogative of Muhammad's kin to leadership,{{Sfn|Keaney|2021|loc=§3.5}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=72}} which would have jeopardized the political ambitions of the rest of the Quraysh.{{Sfn|Abbas|2021|p=115}}

File:Islamic coin, Time of the Rashidun. Khosrau type. AH 31-41 AD 651-661.jpg minted in Bishapur during the caliphate of Ali contains both Arabic and Sasanian symbols (image of the crowned Khosrow II, holy fire center, and crescent-star, bismillah in Arabic on margin).It was only when Yazdegerd died (A.D. 651) that some mark of Arab authority was added to the coinage (Plate II, 1; Marv, 651-52). Most early drahms have only a short Arabic religious inscription in the margin (such as "besm Allāh", "in the name of God"), with the name of Yazdegerd or his predecessor Ḵosrow II, but a few have the name of ʿAbdallāh b. ʿĀmer, conqueror and governor of southern and eastern Iran. The most common name in the first two decades of Arab rule is Ḵosrow II. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-sasanian-coins]]

The caliphate of Ali was characterized by his strict justice.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=309–10}}{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=25}}{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}} He implemented radical policies to restore his vision of prophetic governance,{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=43}}{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|p=53}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=91}} and dismissed nearly all of Uthman's governors,{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=158}} whom he considered corrupt.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=148}} Ali also distributed the treasury funds equally among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad,{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=45}} and is said to have shown zero tolerance for corruption.{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=105}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=272}} Some of those affected by Ali's egalitarian policies soon revolted against him under the pretext of revenge for Uthman.{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=44}} Among them was Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria.{{Sfn|Daftary|2014|p=30}} Ali has therefore been criticized by some for political naivety and excessive rigorism,{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=|pp=149–50}} and praised by others for righteousness and lack of political expediency.{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=44}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=91}} His supporters identify similar decisions of Muhammad,{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=89}}{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=46}} and argue that Islam never allows for compromising on a just cause, citing verse 68:9 of the Quran,{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=46}} "They wish that thou might compromise and that they might compromise."{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=64}}{{sfn|Nasr|Dagli|Dakake|Lumbard|2015|p=3203}} Some instead suggest that Ali's decisions were actually justified on a practical level.{{Sfn|Bahramian|2015}}{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|pp=89–90}}{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}} For instance, the removal of unpopular governors was perhaps the only option available to Ali because injustice was the main grievance of the rebels.{{Sfn|Bahramian|2015}}

As evident from his public speeches,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=150}} Ali viewed himself not only as the temporal leader of the Muslim community but also as its exclusive religious authority.{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=77}}{{Sfn|Shaban|1971|p=73}} He thus laid claim to the religious authority to interpret the Quran and Sunna.{{sfn|Shaban|1971|pp=72–73}}{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|pp=67–68}} Some supporters of Ali indeed held him as their divinely-guided leader who deserved the same type of loyalty that Muhammad did.{{Sfn|Dakake|2007|p=57}} They felt an absolute and all-encompassing bond of spiritual loyalty ({{Transliteration|ar|walaya}}) to Ali that transcended politics.{{Sfn|Haider|2014|p=34}} For instance, many of them publicly offered Ali their unconditional support circa 658.{{Sfn|Dakake|2007|pp=|p=60}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=251{{ndash}}252}} They justified their absolute loyalty to Ali on the basis of his merits, precedent in Islam,{{Sfn|Dakake|2007|p=59}} his kinship with Muhammad,{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=71}} and also the announcement by the latter at the Ghadir Khumm.{{Sfn|Haider|2014|p=34}} Many of these supporters also viewed Ali as the rightful successor to Muhammad after his death,{{Sfn|Dakake|2007|pp=58–59}} as evidenced in the poetry from that period, for instance.{{Sfn|Dakake|2007|p=262n30}}{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=67}}

Ali opposed centralized control over provincial revenues.{{sfn|Lapidus|2002|p=56}} He equally distributed excess taxes and booty among Muslims,{{sfn|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} following the precedent of Muhammad and Abu Bakr.{{sfn|Abbas|2021|p=133}}{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=45}} In comparison, Umar had distributed the state revenues according to perceived Islamic merit,{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=90}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=83}} and Uthman was widely accused of nepotism and corruption.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=87}}{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=|pp=84, 90}}{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|1970|p=67}} The strictly egalitarian policies of Ali earned him the support of underprivileged groups, including the Ansar, the {{Transliteration|ar|qurra}}, and the late immigrants to Iraq.{{sfn|Shaban|1971|p=72}} By contrast, Talha and Zubayr were both Qurayshite companions of Muhammad who had amassed immense wealth under Uthman.{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|pp=55–6}} They both revolted against Ali when he refused to grant them favors.{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=94}}{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=45}} Some other figures among the Quraysh similarly turned against Ali,{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=95}}{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|p=64}} who even withheld public funds from his relatives,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=264}}{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|pp=105–6}} whereas his archenemy Mu'awiya readily offered bribes.{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|p=64}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=276}} Ali instructed his officials to collect tax payments on a voluntary basis and without harassment, and to prioritize the poor when distributing public funds.{{Sfn|Abbas|2021|p=153}} A letter attributed to Ali directs his governor to pay more attention to land development than taxation.{{sfn|Lambton|1991|pp=xix, xx}}{{Sfn|Abbas|2021|p=156}}

During the Muslim civil war, Ali forbade his soldiers from looting,{{sfn|Heck|2023}}{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=94}} and instead paid them from tax revenues.{{sfn|Heck|2023}} He also pardoned his enemies in victory.{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=94}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=84}} Both of these practices were later enshrined in Islamic law.{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=94}} Ali also advised his commander al-Ashtar not to reject any calls to peace, not to violate any agreements,{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=115}} and ordered him not to commence hostilities.{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=109}} Ali similarly barred his troops from disturbing civilians,{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=108}} killing the wounded and those who fled, mutilating the dead, entering homes without permission, looting, and harming women.{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=|pp=109–10}} He prevented the enslavement of women in victory, even though some protested.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} Before the Battle of Siffin with Mu'awiya, Ali did not retaliate and allowed his enemies to access drinking water when he gained the upper hand.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=227}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|pp=111–2}}

File:Muhammad's widow, Aisha, battling the fourth caliph Ali in the Battle of the Camel.jpg

Aisha publicly campaigned against Ali immediately after his accession.{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=89}}{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=158}} She was joined in Mecca by her close relatives, Talha and Zubayr,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=133}} who thus broke their earlier oaths of allegiance to Ali.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=147}}{{Sfn|Gleave|2008}}{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=64}} This opposition demanded the punishment of Uthman's assassins,{{Sfn|Cappucci|2014|p=19}}{{Sfn|Anthony|2013|p=31}} and accused Ali of complicity in the assassination.{{Sfn|Anthony|2013|p=31}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=147}}{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}} They also called for the removal of Ali from office and for a Qurayshite council to appoint his successor.{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=158}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=157}} Their primary goal was likely the removal of Ali, rather than vengeance for Uthman,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=157}}{{Sfn|Aslan|2005|p=132}}{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|loc=§2.II}} against whom the triumvirate had stirred up public opinion.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012f}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=|pp=98, 101, 107}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=88}} The opposition failed to gain enough traction in Hejaz,{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} and instead captured Basra in Iraq,{{sfn|Gleave|2008}}{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}} killing many there. Ali raised an army from nearby Kufa,{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012f}}{{sfn|Hinds|1971|p=361}} which formed the core of Ali's forces in the coming battles.{{sfn|Hinds|1971|p=361}} The two armies soon camped just outside of Basra,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=166}}{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}} both probably numbered around ten thousand men.{{sfn|Hazleton|2009|p=107}} After three days of failed negotiations,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=169|pp=}} the two sides readied for battle.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=169}}{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{sfn|Gleave|2008}}

The battle took place in December 656.{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=159}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=169–70}} The rebels commenced hostilities,{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012f}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=170}} and Aisha was present on the battlefield, riding in an armored palanquin atop a red camel, after which the battle is named.{{sfn|Hazleton|2009|p=113}}{{sfn|Abbas|2021|p=139}} Talha was soon killed by another rebel, Marwan, the secretary of Uthman.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=171–2}}{{sfn|Abbas|2021|p=140}} Zubayr, an experienced fighter, deserted shortly after the battle had begun,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=170}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012f}} but was pursued and killed.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=170}}{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012f}} His desertion suggests he had serious moral misgivings about their cause.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=171}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012f}} Ali won the day,{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012f}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=172}}{{Sfn|Bahramian|2015}} and Aisha was respectfully escorted back to Hejaz.{{sfn|Abbas|2021|p=141}}{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012f}}{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=159}} Ali then announced a public pardon,{{sfn|Hazleton|2009|p=121}} setting free all war prisoners, even Marwan,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=180-1}}{{sfn|Abbas|2021|p=141}} and prohibiting the enslavement of their women. Their seized properties were also returned.{{Sfn|Hazleton|2009|p=122}} Ali then stationed himself in Kufa,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=182}} which thus became his de facto capital.{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=159}}{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|loc=§2.II}}

File:First Fitna Map, Ali-Muawiya Phase.png; green territory under Ali's control; pink territory under Mu'awiya's control.]] File:Balami - Tarikhnama - Battle of Siffin (cropped).jpg]]

Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria, was deemed corrupt and unfit by Ali,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=148}} who wrote to and removed him from his post.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=194}}{{Sfn|Petersen|1958|p=165}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=97}} In turn, Mu'awiya, as Uthman's cousin, launched a propaganda campaign across Syria, blaming Ali for the regicide and calling for revenge.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=190}}{{Sfn|Abbas|2021|p=144}}{{Sfn|Rahman|1995|p=58}} Mu'awiya also joined forces with Amr ibn al-As,{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=160}} a military strategist,{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=99}} who pledged to back the Umayyads against Ali in return for life-long governorship of Egypt.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=196}} Yet Mu'awiya also secretly offered to recognize the caliphate of Ali in return for Syria and Egypt,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=203}} which Ali rejected.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=204}} Mu'awiya then formally declared war, charging Ali with regicide, demanding his removal, and a Syrian council thereafter to elect the next caliph.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=204–205}} Contemporary authors tend to view Mu'awiya's call for revenge as a pretext for a power grab.{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2014|p=23}}{{Sfn|Shaban|1971|p=73}}{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|pp=95–6}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=186}}{{Sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=66}}{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|loc=2.III}}

In the summer of 657, the armies of Ali and Mu'awiya camped at Siffin, west of the Euphrates River,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=226}} numbering perhaps at 100,000 and 130,000, respectively.{{Sfn|Lecker|2012}} Many of Muhammad's companions were present in Ali's army, whereas Mu'awiya could only boast a handful.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=25}}{{Sfn|Lecker|2012}} The two sides negotiated for a while, to no avail,{{Sfn|Anthony|2013|p=31}}{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=161}}{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{Sfn|Shaban|1971|p=75}}{{Sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=67}} after which the main battle took place from Wednesday, 26 July 657,{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|loc=2.III}}{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2014|p=23}} until Friday or Saturday morning.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=232}}{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=161}} Ali probably refrained from initiating hostilities,{{Sfn|Bahramian|2015}} and later fought alongside his men on the frontline, whereas Mu'awiya led from his pavilion,{{sfn|Hazleton|2009|p=198}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=234}} and rejected a proposal to settle the matters in a personal duel with Ali.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=235}}{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|loc=2.III}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=119}} Among those killed fighting for Ali was Ammar.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=234}} In canonical Sunni sources, a prophetic hadith predicts Ammar's death at the hands of {{Transliteration|ar|al-fi'a al-baghiya}} ({{Lit|rebellious aggressive group}}) who call to hellfire.{{Sfn|Abbas|2021|p=149}}{{Sfn|Lecker|2012}}{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=161}}

Fighting stopped when some Syrians raised pages of the Quran on their lances, shouting, "Let the Book of God be the judge between us."{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=238}}{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=161}} Since Mu'awiya had for long insisted on battle, this call for arbitration suggests that he now feared defeat.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=238}}{{Sfn|Anthony|2013|p=31}}{{Sfn|Adamec|2017|p=406}} By contrast, Ali exhorted his men to fight, telling them that raising Qurans was for deception, but to no avail.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=238}}{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|loc=2.III}} Through their representatives, the {{Transliteration|ar|qurra}} and the {{Transliteration|ar|ridda}} tribesmen of Kufa,{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|1970|p=70}}{{Sfn|Shaban|1971|p=75}}{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=161}} the largest bloc in Ali's army,{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{Sfn|Shaban|1971|p=75}} both threatened Ali with mutiny if he did not answer the Syrians' call.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=238}}{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|pp=123–4}}{{Sfn|Hinds|1972b|p=97}} Facing strong peace sentiments in his army, Ali accepted the arbitration proposal,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=241}} most likely against his own judgment.{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=161}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=241}}

Mu'awiya now proposed that representatives from both sides should find a Quranic resolution.{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{Sfn|Hinds|1972b|p=98}} Mu'awiya was represented by his ally Amr,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=241–2}} whereas, despite Ali's opposition, the majority in his camp pressed for the neutral Abu Musa, the erstwhile governor of Kufa.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|2013|p=53}}{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=161}}{{Sfn|Dakake|2007|p=|pp=1–2}} The arbitration agreement was written and signed on 2 August 657,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=243}} stipulating that the two representatives should meet on neutral territory,{{Sfn|Dakake|2007|p=1}} adhere to the Quran and Sunna, and restore peace.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=243}}{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2014|p=23}} Both armies left the battlefield after the agreement.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=247}} The arbitration agreement thus divided Ali's camp, as many did not support his negotiations with Mu'awiya, whose claims they considered fraudulent. By contrast, the agreement strengthened Mu'awiya's position, who was now an equal contender for the caliphate.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=245}}

File:Iraq under the Abbasid Caliphate (cropped).png ran parallel to the east bank of the Tigris]]

Some of Ali's men left him in protest to the arbitration agreement.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=247}}{{Sfn|Bahramian|2015}} Many of them eventually rejoined Ali,{{Sfn|Rauf|2007|p=191}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=248–249}}{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=163}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} while the rest gathered in the town of al-Nahrawan.{{Sfn|Bahramian|2015}} They became known as the Kharijites ({{lit|seceders}}), who later took up arms against Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan.{{sfn|Levi Della Vida|2012}}{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=162}}{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}} The Kharijites, many of whom belonged to the {{Transliteration|ar|qurra}},{{Sfn|Hinds|1972b|p=100}} were likely disillusioned with the arbitration process.{{Sfn|Hinds|1972b|p=101}}{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}} Their slogan was, "No judgment but that of God,"{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2014|p=23}} highlighting their rejection of arbitration (by men) in reference to the Quranic verse 49:9.{{Sfn|Rauf|2007|p=|pp=190–191}} Ali called this slogan a word of truth by which the seceders sought falsehood because he viewed the ruler as indispensable in the conduct of religion.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=249–50}}

The two arbitrators met together in Dumat al-Jandal,{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=129}} perhaps in February 658.{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}} There they reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu'awiya had the right to seek revenge.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=255}}{{sfn|Aslan|2005|p=137}}{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}} They could not agree on anything else.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=256}} Rather than a judicial ruling, this was a political concession by Abu Musa, who probably hoped that Amr would later reciprocate this gesture.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=256}} Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began organizing a second Syria campaign.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=257}}{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} Solely an initiative of Mu'awiya,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=255}} there was also a second meeting in Udhruh.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=255}}{{Sfn|Bahramian|2015}} The negotiations there also failed,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=257}} as the two arbitrators could not agree on the next caliph: Amr supported Mu'awiya,{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}} while Abu Musa nominated his son-in-law Abd Allah ibn Umar,{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{Sfn|Glassé|2001|p=40}} who stood down.{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=286}} At its closure, Abu Musa publicly deposed both Mu'awiya and Ali and called for a council to appoint his successor per earlier agreements with Amr. When Amr took the stage, however, he deposed Ali and appointed Mu'awiya as his successor.{{sfn|Glassé|2001|p=40}}{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=165}}{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}} The Kufan delegation reacted furiously to Abu Musa's concessions,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=257}} and the common view is that the arbitration failed,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=255}}{{sfn|Afsaruddin|2013|p=53}} or was inconclusive.{{Sfn|Fadel|2013|p=43}}{{Sfn|Rauf|2007|p=191}}{{Sfn|Hinds|1972b|p=102}} It nevertheless strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=255}}{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=65}}{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=25}}{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{Sfn|Daftary|2013|p=31}}

File:The Battle of Nehrevan (658 A.D.), between Ali and the Havaric (Kharijites). Ali, mounted on Duldul, is wielding his double-bladed sword, Zulfikar. From a manuscript of Maktel-i Ali Resul, Ottoman Turkey, late 16th or early 17th century.jpg

After the arbitration, Mu'awiya received the Syrians' pledge as caliph.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=257–8}} Ali then organized a new, much smaller,{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}} Syria campaign.{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=163}}{{sfn|Glassé|2001|p=40}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=255, 257}} But he postponed the expedition,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=259–60}} and instead marched to Nahrawan with his army,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=259–60}} when he learned that the Kharijites were interrogating and executing civilians.{{sfn|Wellhausen|1901|pp=17–18}}{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=254}} They killed many, apparently not even sparing women.{{Sfn|Levi Della Vida|2012}} Ali convinced many of the Kharijites to separate from their army, leaving about 1,500{{Ndash}}1,800, or 2,800, out of about 4,000 fighters.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=260}}{{sfn|Wellhausen|1901|p=18}} The rest of the Kharijites then attacked and were crushed by Ali's army of about 14,000 men.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=259–261}}{{sfn|Wellhausen|1901|p=18}} The battle took place either on 17 July 658,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=260–1}}{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=163}} or in 657.{{sfn|Wellhausen|1927|p=85}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=260–1}} Ali has been criticized by some for killing his erstwhile allies,{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=|pp=141, 171}}{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=164}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=262}} many of whom were outwardly pious Muslims. For others, subduing the Kharijites was necessary, for they were violent and radicalized rebels who posed a danger to Ali's base in Kufa.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=261}}{{Sfn|Kelsay|1993|p=87}}{{Sfn|Afsaruddin|2013|p=53}}{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|pp=97–8}}

Following the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali could not muster enough support for a second Syria campaign.{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|pp=|p=141}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=262}} Perhaps his soldiers were demoralized,{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=164}} or perhaps they were recalled by their tribal leaders,{{Sfn|Shaban|1971|p=77}}{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=123}} many of whom had been bribed and swayed by Mu'awiya.{{Sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=68}}{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=123}}{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=164}} By contrast, Ali did not grant any financial favors to tribal chiefs as a matter of principle.{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=95}}{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|p=64}} At any rate, the secession of so many of the {{Transliteration|ar|qurra}} and the coolness of the tribal leaders weakened Ali.{{Sfn|Shaban|1971|p=77}}{{Sfn|Anthony|2013|p=31}}{{Sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=69}} Ali consequently lost Egypt to Mu'awiya in 658.{{Sfn|Donner|2010|p=165}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=|pp=268{{ndash}}9}} Mu'awiya also began dispatching military detachments,{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=165}} which targeted civilians along the Euphrates river, near Kufa, and most successfully, in the Hejaz and Yemen.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=262, 288–291, 293}} Ali could not mount a timely response to these assaults.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} He eventually found sufficient support for a second Syria offensive, set to commence in late winter 661. His success was in part due to the public outrage over Syrian raids.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=307}} However, plans for a second campaign were abandoned after the assassination of Ali.{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=166}}

{{main|Assassination of Ali|Imam Ali Shrine|Mausoleum of Imam Ali}}

{{multiple image

| align = right

| direction = vertical

| width = 220

| image1 = Kufa Mosque 1.jpg

| caption1 = The Great Mosque of Kufa in Kufa, Iraq, where Ali was assassinated

| image2 = Meshed ali usnavy (PD).jpg

| caption2 = Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, near Kufa, where Ali is believed to be buried

| image3 = روضه شریف.jpeg

| caption3 = Hazrat Ali Mazar, also called Rawz-e-Sharif, in Mazar-i Sharif, Afghanistan, where some claim Ali is buried.}}

Ali was assassinated during the morning prayer on 28 January 661 (19 Ramadan 40 AH) at the Great Mosque of Kufa. The other given dates are 26 and 30 January. He was struck over his head by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam with a poison-coated sword,{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012g}} in revenge for their defeat in the Battle of Nahrawan.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=308}} Ali died from his wounds about two days later, aged sixty-two or sixty-three. By some accounts, he had long known about his fate by premonition or through Muhammad.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012g}} Before his death, Ali requested either a meticulous application of {{Transliteration|el|lex talionis}} to Ibn Muljam or his pardon. At any rate, Ibn Muljam was later executed by Hasan, the eldest son of Ali.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012g}} Fearing that his body might be exhumed and profaned by his enemies, Ali's burial place was kept a secret and remains uncertain.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} Several sites are mentioned as containing Ali's remains, including the shrine of Ali in Najaf and the shrine of Ali in Mazar.{{Sfn|Kohlberg|1982}} The former site was identified during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid ({{Reign|786|809}}) and the town of Najaf developed around it, which has become a major destination for Shia pilgrimage.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} The present shrine was built by the Safavid monarch Safi ({{Reign|1629|1642}}),{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=26}} near which lies an immense cemetery for Shias who wished to be buried next to their imam.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} Najaf is also home to top religious colleges and prominent Shia scholars.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}}{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} Other sites for Ali's burial are claimed to be Baghdad, Damascus, Medina, Ray while a minority of Shias believe it be somewhere in the city of Kufa.{{Sfn|Kohlberg|1982}}

{{Main|Hasan ibn Ali|Hasan–Muawiya treaty|}}

{{See also|Umayyad tradition of cursing Ali}}

When Ali died, his son Hasan was acknowledged as the next caliph in Kufa.{{sfn|Wellhausen|1901|p=18}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012e}} As Ali's legatee, Hasan was the obvious choice for the Kufans, especially because Ali was vocal about the exclusive right of Muhammad's kin to leadership.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=311}}{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012e}} Most surviving companions of Muhammad were in Ali's army, and they also pledged their allegiance to Hasan,{{sfn|Momen|1985|pp=26–7}}{{sfn|Jafri|1979|p=91}} but overall the Kufans' support for Hasan was likely weak.{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=27}}{{sfn|Jafri|1979|pp=109–10}} Hasan later abdicated in August 661 to Mu'awiya when the latter marched on Iraq with a large force.{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=27}}{{sfn|Jafri|1979|pp=109–10}} Mu'awiya thus founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate. Throughout his reign, he persecuted the family and supporters of Ali,{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=334}}{{sfn|Lewis|2012}} and mandated regular public cursing of Ali.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=334}}{{sfn|Dakake|2007|pp=67,78}}

{{Main|Alids}}{{See also|Muhsin ibn Ali|Hasanids|Husaynids|Twelvers|Isma'ilism|Kaysanites|Zaydism}}

The first marriage of Ali was to Fatima, who bore him three sons, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhsin.{{Sfn|Lewis|2012}} Muhsin either died in infancy,{{sfn|Buehler|2014|p=186}} or Fatima miscarried him when she was injured in a raid on her house during the succession crisis.{{sfn|Khetia|2013|p=78}} The descendants of Hasan and Husayn are known as the Hasanids and the Husaynids, respectively.{{Sfn|Daftary|2014}} As the progeny of Muhammad, they are honored in Muslim communities by nobility titles such as {{Transliteration|ar|sharif}} and {{Transliteration|ar|sayyid}}.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} Ali and Fatima also had two daughters, Zaynab and Umm Kulthum.{{Sfn|Huart|2012b}} After Fatima's death in 632, Ali remarried multiple times and had more children, including Muhammad al-Awsat and Abbas ibn Ali.{{Sfn|Huart|2012b}} In his life, Ali fathered seventeen daughters, and eleven, fourteen, or eighteen sons,{{Sfn|Lewis|2012}} among whom, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya played a historical role.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} Descendants of Ali are known as the Alids.{{Sfn|Daftary|2014}}

Mu'awiya succeeded Ali in 661 and founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate,{{Sfn|Madelung|2003}} during which Alids were severely persecuted.{{Sfn|Huart|2012b}} After Ali, his followers ({{Transliteration|ar|shi'a}}) recognized his eldest son Hasan as their imam. When he died in 670, likely poisoned at the instigation of Mu'awiya,{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=28}}{{sfn|Madelung|2003}}{{Sfn|Anthony|2013|p=216}} the Shia community followed Hasan's younger brother Husayn, who was killed by Umayyad forces in the Battle of Karbala in 680, alongside many of his relatives.{{Sfn|Daftary|2014}} To revenge the Karbala massacre, soon followed in 685 the Shia uprising of al-Mukhtar, who claimed to represent Ibn al-Hanafiyya.{{Sfn|Daftary|2014}} The main movements that followed this uprising were the now-extinct Kaysanites and the Imamites.{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|p=104}} The Kaysanites mostly followed Abu Hashim, the son of Ibn al-Hanafiya. When Abu Hashim died around 716, this group largely aligned itself with the Abbasids, that is, the descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas.{{Sfn|Daftary|2014}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=69}} On the other hand, the Imamites were led by quiescent descendants of Husayn, through his only surviving son, Ali Zayn al-Abidin ({{Died in|713}}). An exception was Ali's son Zayd, who led a failed uprising against the Umayyads around 740.{{Sfn|Daftary|2014}} For his followers, known as the Zaydites, any learned Hasanid or Husaynid who rose against tyranny qualified as imam.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=|pp=49, 50}}

Alids were also persecuted under the Abbasids, who toppled the Umayyads in 750.{{Sfn|Daftary|2014}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=71}} Some of the Alids thus revolted,{{Sfn|Lewis|2012}} while some established regional dynasties in remote areas.{{Sfn|Daftary|2014}}{{Sfn|Donner|1999|p=26}} In particular, through imprisonment or surveillance, the Abbasids removed the imams of the Imamites from public life,{{Sfn|Sachedina|1981|p=25}}{{Sfn|Dakake|2007|p=211}} and they are thought to be responsible for the imams' deaths.{{Sfn|Pierce|2016|p=44}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=44}} Mainstream Imamites were the antecedents of the Twelvers,{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|p=107}} who believe that their twelfth and final imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was born around 868,{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=161}} but was hidden from the public in 874 for fear of persecution. He remains in occultation by divine will until his reappearance at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil.{{Sfn|Amir-Moezzi|1998}}{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|p=108}} The only historic split among the Imamites happened when their sixth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, died in 765.{{Sfn|Daftary|2014}}{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|p=107}} Some claimed that his designated successor was his son Isma'il, who had predeceased al-Sadiq. These were the antecedents of the Isma'ilites,{{Sfn|Daftary|2014}} who found political success at the turn of the tenth century,{{Sfn|Haider|2014|p=92}} as the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and the Qarmatians in Bahrain.{{Sfn|Daftary|2007|pp=2, 110, 128}}

{{main|Nahj al-balagha|Principles of good governance in the letter of Ali to al-Ashtar|Ghurar al-hikam|Mushaf of Ali|Kitab Ali||}}

{{see also|Shaqshaqiya sermon|al-Jafr (book)|Du'a Kumayl}}

File:Folio from a Nahj al-Balagha.gif

Most of the works attributed to Ali were first delivered as speeches and later committed to writing by others. There are also supplications, such as Du'a Kumayl, which he may have taught others.{{sfn|Gleave|2008}}

{{Transliteration|ar|Nahj al-balagha}} ({{Lit|the path of eloquence}}) is an eleventh-century collection of sermons, letters, and sayings, all attributed to Ali, compiled by Sharif al-Radi ({{Died in|1015}}), a prominent Twelver scholar.{{sfn|Thomas|2008}}{{Sfn|Esposito|2003|p=227}} Because of its sometimes sensitive content, the authenticity of {{Transliteration|ar|Nahj al-balagha}} has long been polemically debated. However, by tracking its content in earlier sources, recent academic research has attributed most of {{Transliteration|ar|Nahj al-balagha}} to Ali.{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2006}}{{sfn|Djebli|2012}} The book, particularly its letter of instructions addressed at al-Ashtar,{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} has served as an ideological basis for Islamic governance.{{sfn|Esposito|2003|p=227}} The book also includes detailed discussions about social responsibilities, emphasizing that greater responsibilities result in greater rights.{{sfn|Esposito|2003|p=227}} {{Transliteration|ar|Nahj al-balagha}} also contains sensitive material, such as sharp criticism of Ali's predecessors in its Shaqshaqiya sermon,{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} and disapproval of Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr, who had revolted against Ali.{{sfn|Thomas|2008}}{{Sfn|Dakake|2007|p=225}} Celebrated as an example of the most eloquent Arabic,{{Sfn|Gleave|2008}} {{Transliteration|ar|Nahj al-balagha}} has significantly influenced the Arabic literature and rhetoric.{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2006}} Numerous commentaries have been written about the book, including the comprehensive work of the Mu'tazilite scholar Ibn Abil-Hadid ({{Died in|1258}}).{{sfn|Gleave|2008}}

File:Ghurar al-Hikam wa Durar al-Kalim.jpg

{{Transliteration|ar|Ghurar al-hikam wa durar al-kalim}} ({{Literal translation|exalted aphorisms and pearls of speech}}) was compiled by Abd al-Wahid al-Amidi ({{Died in|1116}}), who was either a Shafi'i jurist or a Twelver scholar. The book contains thousands of short sayings of Ali on piety and ethics.{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2007|p=4}}{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} These aphorisms and other works attributed to Ali have considerably influenced the Islamic mysticism.{{Sfn|Jozi|Shah-Kazemi|2015}}

File:The Mushaf of Imam Ali.jpg (85:1–3) in what might be a folio from the Mushaf of Ali in the library of the Imam Ali shrine, Najaf, Iraq]]

Mushaf of Ali is a recension of the Quran compiled by Ali, who was one of its first scribes.{{sfn|Modarressi|2003|p=2}} By some Shia accounts, this codex ({{Transliteration|ar|mushaf}}) of Ali was rejected for official use during the succession crisis.{{Sfn|Modarressi|1993|p=13}} Some early Shia traditions also suggest differences with the standard Uthmanid codex,{{Sfn|Amir-Moezzi|2009|p=24}} although now the prevalent Shia view is that Ali's recension matches the Uthmanid codex, save for the order of its content.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=|pp=77, 81}} Ali's codex is said to be in the possession of Muhammad al-Mahdi, who would reveal the codex (and its authoritative commentary by Ali) when he reappears.{{Sfn|Amir-Moezzi|1994|p=89}}{{Sfn|Amir-Moezzi|1998}}

{{Transliteration|ar|Kitab Ali}} ({{Literal translation|book of Ali}}) is a non-extant collection of prophetic sayings gathered by Ali. The book may have concerned matters of lawfulness (halal) and unlawfulness (haram), including a detailed penal code. {{Transliteration|ar|Kitab Ali}} is also often linked to {{Transliteration|ar|al-Jafr}}, which is said to contain the esoteric teachings of Muhammad for his household.{{sfn|Esposito|2003|pp=175–176}}{{sfn|Modarressi|2003|p=5}} Copies of {{Transliteration|ar|Kitab Ali}} were likely available until the early eighth century, and parts of it have survived in later Shia and Sunni works.{{Sfn|Pakatchi|2015}}

The {{Transliteration|ar|Du'a' Kumayl}} is a popular Shia supplication attributed to Ali, transmitted by his companion, Kumayl ibn Ziyad.{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} Also attributed to Ali is {{Transliteration|ar|Kitab al-Diyat}} on Islamic law, fully quoted in the Shia hadith collection {{Transliteration|ar|Man la yahduruhu al-faqih}}.{{sfn|Modarressi|2003|pp=12–13}} The judicial decisions and executive orders of Ali during his caliphate have also been recorded.{{sfn|Modarressi|2003|p=17}} Other extant works attributed to Ali are collected in {{Transliteration|ar|Kitab al-Kafi}} and other Shia sources.{{sfn|Gleave|2008}}

{{Main article|Ali and Islamic sciences}}

The standard recitation of the Quran has been traced back to Ali,{{Sfn|Modarressi|2003|p=3}}{{sfn|Hulmes|2008|p=45}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=25}} and his written legacy is dotted with Quranic commentaries.{{Sfn|Pakatchi|2015}} Ibn Abbas, a leading early exegete, credited Ali with his interpretations of the Quran.{{Sfn|Lalani|2006|p=28}} Ali also related several hundred prophetic hadiths.{{Sfn|Pakatchi|2015}} He is further credited with the first systematic evaluations of hadiths, and is often considered a founding figure for hadith sciences.{{Sfn|Pakatchi|2015}} Ali is also regarded by some as the founder of Islamic theology, and his sayings contain the first rational proofs of the unity of God ({{Transliteration|ar|tawhid}}) in Islam.{{sfn|Nasr|2006|p=|pp=2, 120}}{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2014}} In later Islamic philosophy, Ali's sayings and sermons were mined for metaphysical knowledge.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} In particular, {{Transliteration|ar|Nahj al-balagha}} is a vital source for Shia philosophical doctrines, after the Quran and Sunna.{{Sfn|Corbin|2006|pp=35{{ndash}}36}} As a Shia imam, statements and practices attributed to Ali are widely studied in Shia Islam, where they are viewed as the continuation of prophetic teachings.{{Sfn|Pakatchi|2015}}

{{See also|Abu Turab}}File:Mirror writing2.jpg of "Ali is the vicegerent of God" (Ottoman, circa 1720–1730)]]

Ali is known by many honorifics in the Islamic tradition, some of which are especially used by Shias.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} His main {{Transliteration|ar|kunya}} (teknonym) was {{Transliteration|ar|ʾAbū al-Ḥasan}} ("father of al-Hasan").{{Sfn|Haj Manouchehri|2015}}{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} His titles include al-Murtaḍā ({{lit|one with whom [God] is pleased|one who is chosen and contented}}),{{Sfn|Haj Manouchehri|2015}}{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} Asad Allāh ({{lit|lion of God}}),{{Sfn|Alizadeh|2015}} Ḥaydar ({{lit|lion}}, the name initially her mother gave him),{{Sfn|Haj Manouchehri|2015}} Amīr al-Muʾminīn ({{lit|commander of the faithful' or 'prince of the faithful}}), and Imām al-Muttaqin ({{lit|leader of the God-fearing}}).{{Sfn|Haj Manouchehri|2015}}{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} In particular, Twelvers consider the title of Amir al-Mu'minin to be unique to Ali.{{sfn|Gibb|2012}} He is also referred to as Abū Turāb ({{lit|father of dust}}),{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} which might have initially been a pejorative by his enemies.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}}

File:Bab al-Nasr in 2017, photo by Hatem Moushir 26.jpg

Often praised for his piety and courage,{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=25}}{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=72}}{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} Ali fought to uphold his beliefs,{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}}{{Sfn|Steigerwald|2004}} but was also magnanimous in victory,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=309–310}}{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=25}} even risking the ire of some supporters to prevent the enslavement of women.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} He also showed his grief, wept for the dead, and reportedly prayed over his enemies.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} Yet Ali has also been criticized for his idealism and political inflexibility,{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=|pp=149–50}} for his egalitarian policies and strict justice antagonized many.{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=134}}{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=44}} Or perhaps these qualities were also present in Muhammad,{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=46}}{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=89}} whom the Quran addresses as, "They wish that thou [Muhammad] might compromise and that they might compromise."{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=|pp=46, 64}} At any rate, these qualities of Ali, rooted in his religious beliefs, contributed to his image today for his followers as a paragon of Islamic virtues,{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}}{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=310}}{{Sfn|Ayoub|2014|p=134}} particularly justice.{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}} Ali is also viewed as the model {{Transliteration|el|par excellence}} for Islamic chivalry ({{Transliteration|ar|futuwwa}}).{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2007|p=189n1}}{{Sfn|Glassé|2001|p=41}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=90}}

Historical accounts about Ali are often tendentious.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} For instance, in person, Ali is described in some Sunni sources as bald, heavy-built, short-legged, with broad shoulders, hairy body, long white beard, and affected by eye inflammation.{{Sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} Shia accounts about the appearance of Ali are markedly different. Those perhaps better match his reputation as a capable warrior.{{sfn|Abbas|2021|p=63}} Likewise, in manner, Ali is presented in some Sunni sources as rough, brusque, and unsociable.{{sfn|Veccia Vaglieri|2012a}} By contrast, Shia sources describe him as generous, gentle, and cheerful,{{sfn|Glassé|2001|p=41}}{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}} to the point that the Syrian war propaganda accused him of frivolity.{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=105}} Shia and Sufi sources are also replete with reports about his acts of kindness, especially to the poor.{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=|pp=35{{ndash}}36}} The necessary qualities in a commander, described in a letter attributed to Ali, may have well been a portrait of himself: slow to anger, happy to pardon, kind to the weak, and severe with the strong.{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=104}} His companion, Sa'sa'a ibn Suhan, described him similarly, "He [Ali] was amongst us as one of us, of gentle disposition, intense humility, leading with a light touch, even though we were in awe of him with the kind of awe that a bound prisoner has before one who holds a sword over his head."{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}}{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=104}}

{{Main|Ali in the Quran|Ali in hadith literature|Sunni view of Ali|Shia view of Ali}}

{{See also|Administrative policies of Ali|Druze|Yarsanism}}

{{Infobox saint

| name = Ali

| image = The first three Shiite Imams- Ali with his sons Hasan and Husayn, illustration from a Qajar manuscript, Iran, 1837-38 (gouache on paper).jpg

| imagesize = 150

| alt =

| caption = Gouache illustration of Ali (centre) and his sons, Hasan and Husayn, 1838, by an unknown painter

| titles = {{Hlist

| Caliph

| Imam}}

| birth_date =

| birth_place =

| home_town =

| residence =

| death_date =

| death_place =

| feast_day =

| venerated_in = {{Plainlist|

• Islam
• Baháʼí Faith
• Druze Faith
• Yarsanism

}}

| beatified_date =

| beatified_place =

| beatified_by =

| canonized_date =

| canonized_place =

| canonized_by =

| major_shrine = Imam Ali Shrine, Najaf

| attributes =

| patronage =

| issues =

| suppressed_date =

| suppressed_by =

| influences =

| tradition =

| influenced =

| major_works =

| birth_name =

}}

Ali's place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Muslim culture.{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}} Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=309–310}} For his admirers, he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre-Islamic chivalry.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=310}}

Ali regularly represented Muhammad in missions which are commonly linked to Quranic injunctions.{{sfn|Lalani|2006}}{{sfn|Momen|1985|pp=11–12}} For instance, the Verse of walaya (5:55) is a reference to when Ali gave his ring to a beggar, while praying in the mosque, according to Shia and some Sunni accounts.{{sfn|Nasr|Dagli|Dakake|Lumbard|2015|p=706}} If so, then this verse gives Ali the same spiritual authority ({{Transliteration|ar|walaya}}) as Muhammad.{{sfn|Nasr|Dagli|Dakake|Lumbard|2015|p=706-7}}{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|p=46}} In Shia sources, the {{Transliteration|ar|verse of tabligh}} (5:67) spurred Muhammad to designate Ali as his successor at the Ghadir Khumm, while the {{Transliteration|ar|verse of ikmal al-din}} (5:3) subsequently announced the perfection of Islam.{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|pp=70{{ndash}}71}} The verse of purification (33:33) concerns the status of purity of the Ahl al-Bayt ({{Lit|people of the house}}), which is limited to Ali, Fatima, and their two sons in Shia and some Sunni sources.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=16, 17}}{{Sfn|Leaman|2006}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=16–7, 325}} Another reference to the Ahl al-Bayt might be the Verse of mawadda (42:23).{{sfn|Lalani|2000|p=66}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=152}}{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|p=|pp=41, 60}} For Shias, this verse is a Quranic mandate to love and follow the Ahl al-Bayt.{{Sfn|Mavani|2013|p=41|pp=}}{{sfn|Lalani|2000|pp=|p=66}}

Muhammad frequently praise the qualities of Ali. The most controversial such statement, "He whose {{Transliteration|ar|mawla}} I am, Ali is his {{Transliteration|ar|mawla}}," was delivered at the Ghadir Khumm. This gave Ali the same spiritual authority ({{Transliteration|ar|walaya}}) as Muhammad, according to the Shia.{{Sfn|Tabatabai|1975|p=35}} Elsewhere, the hadith of the position likens Muhammad and Ali to Moses and Aaron,{{sfn|Miskinzoda|2015|p=69}} and thus supports the usurped right of Ali to succeed Muhammad in Shia Islam.{{Sfn|Miskinzoda|2015|p=76}} Other examples in standard Shia and Sunni collections of hadith include, "There is no youth braver than Ali," "No-one but a believer loves Ali, and no-one but a hypocrite (Munafiq) hates Ali," "I am from Ali, and Ali is from me, and he is the {{Transliteration|ar|wali}} ({{Literal translation|patron|guardian}}) of every believer after me," "The truth revolves around him [Ali] wherever he goes," "I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate (Bab (Shia Islam))," "Ali is with the Quran and the Quran is with Ali. They will not separate until they return to me at the [paradisal] pool."{{sfn|Momen|1985|pp=14{{ndash}}15}}{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2014}}

Ali is the common source of mystical and spiritual currents within both Sunni and Shia sects of Islam.{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2007|p=134}}{{Sfn|Louër|2020|p=30}} In particular, Ali is the spiritual head of some Sufi movements,{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} for Sufis believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad his esoteric knowledge and saintly authority,{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} which guide believers on their journey toward God.{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} Nearly all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being the Naqshbandis, who reach Muhammad through Abu Bakr.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}}

In Sunni Islam, Ali is venerated as a close companion of Muhammad,{{Sfn|Rauf|2007|p=201}} a foremost authority on the Quran and Islamic law,{{Sfn|Lalani|2006|p=28}}{{Sfn|Rauf|2007|p=202}} and the fountainhead of wisdom in Sunni spirituality.{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2007|p=134}} When the prophet died in 632, Ali had his claims to leadership, perhaps in reference to the Ghadir Khumm,{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=19{{ndash}}20}}{{Sfn|Amir-Moezzi|2014}} but he eventually accepted the temporal rule of the first three caliphs in the interest of Muslim unity.{{Sfn|Keaney|2021|p=136}} Ali is portrayed in Sunni sources as a trusted advisor of the first three caliphs,{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}}{{sfn|Poonawala|1982}} while their conflicts with Ali are minimized,{{Sfn|Jafri|1979|p=45}}{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=78}} in line with the Sunni tendency to show accord among companions.{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2019|p=78}}{{Sfn|Lucas|2004|p=255-84}}{{Sfn|Soufi|1997|p=120}} As the fourth and final Rashidun caliph, Ali holds a particularly high status in Sunni Islam, although this doctrinal reverence for Ali is a recent development for which the prominent Sunni traditionist Ibn Hanbal ({{Died in|855}}) is likely to be credited.{{Sfn|Gleave|2008}} Sunni hierarchy of companions places Ali below his three predecessors and above those who fought against him.{{Sfn|Gleave|2008}}{{Sfn|Crone|2005|p=135}}{{Sfn|Rauf|2007|p=201}} This ordering has required Sunni reinterpretation of those prophetic sayings that explicitly elevate Ali above all companions.{{Sfn|Gleave|2008}}

Ali takes center stage in Shia Islam:{{Sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} The Arabic word shi'a itself is short for '{{Transliteration|ar|shi'a}} of Ali' ({{Lit|followers of Ali}}),{{Sfn|Shomali|2003|p=14}} his name is incorporated into the daily call to prayer ({{Transliteration|ar|adhan}}),{{Sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} and he is regarded as the foremost companion of Muhammad.{{Sfn|Steigerwald|2004|p=36}}{{Sfn|Poonawala|2014|p=305}} The defining doctrine of Shia Islam is that Ali was the rightful successor of Muhammad through divinely-ordained designation,{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=147}} which is primarily a reference to the Ghadir Khumm.{{Sfn|Daftary|2015|p=172}} Ali is thought to have inherited the political and religious authority of Muhammad, even before his ascension to the caliphate in 656.{{sfn|Gleave|2004}}{{sfn|Mavani|2013|pp=52, 53}} In particular, Ali's predecessors are regarded as illegitimate rulers and usurpers of his rights.{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}} The all-encompassing bond of loyalty between Shia Muslims and their imams (and Muhammad in his capacity as imam) is known as {{Transliteration|ar|walaya}}.{{Sfn|Haider|2014|p=34}} Ali is also thought to be endowed with the privilege of intercession on the Judgment Day.{{sfn|Gleave|2008}} Early on, some Shias even attributed divinity to Ali,{{Sfn|Poonawala|1982}}{{Sfn|Steigerwald|2004|p=36}} but such extreme views were gradually rooted out of Shi'ism.{{Sfn|Momen|1985|pp=67{{ndash}}68}}

In Shia belief, Ali also inherited the esoteric knowledge of Muhammad,{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}}{{Sfn|Steigerwald|2004|p=37}} for instance, in view of the prophetic hadith, "I [Muhammad] am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate."{{Sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015b}} Ali is thus regarded, after Muhammad, as the interpreter, {{Transliteration|el|par excellence}}, of the Quran and the sole authoritative source of its (esoteric) teachings.{{Sfn|Daftary|2015|p=172}} Unlike Muhammad, however, Ali is not thought to have received divine revelation ({{Transliteration|ar|wahy}}), though he might have been guided by divine inspiration ({{Transliteration|ar|ilham}}).{{sfn|Gleave|2004}}{{sfn|Mavani|2013|pp=52{{ndash}}53}} Verse 21:73 of the Quran is sometimes cited here, "We made them imams, guiding by Our command, and We revealed ({{Transliteration|ar|awhayna'}}) to them the performance of good deeds, the maintenance of prayers, and the giving of Zakat (alms), and they used to worship Us."{{sfn|Tabatabai|1975|pp=186–189}} Shia Muslims also believe in the infallibility of Ali, as with Muhammad, that is, their divine protection from sins.{{sfn|Gleave|2008}}{{Sfn|Haider|2014|p=42}} Here, the verse of purification is sometimes cited.{{sfn|Mavani|2013|p=68}}{{Sfn|Momen|1985|p=155}} Ali's words and deeds are therefore considered a model for the Shia community and a source for their religious injunctions.{{sfn|Momen|1985|p=174}}{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2015a|p=38}}

The Alawites venerate Ali, the first of the Twelve Imams, as the physical manifestation of God.{{Sfn|Nisan|2002|p=116}}{{Sfn|Cosman|Jones|2009|p=407}} Even, the Alawite testimony of faith (shahada) translates as "there is no God but Ali".{{Sfn|Atwan|2015|p=58}} The Alawite trinity envisions God as being composed of three distinct manifestations, Ma'na (meaning), Ism (Name) and Bab (Door); which together constitute an "indivisible trinity". Ma'na symbolises the "source and meaning of all things" in Alawite mythology. According to Alawite doctrines, Ma'na generated the Ism, which in turn built the Bab. These beliefs are closely tied to the Alawite doctrine of reincarnations of the trinity.{{Sfn|Ismail|2016|p=67}}{{Sfn|Moosa|1987|p=311–312}} The final trinity of reincarnation in the Alawite trinity consists of Ali (Ma'na), Muhammad (Ism) and Salman the Persian (Bab). Alewites depict them as the sky, sun and moon respectively. Alawites deify Ali as the "last and supreme manifestation of God" who built the universe, attribute to him divine superiority, and believe that Ali created Muhammad and gave him the mission to spread Qur'anic teachings on earth.{{Sfn|Moosa|1987|p=312}}{{Sfn|Esposito|Moosa|1995|p=64}}{{Sfn|Ismail|2016|p=67}}{{Sfn|Nisan|2002|p=115, 117}}

In the Druze faith, Ali is considered a "minor prophet," like Plato and Socrates.[https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/druze-syria "Druze in Syria"]. Harvard Divinity School. Harvard University Press. Archived from [http://web.archive.org/web/20230920161333/https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/druze-syria the original] on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023. Even though the faith originally developed out of the Isma'ili branch of Shia Islam, the Druze are not Muslims,{{Sfn|Jacobs|2014|p=193}}{{Sfn|McLaurin|1979|p=114}} and do not accept the five pillars of Islam.{{Sfn|McLaurin|1979|p=114}} In Yarsanism, a religion founded by the Kurdish mystic Sultan Sahak, Ali is thought to be an incarnation of God,{{Sfn|Algar|1994|p=513}} and superior to Muhammad,{{Sfn|Algar|1994|p=513}} but their image as a Ghulat ({{Lit|exaggerators|extremists}}) subsect of Shia Islam is incorrect.{{Sfn|Algar|1994|p=513}}

File:Memorial_stone_Imam_Reza.jpg|The verse of {{Transliteration|ar|walaya}}, possibly the most controversial statement in the Quran linked to Ali, is engraved on the margins of this memorial stone, dating to the Seljuk era

File:Arabic caligraphic seal in Hagia Sophia.jpg|The word 'Ali' in Arabic calligraphy, inscribed in Hagia Sophia, Turkey

File:Shi'i_talismanic_piece.jpg|Ali with his sons, nineteenth century Iranian tapestry

{{See also|Historiography of early Islam}}

Much has been written about Ali in Islamic literature, second only to Muhammad.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} However, much of this material is colored by a positive or negative bias towards Ali.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} The primary sources about Ali are the Quran, hadiths, and other early Islamic works,{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} the most notable being The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays, attributed to a companion of Ali.{{sfn|Clarke|2005|p=59}} Such works were initially scarce, but this changed with the introduction of affordable paper in the Abbasid period. For instance, at least twenty-one monographs were composed on the Battle of Siffin between 750 and 950, thirteen of which were authored by the early historian Abu Mikhnaf ({{Died in|773{{ndash}}774}}). Most of these monographs are not extant except through quotations in later collections, such as the tenth-century {{Transliteration|ar|Tarikh al-Tabari}}.{{sfn|Robinson|2003|pp=27, 28, 34}} In addition to numerous works authored by Muslims, the secondary sources about Ali include writings of Arab Christians, Hindus, and also works by Western scholars.{{sfn|Afsaruddin|Nasr|2023}} When writing about Ali, early Western scholars often dismissed as fabricated the reports gathered in later periods because their authors often advanced their own Sunni or Shia partisan views. For instance, L. Caetani ({{Died in|1935}}) often rejected the historical reports attributed to the pro-Ali Ibn Abbas and anti-Ali Aisha. Caetani instead preferred accounts reported without isnad by early historians like Ibn Ishaq ({{Died in|767}}). By contrast, W. Madelung ({{Died in|2023}}) argued that the tendentiousness of a report alone does not imply its fabrication. Madelung instead advocated for the authentication of historical reports on the basis of their compatibility with other events and figures.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=xi, 19, 20}}

{{reflist|20em}}

{{refbegin|2}}

• {{Cite book |last=Abbas |first=H. |title=The Prophet's Heir: The Life of Ali ibn Abi Talib |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-300-25205-7 |author-link=Hassan Abbas (scholar)}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Adamec |author-first=L.W. |url=https://archive.org/details/historical-dictionary-of-islam-third-edition/mode/2up |title=Historical Dictionary of Islam |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4422-7723-6 |edition=Third |author-link=Ludwig W. Adamec |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |last=Afsaruddin |first=A. |date=2013 |title=The First Muslims: History and Memory |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-85168-518-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/the-first-muslims-history-and-memory-by-asma-afsaruddin/mode/2up |url-access=registration |author-link=Asma Afsaruddin}}
• {{cite book |title=The Divine Guide In Early Shi'ism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam |author-first=M.A. |author-last=Amir-Moezzi |translator-first=David |author-link=Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi |translator-last=Streight |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-7914-2122-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/thedivineguideinearlyshiism1/mode/1up |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |title=Revelation and Falsification |author1-first=M.A.|author1-last=Amir-Moezzi |editor1-first=E. |isbn=978-90-04-16782-7 |editor1-last=Kohlberg |editor2-first=M.A. |editor2-last=Amir-Moezzi |url=https://archive.org/details/KohlbergMoezziREVELATIONANDFALSIFICATIONTheKitabAlQiratOfAhmadB.MuhammadAlSayyariLeiden2009./mode/2up |url-access=registration |year=2009 |publisher=Brill|chapter=Information, Doubts and Contradictions in Islamic Sources|pages=12{{ndash}}23}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Aslan |author-first=R. |url=https://archive.org/details/RezaAslanNoGodButGod |title=No god but God: The Origins and Evolution of Islam |publisher=Random House |year=2005 |isbn=1-58836-445-3 |author-link=Reza Aslan |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book|title=The Crisis of Muslim History: Religion and Politics in Early Islam|author-first=M.M.|author-last= Ayoub|publisher=Oneworld Publications|year= 2014|isbn= 978-1-78074-674-6|url=https://archive.org/details/crisisofmuslimhi0000ayou/mode/2up|url-access=registration|author-link=Mahmoud M. Ayoub}}
• {{cite book |last1=Bill |first1=J. |last2=Williams |first2=J.A. |year=2002 |title=Roman Catholics and Shi'i Muslims: Prayer, Passion, and Politics |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=0-8078-2689-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/romancatholicssh0000bill/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L. |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World |last2=Moosa |first2=Matti |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995 |isbn=0-19-509612-6 |volume=1 |location= |pages= |chapter=Alawiyyah}}
• {{Cite book |last=Ismail |first=Raihan |title=Saudi Clerics and Shī'a Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-023331-0 |location= |pages=}}
• {{cite book|title=Medieval Islamic Political Thought|author-first=P.|author-last=Crone|year=2005|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=0-7486-2194-6|author-link=Patricia Crone}}
• {{cite book |author=Atwan |first=Abdel Bari |url= |title=Islamic State: The Digital Caliphate |publisher=University of California Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-520-28928-4 |location=Oakland |page= |quote=}}
• {{cite book |editor-last=Lawson |editor-first=T. |date=2005 |title=Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-85043-470-2|author-first=L.|author-last=Clarke|chapter=The Rise and Decline of Taqiyya in Twelver Shi'ism|pages=46{{ndash}}63}}
• {{cite book |last1=Cortese |first1=D. |last2=Calderini |first2=S. |date=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yz4pAAAAYAAJ |title=Women and the Fatimids in the World of Islam |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn= 978-0-7486-1732-6 |edition=1st}}
• {{cite book|title=History of Islamic Philosophy|author-first=H.|author-last=Corbin|author-link=Henry Corbin|translator1-first=L.|translator1-last= Sherrard|translator2-first=P.|translator2-last= Sherrard|publisher=Kegan Paul International|url=https://archive.org/details/byhenrycorbin/Henry%20Corbin%20-%20History-of-Islamic-Philosophy/mode/2up|url-access=registration|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7103-0416-2}}
• {{cite book |last1=Cosman |first1=Madeleine Pelner |url= |title=Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, 3-Volume Set |last2=Jones |first2=Linda Gale |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4381-0907-7 |pages= |chapter=The Nusayriyya Alawis |quote=}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Daftary |author-first=F. |url=https://archive.org/details/shii-heritage-series-farhad-daftary-a-history-of-shii-islam-i.-b.-tauris-2013_202104 |title=A History of Shi'i Islam |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-85772-333-8 |author-link=Farhad Daftary |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Daftary |author-first=F. |title=The Shi'i World: Pathways in Tradition and Modernity |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-78453-477-6 |editor1-last=Daftary |editor1-first=F. |pages=169{{ndash}}209 |chapter=Shi'i Communities in History |editor2-last=Sajoo |editor2-first=A.B. |editor3-last=Jiwa |editor3-first=S.|author-link=Farhad Daftary}}
• {{cite book |title=The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam |author-first=M.M. |author-last=Dakake |year=2007 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-7033-6 |author-link=Maria Massi Dakake}}
• {{cite book|title=The Ismā'īlīs: Their History and Doctrines|edition=Second|author-first=F.|author-last=Daftary|year=2007|isbn=978-0-511-35561-5|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/farhaddaftarytheismailistheirhistoryanddoctrines2ndedition/mode/|url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |last1=Donaldson |first1=Dwight M. |title=The Shi'ite Religion (A history of Islam in Persia and Irak) |date=1933 |publisher=Luzac and Company|url=https://archive.org/details/shiitereligionhi0000dona/mode/2up|url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |last=Donner |first=Fred M. |date=1999 |editor1-last=Esposito |editor1-first=J.L. |title=The Oxford history of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john/mode/2up|chapter=Muhammad and the Caliphate: Political History of the Islamic Empire up to the Mongol Conquest|isbn=0-19-510799-3|url-access=registration|pages=1{{ndash}}61}}
• {{Cite book |last=Donner |first=F.M. |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadbeliever0000donn/mode/2up |title=Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-674-06414-0 |author-link=Fred Donner |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Esposito |author-first=J.L. |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada/mode/2up |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-19-512558-4 |author-link=John Esposito |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book|title=Voices of Islam|volume=1|editor-first=V.J.|editor-last=Cornell|publisher=Praeger|year=2007|isbn=978-0-275-98733-6|chapter=What is Sunni Islam?|author-first=F.A.|author-last=Rauf|pages=185{{ndash}}216}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Haider |author-first=N. |title=Shi'i Islam: An Introduction |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-107-03143-2}}
• {{cite book |last=Hajjar |first=Lisa |title=Courting Conflict: The Israeli Military Court System in the West Bank and Gaza |publisher=University of California Press |year=2005 |isbn=9780520241947 |page= |quote=}}
• {{cite book |last=Halm |first=H. |date=2004 |title=Shi'ism |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=0-7486-1888-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/shiism0000halm|edition=Second|translator1-first=J.|translator1-last=Watson|translator2-first=M.|translator2-last=Hill}}
• {{cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Martin |title=Reorienting the East: Jewish Travelers to the Medieval Muslim World |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2014 |isbn=9780812290011 |page= |quote=}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Jafri |author-first=S.H.M. |url=https://archive.org/details/originsearlydeve0000jafr/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Origins and Early Development of Shi'a Islam |publisher=Longman |year=1979 |isbn=0-582-78080-2 |author-link=Husain Mohammad Jafri |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |author1-last=Kassam |author1-first=Z. |title=The Shi'i World: Pathways in Tradition and Modernity |author2-last=Blomfield |author2-first=B. |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-85772-967-5 |editor1-last=Daftary |editor1-first=F. |chapter=Remembering Fatima and Zaynab: Gender in Perspective |author-link=Zayn Kassam |editor2-last=Sajoo |editor2-first=A. |editor3-last=Jiwa |editor3-first=S.}}
• {{cite book|title='Uthman ibn 'Affan: Legend or Liability?|author-first=H.N.|author-last= Keaney|publisher=

Oneworld Publications|year=2021|isbn= 978-1-78607-697-7}}

• {{cite book |last=Kelsay |first=J. |date=1993 |title=Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics |publisher=Westminster/John Knox Press |isbn=0-664-25302-4|url=https://archive.org/details/islamwarstudyinc0000kels/mode/2up|url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Kennedy |author-first=H. |url=https://archive.org/details/the-prophet-and-the-age-of-the-caliphates-the-islamic-near-east-from-the-sixth-t/mode/2up |title=The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-138-78761-2 |edition=3rd |author-link=Hugh N. Kennedy |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |last=Klemm |first=V. |date=2005 |title=Ideas, Images, and Methods of Portrayal: Insights into Classical Arabic Literature and Islam |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-474-0726-3 |editor-last=Günther |editor-first=S. |pages=181–208 |chapter=Image Formation of an Islamic Legend: Fāṭima, the Daughter of the Prophet Muḥammad}}
• {{cite book|title=Early Shī'ī Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muḥammad al-Bāqir|author-first=A.R.|author-last=Lalani|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=1-85043-592-8|year=2000}}
• {{cite book |last=Lambton |first=A.K.S. |date=1991 |title=Landlord and Peasant in Persia: A Study of Land Tenure and Land Revenue Administration |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=1-85043-293-7}}
• {{cite book |last=Lapidus |first=I. |date=2002 |title=A History of Islamic Societies |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-77933-3|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofislamic0000lapi_t2d2/mode/2up|url-access=registration|edition=Second}}
• {{cite book |title=Sunnis and Shi'a: A Political History |author-first=L. |author-last=Louër |translator-first=E. |translator-last=Rundell |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-691-18661-0}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Lucas |author-first=S.C. |title=Constructive Critics, Ḥadīth Literature, and the Articulation of Sunnī Islam: The Legacy of the Generation of Ibn Sa'd, Ibn Ma'īn, and Ibn Ḥanbal |publisher=Brill |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-04-13319-8}}
• {{cite book |last=Madelung |first=W. |author-link=Wilferd Madelung |date=1997 |title=The Succession to Muḥammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-64696-3|url=https://archive.org/details/successiontomuam0000made/mode/2up|url-access=registration}}
• {{Cite book|last=Mavani|first=H.|url=https://archive.org/details/religiousauthori0000mava/mode/|title=Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-0-203-69428-2|url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |last=McHugo |first=J. |date=2017 |title=A Concise History of Sunnis and Shi'is |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=978-1-62616-587-8}}
• {{cite book |last=McLaurin |first=Ronald D. |title=The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East |publisher=Michigan University Press |year=1979 |isbn=9780030525964 |page= |quote=|author-link= Ronald D. McLaurin}}
• {{cite book |last=Modarressi |first=H. |author-link=Hossein Modarressi |date=2003 |title=Tradition and Survival: A Bibliographical Survey of Early Shī'ite Literature |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-85168-331-4 |volume=1 }}
• {{cite book |title=An Introduction to Shi'i Islam |author-first=M. |author-last=Momen |year=1985 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-03531-5 |author-link=Moojan Momen}}
• {{Cite book |last=Moosa |first=Matti |title=Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects |publisher=Syracuse University Press |year=1987 |isbn=0-8156-2411-5 |edition=1st |location= |pages=}}
• {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/thestudyquran_201909/mode/2up |title=The Study Quran: A New Translation and Commentary |publisher=Harper Collins |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-06-112586-7 |editor1-last=Nasr |editor1-first=S.H. |editor2-last=Dagli |editor2-first=C.K. |editor3-last=Dakake |editor3-first=M.M. |editor4-last=Lumbard |editor4-first=J.E.B. |editor5-last=Rustom |editor5-first=M.}}
• {{cite book |last=Nasr |first=S.H. |author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |date=2006 |title=Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-6799-2}}
• {{Cite book |last=Nisan |first=Mordechai |title=Minorities in the Middle East |publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc. |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7864-1375-1 |edition=2nd |pages= |chapter=6: Alawites: To Power and the Unknown |quote=}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Osman |author-first=R. |title=Female Personalities in the Qur'an and Sunna: Examining the Major Sources of Imami Shi'i Islam |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-315-77014-7}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Pierce |author-first=M. |title=Twelve Infallible Men: The Imams and the Making of Shi'ism |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-674-73707-5}}
• {{cite book|title=A Chronology of Islamic History, 570{{ndash}}1000 CE|author-first=H.U.|author-last= Rahman|publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers|year=1995|isbn=1-897940-32-7|url=https://archive.org/details/chronologyofisla0000rahm/mode/2up|url-access=registration }}
• {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=C.F. |date=2003 |title=Islamic Historiography |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-62936-2|url=https://archive.org/details/islamichistoriog0000robi/mode/2up|url-access=registration|author-link=Chase F. Robinson}}
• {{cite book |last1=Rubin |first1=U. |date=1995 |title=The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of Muḥammad as Viewed by the Early Muslims |publisher=Darwin Press |isbn=0-87850-110-X|author-link=Uri Rubin}}
• {{cite book |title=Islamic Messianism: The Idea of the Mahdi in Twelver Shi'ism |author-first=A.A. |author-last=Sachedina |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-87395-458-7 |author-link=Abdulaziz Sachedina}}
• {{cite book |last=Shaban |first=M.A. |date=1971 |title=Islamic History |url=https://archive.org/details/islamichistoryne00shab |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-08137-8}}
• {{cite book|title=Justice and Remembrance: Introducing the Spirituality of Imam 'Ali|author-first=R.|author-last=Shah-Kazemi|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2007|isbn=978-1-84511-526-5|author-link=Reza Shah-Kazemi}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Shah-Kazemi |author-first=R. |title=Imam 'Ali: From Concise History to Timeless Mystery |publisher=Matheson Trust |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-908092-18-2 }}
• {{cite book |last=Tabatabai |first=S.M.H. |url=https://archive.org/details/ShiaInIslamCopy/mode/2up |title=Shi'ite Islam |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1975 |isbn=0-87395-390-8 |translator-last=Nasr |translator-first=S.H. |author-link=Allameh Tabatabaei |translator-link= |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Veccia Vaglieri |author-first=L. |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0001unse_v9h2/mode/2up |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1970 |editor1-last=Holt |editor1-first=P.M. |volume=1 |pages=57–103 |chapter=The Patriarchal and Umayyad Caliphates |author-link=Laura Veccia Vaglieri |editor2-last=Lambton |editor2-first=A.K.S. |editor3-last=Lewis |editor3-first=B. |editor3-link=Bernard Lewis |editor1-link=Peter Holt (historian)|url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |last=Watt |first=W.M. |author-link=William Montgomery Watt |date=1960 |title=Muhammad at Mecca |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/WattMuhammadAtMecca/mode/2up|url-access=registration }}
• {{cite book |last1=Wain |first1=A. |last2=Hashim Kamali |first2=M. |date=2017 |title=The Architects of Islamic Civilisation |isbn=978-967-978-990-4 |publisher=Pelanduk Publications}}
• {{cite book |last=Wellhausen |first=J. |year=1901 |title=Die Religiös-Politischen Oppositionsparteien im Alten Islam |language=de |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358135 |publisher=Weidmannsche Buchhandlung |oclc=453206240 |author-link=Julius Wellhausen |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/arabkingdomandit029490mbp |url-access=registration |title=The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall |author-first=J. |author-last=Wellhausen |translator-first=M.G. |translator-last=Weir |publisher=University of Calcutta |year=1927 |oclc=752790641}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Hazleton |author-first=L. |url=https://archive.org/details/aftertheprophettheepicstoryoftheshiasunnisplitinislampdfdrive.com/mode/2up |title=After the Prophet: The Epic Story of the Shia-Sunni Split in Islam |publisher=Doubleday |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-385-53209-9 |author-link=Lesley Hazleton |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite book |title=Shi'i Islam: Origins, Faith and Practices |author-first=M.A. |author-last=Shomali |author-link=Mohammad Ali Shomali |publisher=Islamic College for Advanced Studies Press |year=2003 |isbn=1-904063-11-X}}
• {{cite book |title=The Study of Shi'i Islam: History, Theology, and Law |editor1-first=F. |editor1-last=Daftary |editor2-first=G. |editor2-last=Miskinzoda |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-78076-506-8 |chapter=The Evolution of al-Qādi al-Nu'man's Theory of Ismaili Jurisprudence as Reflected in the Chronology of his Works on Jurisprudence |author-first=I.K. |author-last=Poonawala |pages=295{{ndash}}351}}
• {{cite book |author-last=Shah-Kazemi |author-first=R. |title=The Shi'i World: Pathways in Tradition and Modernity |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2015a |isbn=978-1-78453-477-6 |editor1-last=Daftary |editor1-first=F. |pages=33{{ndash}}55 |chapter=Imam Ali |editor2-last=Sajoo |editor2-first=A.B. |editor3-last=Jiwa |editor3-first=S.}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin|2}}

• {{cite encyclopedia |year=1998 |title=Eschatology iii. Imami Shi'ism |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eschatology-iii |author-link=Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi |volume=VIII/6 |pages=575–581 |author-first=M.A. |author-last=Amir-Moezzi |issn=2330-4804}}
• {{Cite encyclopedia |year=1982 |title=ʿALĪ B. ABĪ ṬĀLEB ii. ʿAlī as seen by the Community |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ali-b-abi-taleb#pt2 |last=Kohlberg |first=E.}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Madelung |first=W. |author-link=Wilferd Madelung |date=2003 |title=Ḥasan b. 'Ali b. Abi Ṭāleb |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hasan-b-ali |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117041057/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hasan-b-ali |archive-date=17 November 2013 |pages=26{{ndash}}28 |issn=2330-4804}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |title=Abū Lo'Lo'a |author-first=Ch. |author-last=Pellat |year=1983 |volume=I/3 |pages=333{{ndash}}334 |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abu-loloa-a-persian-slave-of-mogira-b |issn=2330-4804}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author-first=I.K. |author-last=Poonawala |author-link=Ismail Poonawala |title='Alī b. Abī Ṭāleb I. Life |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |edition=Online |year=1982 |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ali-b-abi-taleb#pt1}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin|2}}

• {{Cite encyclopedia |year=1994 |title=EHL-i HAK |encyclopedia=İslâm Ansiklopedisi |publisher= |last=Algar |first=Hamid |volume=10 |pages=513–515 |language=Turkish |chapter=}}
• {{cite encyclopedia|author-last=Amir-Moezzi|author-first= M.A.|title= Ghadīr Khumm|encyclopedia= Encyclopaedia of Islam|edition= Third| editor1-first= K.|editor1-last= Fleet|editor2-first=G.|editor2-last= Krämer|editor3-first= D.|editor3-last= Matringe|editor4-first= J.|editor4-last= Nawas|editor5-first= D.J.|editor5-last= Stewart |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419|url-access=subscription |year= 2014 |doi= 10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419|isbn= 978-90-04-26961-3}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Daftary |first=F. |title='Alids |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Third | editor1-first= K.|editor1-last= Fleet|editor2-first=G.|editor2-last= Krämer|editor3-first= D.|editor3-last= Matringe|editor4-first= J.|editor4-last= Nawas|editor5-first= D.J.|editor5-last= Stewart |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26329|url-access=subscription |year= 2014 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26329 |isbn= 978-90-04-17137-4}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Djebli |author-first=M. |title=Nahd̲j̲ al-Balāg̲h̲a |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Second |editor1-first=P. |editor1-last=Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |year=2012 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5752 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5752|url-access=subscription |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Gibb |first=H.A.R. |date=2012 |title=Amīr al-Mu'minīn |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0617 |edition=Second|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0617|url-access=subscription |isbn= 978-90-04-16121-4|s2cid=186002378 }}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Gleave |first=R.M. |date=2008 |title='Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26324 |edition=Third|editor1-last= Fleet|editor2-first=G.|editor2-last= Krämer|editor3-first= D.|editor3-last= Matringe|editor4-first= J.|editor4-last= Nawas|editor5-first= D.J.|editor5-last= Stewart|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26324|url-access=subscription|isbn= 978-90-04-17137-4}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Huart |author-first=Cl. |date=2012a |title='Ali |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |doi=10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_COM_0020 |edition=First |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_COM_0020|url-access=subscription|editor1-first = M.Th.|editor1-last= Houtsma|editor2-first= T.W.|editor2-last= Arnold|editor3-first= R.|editor3-last= Basset|editor4-first= R.|editor4-last= Hartmann|isbn= 978-90-04-08265-6}}
• {{cite encyclopedia|author-last=Huart|author-first= Cl.|title= 'Alids|encyclopedia= Encyclopaedia of Islam |editor1-first=M.Th.|editor1-last= Houtsma|editor2-first= T.W.|editor2-last= Arnold|editor3-first= R.|editor3-last= Basset|editor4-first= R.|editor4-last= Hartmann|year=2012b|doi= 10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_0645|url= http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_0645|url-access=subscription|isbn= 978-90-04-08265-6|edition=First}}
• {{cite encyclopedia|author-last=Lecker|author-first= M.|title=Ṣiffīn| encyclopedia= Encyclopaedia of Islam|edition= Second|editor1-first= P.|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs|year= 2012|doi= 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7018|url= http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7018|isbn=978-90-04-16121-4|url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Lecomte |first=G. |year=2012 |title=Al-Saḳīfa |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0980 |edition=Second |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0980|url-access=subscription|editor1-first= P.|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs|isbn= 978-90-04-16121-4}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Levi Della Vida |first1=G. |last2=Khoury |first2=R.G. |year=2012 |title='Ut̲h̲mān b. 'Affān |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1315 |edition=Second |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1315|url-access=subscription|isbn= 978-90-04-16121-4|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs}}
• {{cite encyclopedia|last=Levi Della Vida|first=G.|author-link=Giorgio Levi Della Vida|title= K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ites |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0497|url-access=subscription|year=2012|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0497 |isbn= 978-90-04-16121-4|edition=Second|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs}}
• {{cite encyclopedia|author-last=Lewis|author-first= B.|title='Alids|encyclopedia= Encyclopaedia of Islam|edition= Second| editor1-first=P.|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs|year=2012|doi= 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0543|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0543|url-access=subscription|isbn= 978-90-04-16121-4 |author-link=Bernard Lewis}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Madelung |first=W. |author-link=Wilferd Madelung |year=2012 |title=S̲h̲ī'a |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6920 |edition=Second|editor1-first=P.|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs|isbn= 978-90-04-16121-4|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6920|url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Schmucker |author-first=W. |title=Mubāhala |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Second |editor1-first=P. |editor1-last=Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |year=2012 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5289 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5289 |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4|url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Veccia Vaglieri |first=L. |author-link=Laura Veccia Vaglieri |date=2012g |title=Ibn Muld̲j̲am |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0339 |edition=Second |isbn= 978-90-04-16121-4|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0339|url-access=subscription|editor1-first=P.|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Veccia Vaglieri |first=L. |author-link=Laura Veccia Vaglieri |date=2012f |title=al-D̲j̲amal |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1962 |edition=Second |editor1-first=P.|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1962|url-access=subscription|isbn= 978-90-04-16121-4}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Veccia Vaglieri |first=L. |author-link=Laura Veccia Vaglieri |date=2012b |title=G̲h̲adīr K̲h̲umm|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2439 |edition=Second |editor1-first=P.|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2439|url-access=subscription|isbn= 978-90-04-16121-4}}
• {{cite encyclopedia|title='Alī b. Abī Ṭālib|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0046|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Second |editor1-first=P.|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs |url-access=subscription|isbn= 978-90-04-16121-4|year=2012a|author-last=Veccia Vaglieri|author-first=L.|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0046 }}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Veccia Vaglieri |author-first=L. |date=2012d |title=Fāṭima |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0217 |edition=Second|editor1-first=P.|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0217|url-access=subscription|isbn= 978-90-04-16121-4}}
• {{cite encyclopedia|author-last=Veccia Vaglieri|author-first= L.|title= (al-)Ḥasan b. 'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib| encyclopedia= Encyclopaedia of Islam|edition= Second|editor1-first= P.|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs|year=2012e|doi= 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0272|url= http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0272|isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}
• {{cite encyclopedia|author-last=Veccia Vaglieri|author-first= L.|title=Fadak|encyclopedia= Encyclopaedia of Islam|edition= Second|editor1-first= P.|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2218 |year= 2012c|doi= 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2218|isbn= 978-90-04-16121-4|url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Watt |first=M.W. |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1986 |title=Abū Bakr |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0165 |edition=Second |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0165|url-access=subscription| editor1-first= P.|editor1-last= Bearman|editor2-first= Th.|editor2-last= Bianquis|editor3-first= C.E.|editor3-last= Bosworth|editor4-first= E.|editor4-last= van Donzel|editor5-first= W.P.|editor5-last= Heinrichs}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin|2}}

• {{cite encyclopedia |author-first=M. |author-last=Alizadeh |translator-first=F. |translator-last=Negahban |title='Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 11. The Iconography of Imam 'Alī in Persianate Islamic Art |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica |editor-first=F. |editor-link=Farhad Daftary |editor-last=Daftary |year=2015 |doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126 |url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite encyclopedia|author-last= Bahramian|author-first= A.|title='Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 3. Caliphate|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica|editor-first= Farhad|editor-last= Daftary|year=2015|doi= 10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126|url-access=subscription|translator-first=M.|translator-last=Melvin-Koushki}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author-first=F. |author-last=Haj Manouchehri |translator-first=Matthew |translator-last=Melvin-Koushki|title='Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 1. Names and Titles |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica |editor-first=F. |editor-link=Farhad Daftary |editor-last=Daftary |year=2015|doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126|url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |year=2015 |title='Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 6. Mysticism (Taṣawwuf and 'Irfān) |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica |editor-last=Daftary |editor-first=F. |editor-link=Farhad Daftary |author2-last=Shah-Kazemi |author2-first=R. |translator-first=K. |translator-last=Brown |author1-first=M.R. |author1-last=Jozi |doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126|url-access=subscription |author2-link=Reza Shah-Kazemi}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |year=2015 |title='Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 4. Qur'ān and Ḥadīth Sciences |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126 |editor-last=Daftary |editor-first=F. |editor-link=Farhad Daftary |first1=A. |last1=Pakatchi |doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126 |translator-last=Valey |translator-first=M.I. |url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Sajjadi |first=S. |date=2018 |title=Fadak |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica |doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126 |translator-first=A.|translator-last=Khaleeli|editor-first=F.|editor-last=Daftary|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126|url-access=subscription}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |title='Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 2. Biography |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica |editor-first=F. |editor-last=Daftary |year=2015b |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26324 |author-first=R. |author-last=Shah-Kazemi |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26324 |translator-first=M. |translator-last=Melvin-Koushki |isbn=978-90-04-17137-4|url-access=subscription}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin|2}}

• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Afsaruddin |first=A. |date=2006 |editor-first=O. |editor-last=Leaman |title=Ghadir Khumm |encyclopedia=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9-78-0-415-32639-1 |page=218 |url=https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/218/mode/2up|url-access=registration}}
• {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2023 |title=Ali |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ali-Muslim-caliph |author1-link=Asma Afsaruddin |last2=Nasr |first2=S.H. |last1=Afsaruddin |first1=A. |author2-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Anthony |first=S.W. |date=2013 |title=Ali b. Abi Talib |encyclopedia=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/princetonencyclo0000unse/ |editor-last=Bowering |editor-first=G.|isbn=978-0-691-13484-0|pages=30{{ndash}}32}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Buehler |author-first=A.F. |date=2014 |title=Fatima|encyclopedia=Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopaedia of the Prophet of God |publisher=ABC-CLIO |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadinhistor0000unse_h4s1/mode/2up |editor1-last=Fitzpatrick |editor1-first=C. |volume=1 |pages=182–187 |isbn=978-1-61069-178-9 |editor2-last=Walker |editor2-first=A.H.|url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God|editor1-first=C.|editor1-last= Fitzpatrick| editor2-first=A.H.|editor2-last= Walker|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2014|isbn= 978-1-61069-178-9|volume = 1|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadinhistor0000unse_h4s1/page/18/mode/2up|pages=18–20|author-first=J.|author-last=Cappucci|title='A'isha|url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Faizer |first=R. |date=2006 |editor-last=Meri |editor-first=J.W. |title=Sira |encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |page=754 |isbn=0-415-96692-2|url=https://archive.org/details/MedievalIslamicCivilizationAnEncyclopedia_201603/page/n797/mode/2up?q=%222%3A207%22|url-access=registration}}
• {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2013 |title=Arbitration |encyclopedia=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/princetonencyclo0000unse/ |last=Fadel |first=M. |editor-last=Bowering |editor-first=G.|isbn=978-0-691-13484-0|pages=43{{ndash}}44|url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Fedele |author-first=V. |date=2018 |editor-last=de-Gaia |editor-first=S. |title=Fatima|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women in World Religions |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=56 |isbn=978-1-4408-4850-6 }}
• {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Glassé |editor-first=C. |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas/page/39/mode/2up |encyclopedia=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=AltaMira Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-7591-0189-2 |title='Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (598-40/598-661) |pages=39–41|url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Gleave |first=R. |date=2004 |title=Imamate |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world |volume=1 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA|isbn=0-02-865604-0 |editor-first=R.C. |editor-last=Martin |pages=350{{ndash}}351}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Heck |first=P.L. |date=2023 |title=Politics and the Quran |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān|doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00149 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00149|editor-first=J.|editor-last=Pink }}
• {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilisation and Religion |editor-first=I.R. |editor-last=Netton |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-700-71588-6 |title='Ali ibn Abi Talib |pages=43{{ndash}}45 |author-first=E.D.A. |author-last=Hulmes}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |title=Ali ibn Abi Talib |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=Facts on File |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopedia-of-islam_202006/page/32/mode/2up |editor-last=Campo |editor-first=J.E. |pages=33{{ndash}}34 |url-access=registration|author-first=L.G.|author-last=Jones|isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title='Ali ibn Abi Talib |encyclopedia=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |url=https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/28/mode/2up |last=Lalani |first=A.R. |editor-last=Leaman |editor-first=O. |editor-link=Oliver Leaman |pages=28{{ndash}}32 |isbn=9780415326391 |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |editor-first=O. |editor-last=Leaman |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-32639-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/thequrananencyclopediaed.byoliverleaman_201909/page/n709/mode/2up |author-first=O. |author-last=Leaman |title=Ahl al-Bayt |pages=16–17 |url-access=registration |author-link=Oliver Leaman}}
• {{cite encyclopedia|author-last=McAuliffe|author-first= J.D.|title= Fāṭima|encyclopedia= Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān|url= http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00153|editor-first= J.|editor-last= Pink |author-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe|year=2023|doi= 10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00153|url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Fatima (al-Zahra') bint Muhammad|encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |url=https://archive.org/details/MedievalIslamicCivilizationAnEncyclopedia_201603/page/n291/mode/2up |editor-last=Meri |editor-first=J.W. |volume=1 |pages=248–250 |isbn=0-415-96692-2 |author-first=T. |author-last=Qutbuddin |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title='Ali ibn Abi Talib |encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |url=https://archive.org/details/MedievalIslamicCivilizationAnEncyclopedia_201603/page/n79/mode/2up |author-link=Reza Shah-Kazemi |editor-last=Meri |editor-first=J.W. |volume=1 |pages=36{{endash}}37 |isbn=978-0-415-96690-0 |author-first=R. |author-last=Shah-Kazemi |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |title='Ali ibn Abi Talib |encyclopedia=Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopaedia of the Prophet of God |publisher=ABC-CLIO |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadinhistor0000unse_h4s1/mode/2up |last=Shah-Kazemi |first=R. |year=2014 |editor1-last=Fitzpatrick |editor1-first=C. |volume=1 |pages=182–187 |isbn=978-1-610-69177-2 |editor2-last=Walker |editor2-first=A.H.|url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title='Ali |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse/page/34/mode/2up |editor-last=Martin |editor-first=R.C. |volume=1 |pages=35{{endash}}38 |isbn=0028656040 |author-first=D. |author-last=Steigerwald |url-access=registration}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last=Thomas |first=D. |date=2008 |title=Nahj al-balagha |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilisation and Religion |publisher=Routledge |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0000unse_h2t8/mode/2up |editor-last=Netton |editor-first=I.R. |isbn=978-0-7007-1588-6|pages=477{{ndash}}478|url-access=registration}}
• {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2014 |title=Abu Bakr al-Siddiq|encyclopedia=Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopaedia of the Prophet of God |publisher=ABC-CLIO |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadinhistor0000unse_h4s1/mode/2up |editor1-last=Fitzpatrick |editor1-first=C. |volume=1 |pages=1–4 |isbn=9781610691789 |editor2-last=Walker |editor2-first=A.H. |author-last=Walker |author-first=A.H. |url-access=registration}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin|2}}

• {{cite journal |last=Arafat |first=W. N. |date=1976 |title=New Light on the Story of Banū Qurayẓa and the Jews of Medina |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |pages=100–107 |volume=108|issue=2 }}
• {{cite journal |last1=Hinds |first1=M. |date=1971 |title=Kûfan Political Alignments and Their Background in the Mid-Seventh Century A.D. |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=346–367 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800001306|s2cid=155455942 | issn=0020-7438}}
• {{cite journal |author-last=Hinds |author-first=M. |year=1972a |title=The Murder of the Caliph 'Uthman |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=3 |pages=450–469|issue=4 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800025216 |s2cid=159763369 }}
• {{cite journal|author-last=Hinds|author-first=M.|title=The Siffin Arbitration Agreement|journal= Journal of Semitic Studies|volume= 17|year= 1972b|issue=1 |pages= 93–129|doi=10.1093/jss/17.1.93 }}
• {{Cite thesis |last=Khetia |first=V. |title=Fatima as a Motif of Contention and Suffering in Islamic Sources |date=2013 |publisher=Concordia University |url=https://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/976817/}}
• {{cite journal |last=Lalani |first=A. |date=2011 |title=Ghadir Khumm |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0105 |journal=Islamic Studies}}
• {{cite journal |last=Miskinzoda |first=G. |year=2015 |title=The Significance of the ḥadīth of the Position of Aaron for the Formulation of the Shī'ī Doctrine of Authority |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=78 |issue=1 |page=67–82 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X14001402 |s2cid=159678004 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Modarressi |first=H. |year=1993 |title=Early Debates on the Integrity of the Qur'ān: A Brief Survey |journal=Studia Islamica |volume=77 |issue=77 |pages=5–39 |doi=10.2307/1595789|jstor=1595789 |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/1595789 }}
• {{cite journal |author-last=Petersen |author-first=E. L. |title='Alī and Mu'āwiah: The Rise of the Umayyad Caliphate 656–661 |journal=Acta Orientalia |volume=23 |year=1958 |pages=157–196|doi=10.5617/ao.5297|doi-access=free }}
• {{cite thesis |last=Soufi |first=D. L. |date=1997 |title=The Image of Fatima in Classical Muslim Thought |publisher=Princeton University |degree=PhD |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304390529 |id={{ProQuest|304390529}}}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite book |last=Hamidullah |first=Muhammad |title=The Prophet's Establishing a State and His Succession |year=1988 |publisher=University of California |isbn=978-969-8016-22-7 |ref=none }}
• {{cite book |last=Merrick |first=James L. |date=2005 |title=The Life and Religion of Mohammed as Contained in the Sheeah Traditions |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |isbn=978-1-4179-5536-7 |ref=none }}

{{refend}}

{{S-start}}

{{S-off}}{{S-hou|Banu Hashim||{{circa|600}}|{{circa|28 January}}|661|Quraysh|name=Ali}}

{{s-rel|su}}

{{s-bef

| before = Uthman ibn Affan

}}

{{s-ttl

| title = Caliph of Islam
4th Rashidun Caliph

| years = 656–661

}}

{{s-aft

| after = Hasan ibn Ali

}}

{{S-rel|sh}}

{{S-bef

| before = Muhammad

| as = Final prophet

| rows = 4

}}

{{S-ttl

| title = Twelver Imam{{Clear}}Zaidi Imam{{Clear}} Ismaili Imam{{clear}}Alevi Imam{{clear}}Alawite Imam

| years = 632–661

}}

{{S-aft

| after = Hasan ibn Ali

| as = Imam

| rows = 2

}}

{{S-end}}

{{Ali's companions}}

{{Rashidun Caliphs}}

{{Shia Imams}}

{{Ten companions of Muhammad}}

{{Sister bar}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:600 births

Category:661 deaths

Category:7th-century caliphs

Category:7th-century monarchs in Asia

Category:Arab generals

Category:Arab Muslims

Category:Arab politicians

Category:Assassinated caliphs

Category:Assassinated Shia imams

Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy

Category:Companions of the Prophet

Category:Deaths by edged and bladed weapons

Category:Deified men

Category:Family of Muhammad

Category:Islamic philosophers

Category:Lions in religion

Category:People from Mecca

Category:People of the First Fitna

Category:Philanthropists

Category:Rashidun caliphs

Category:Sahabah martyrs

Category:Sahabah who participated in the battle of Badr

Category:Sahabah who participated in the battle of Uhud

Category:Shia imams

Category:Twelve Imams

Category:Writers of the medieval Islamic world

Category:Zaydi imams