Biodiversity loss#Climate change

{{See also|Global biodiversity|Biodiversity hotspot}}

File:IUCN Kategorien Rote Liste.svg categories of the IUCN]]

File:Extinction Rebellion-2.jpg (2018).]]The current rate of global biodiversity loss is estimated to be 100 to 1000 times higher than the (naturally occurring) background extinction rate, faster than at any other time in human history,{{cite news |date=February 2, 2021 |title=Economics of biodiversity review: what are the recommendations? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/02/economics-of-biodiversity-review-what-are-the-recommendations |access-date=February 8, 2021 |work=The Guardian |location= |vauthors=Carrington D |archive-date=May 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524182314/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/02/economics-of-biodiversity-review-what-are-the-recommendations |url-status=live}}{{cite web |author-link=Partha Dasgupta |date=2021 |title=The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review Headline Messages |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf |access-date=December 16, 2021 |website= |publisher=UK government |page=1 |quote=Biodiversity is declining faster than at any time in human history. Current extinction rates, for example, are around 100 to 1,000 times higher than the baseline rate, and they are increasing. |vauthors=Dasgupta P |archive-date=May 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520070152/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf |url-status=live}} and is expected to grow in the upcoming years.{{cite journal |vauthors=Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Barnosky AD, García A, Pringle RM, Palmer TM |date=June 2015 |title=Accelerated modern human-induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction |journal=Science Advances |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=e1400253 |bibcode=2015SciA....1E0253C |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1400253 |pmc=4640606 |pmid=26601195}}{{cite journal |vauthors=De Vos JM, Joppa LN, Gittleman JL, Stephens PR, Pimm SL |date=April 2015 |title=Estimating the normal background rate of species extinction |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/98443/1/Conservation_Biology_2014_early-view.pdf |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=452–62 |doi=10.1111/cobi.12380 |pmid=25159086 |bibcode=2015ConBi..29..452D |s2cid=19121609 |access-date=December 5, 2019 |archive-date=November 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104111411/https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/98443/1/Conservation_Biology_2014_early-view.pdf |url-status=live}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Raven PH |date=June 2020 |title=Vertebrates on the brink as indicators of biological annihilation and the sixth mass extinction |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=117 |issue=24 |pages=13596–13602 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11713596C |doi=10.1073/pnas.1922686117 |pmc=7306750 |pmid=32482862 |doi-access=free}} The fast-growing extinction trends of various animal groups like mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish have led scientists to declare a current biodiversity crisis in both land and ocean ecosystems.{{cite journal |vauthors=Andermann T, Faurby S, Turvey ST, Antonelli A, Silvestro D |date=September 2020 |title=The past and future human impact on mammalian diversity |journal=Science Advances |volume=6 |issue=36 |pages=eabb2313 |bibcode=2020SciA....6.2313A |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abb2313 |pmc=7473673 |pmid=32917612}}CIESM 2013. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271767063_Marine_Extinctions_Patterns_and_Processes_-_Executive_Summary Marine extinctions - patterns and processes]. CIESM Workshop Monograph n° 45 [F. Briand ed.], 188 p., CIESM Publisher, Monaco.

In 2006, many more species were formally classified as rare or endangered or threatened; moreover, scientists have estimated that millions more species are at risk that have not been formally recognized.{{Cite journal |last1=Cardinale |first1=Bradley J. |last2=Duffy |first2=J. Emmett |last3=Gonzalez |first3=Andrew |last4=Hooper |first4=David U. |last5=Perrings |first5=Charles |last6=Venail |first6=Patrick |last7=Narwani |first7=Anita |last8=Mace |first8=Georgina M. |last9=Tilman |first9=David |last10=Wardle |first10=David A. |last11=Kinzig |first11=Ann P. |date=2012-06-06 |title=Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature11148 |journal=Nature |volume=486 |issue=7401 |pages=59–67 |doi=10.1038/nature11148 |pmid=22678280 |bibcode=2012Natur.486...59C |s2cid=4333166 |issn=0028-0836}}

Deforestation also plays a large role in biodiversity loss. More than half of the worlds biodiversity is hosted in tropical rainforest.{{Cite journal |last=Giam |first=Xingli |date=2017-06-06 |title=Global biodiversity loss from tropical deforestation |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=114 |issue=23 |pages=5775–5777 |bibcode=2017PNAS..114.5775G |doi=10.1073/pnas.1706264114 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=5468656 |pmid=28550105 |doi-access=free}} Regions that are subjected to exponential loss of biodiversity are referred to as biodiversity hotspots. Since 1988 the hotspots increased from 10 to 34. Of the total 34 hotspots currently present, 16 of them are in tropical regions (as of 2006).{{Cite journal |last1=Jha |first1=S. |last2=Bawa |first2=K. S. |date=June 2006 |title=Population Growth, Human Development, and Deforestation in Biodiversity Hotspots |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00398.x |url-status=live |journal=Conservation Biology |language=en |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=906–912 |bibcode=2006ConBi..20..906J |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00398.x |issn=0888-8892 |pmid=16909582 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122172953/https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00398.x |archive-date=January 22, 2023 |access-date=March 31, 2024|url-access=subscription }} Researchers have noted in 2006 that only 2.3% of the world is covered with biodiversity loss hotspots, and even though only a small percentage of the world is covered in hotspots, it host a large fraction (50%) of vascular plant species.

In 2021, about 28 percent of the 134,400 species assessed using the IUCN Red List criteria are now listed as threatened with extinction—a total of 37,400 species compared to 16,119 threatened species in 2006.{{Cite web|title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/en|access-date=April 30, 2021|website=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|archive-date=March 4, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304172225/https://www.iucnredlist.org/en|url-status=live}}

A 2022 study that surveyed more than 3,000 experts found that "global biodiversity loss and its impacts may be greater than previously thought", and estimated that roughly 30% of species "have been globally threatened or driven extinct since the year 1500."{{cite news|last=Melillo|first=Gianna|date=July 19, 2022|title=Threat of global extinction may be greater than previously thought, study finds|url=https://thehill.com/changing-america/sustainability/environment/3565945-threat-of-global-extinction-may-be-greater-than-previously-thought-study-finds/|work=The Hill|location=|access-date=July 20, 2022|archive-date=July 19, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719180734/https://thehill.com/changing-america/sustainability/environment/3565945-threat-of-global-extinction-may-be-greater-than-previously-thought-study-finds/|url-status=live}}{{cite journal |last1=Isbell|first1=Forest|last2=Balvanera|first2=Patricia|date=2022 |title=Expert perspectives on global biodiversity loss and its drivers and impacts on people|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|volume= 21|issue= 2|pages= 94–103|doi=10.1002/fee.2536|s2cid=250659953 |doi-access=free|hdl=10852/101242|hdl-access=free}}

Research published in 2023 found that, out of 70,000 species, about 48% are facing decreasing populations due to human activities, while only 3% are seeing an increase in populations.{{cite news |author= |date=May 23, 2023 |title=Biodiversity: Almost half of animals in decline, research shows |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-65681648 |work=BBC |location= |access-date=May 25, 2023 |archive-date=July 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717222234/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-65681648 |url-status=live}}{{cite journal |last1=Finn|first1=Catherine|last2=Grattarola|first2=Florencia |last3=Pincheira-Donoso|first3=Daniel |date=2023 |title=More losers than winners: investigating Anthropocene defaunation through the diversity of population trends|url= |journal=Biological Reviews|volume= 98|issue= 5|pages= 1732–1748|doi=10.1111/brv.12974|pmid=37189305 |s2cid=258717720 |access-date=|doi-access=free}}{{cite news|last=Paddison|first=Laura|date=May 22, 2023|title=Global loss of wildlife is 'significantly more alarming' than previously thought, according to a new study|url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/05/22/world/wildlife-crisis-biodiversity-scn-climate-intl/index.html|work=CNN|location=|access-date=May 25, 2023|archive-date=May 25, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525012839/https://www.cnn.com/2023/05/22/world/wildlife-crisis-biodiversity-scn-climate-intl/index.html|url-status=live}}

{{See also|Measurement of biodiversity|alpha diversity}}

Biologists define biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a region".{{cite book |author=Tor-Björn Larsson |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=zeTU8QauENcC|page=178}} |title=Biodiversity evaluation tools for European forests |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2001 |isbn=978-87-16-16434-6 |page=178 |access-date=28 June 2011}}{{cite book |author=Davis |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=n0FvYeoHtAIC|page=40}} |title=Intro To Env Engg (Sie), 4E |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-0-07-067117-1 |pages=4 |access-date=28 June 2011}} To measure biodiversity loss rates for a particular location, scientists record the species richness and its variation over time in that area. In ecology, local abundance is the relative representation of a species in a particular ecosystem.{{Cite journal |last=Preston |first=F.W. |date=July 1948 |title=The Commonness, and Rarity, of Species |url=http://www.bgu.ac.il/desert_agriculture/Vegecology/Papers/Preston48.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Ecology |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=254–283 |doi=10.2307/1930989 |jstor=1930989 |bibcode=1948Ecol...29..254P |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222030534/http://www.bgu.ac.il/desert_agriculture/Vegecology/Papers/Preston48.pdf |archive-date=2014-12-22 |access-date=2019-02-12 |via=Ben-Gurion University of the Negev}} It is usually measured as the number of individuals found per sample. The ratio of abundance of one species to one or multiple other species living in an ecosystem is called relative species abundance. Both indicators are relevant for computing biodiversity.

There are many different biodiversity indexes.{{cite journal |vauthors=Cardinale BJ, Duffy JE, Gonzalez A, Hooper DU, Perrings C, Venail P, Narwani A, Mace GM, Tilman D, Wardle DA, Kinzig AP, Daily GC, Loreau M, Grace JB, Larigauderie A, Srivastava DS, Naeem S |date=June 2012 |title=Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity |url=https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/10240/7/wardle_d_etal_130415.pdf |journal=Nature |volume=486 |issue=7401 |pages=59–67 |bibcode=2012Natur.486...59C |doi=10.1038/nature11148 |pmid=22678280 |s2cid=4333166 |access-date=April 24, 2021 |archive-date=September 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921233215/http://pub.epsilon.slu.se/10240/7/wardle_d_etal_130415.pdf |url-status=live}} These investigate different scales and time spans.{{cite book |url=http://www.unige.ch/sciences/near/pdf/Tagliapietra%20and%20Sigovini%202010.pdf |title=Terre et Environnement |vauthors=Tagliapietra D, Sigovini M |publisher=Institut Forel, Département de Minéraologie, Département de Géologie et Paléontologie, Section Sciences de la Terre, Université de Genève |year=2010 |isbn=978-2-940153-87-9 |volume=88 |pages=147–155 |chapter=Biological diversity and habitat diversity: a matter of Science and perception |access-date=September 18, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202123357/http://www.unige.ch/sciences/near/pdf/Tagliapietra%20and%20Sigovini%202010.pdf |archive-date=February 2, 2017}} Biodiversity has various scales and subcategories (e.g. phylogenetic diversity, species diversity, genetic diversity, nucleotide diversity).

The question of net loss in confined regions is often a matter of debate.{{cite journal |vauthors=Gonzalez A, Cardinale BJ, Allington GR, Byrnes J, Arthur Endsley K, Brown DG, Hooper DU, Isbell F, O'Connor MI, Loreau M |date=August 2016 |title=Estimating local biodiversity change: a critique of papers claiming no net loss of local diversity |journal=Ecology |volume=97 |issue=8 |pages=1949–1960 |doi=10.1890/15-1759.1 |pmid=27859190 |s2cid=5920426 |quote=two recent data meta-analyses have found that species richness is decreasing in some locations and is increasing in others. When these trends are combined, these papers argued there has been no net change in species richness, and suggested this pattern is globally representative of biodiversity change at local scales |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016Ecol...97.1949G |hdl-access=free |hdl=2027.42/133578}}

File:1970- Decline in species populations - Living Planet Index.svg {{main|Wildlife#Loss and extinction}}

An October 2020 analysis by Swiss Re found that one-fifth of all countries are at risk of ecosystem collapse as the result of anthropogenic habitat destruction and increased wildlife loss.{{cite news |date=October 12, 2020 |title=Fifth of countries at risk of ecosystem collapse, analysis finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/12/fifth-of-nations-at-risk-of-ecosystem-collapse-analysis-finds |access-date=October 12, 2020 |work=The Guardian |vauthors=Carrington D |archive-date=May 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512155833/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/oct/12/fifth-of-nations-at-risk-of-ecosystem-collapse-analysis-finds |url-status=live}} If these losses are not reversed, a total ecosystem collapse could ensue.{{cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=February 24, 2023 |title=Ecosystem collapse 'inevitable' unless wildlife losses reversed |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/feb/24/ecosystem-collapse-wildlife-losses-permian-triassic-mass-extinction-study |access-date=February 25, 2023 |work=The Guardian |location= |quote=The researchers concluded: 'A biodiversity crash may be the harbinger of a more devastating ecosystem collapse.' |archive-date=February 25, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225022431/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/feb/24/ecosystem-collapse-wildlife-losses-permian-triassic-mass-extinction-study |url-status=live}}

In 2022, the World Wildlife Fund reported{{Cite web |title=The 2022 Living Planet Report |url=https://livingplanet.panda.org/en-US/ |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=livingplanet.panda.org |language=en-US |archive-date=March 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324021103/https://livingplanet.panda.org/en-US/ |url-status=live}} an average population decline of 68% between 1970 and 2016 for 4,400 animal species worldwide, encompassing nearly 21,000 monitored populations.{{Cite web |date=September 10, 2020 |title=Animal populations worldwide have declined nearly 70% in just 50 years, new report says |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/endangered-species-animal-population-decline-world-wildlife-fund-new-report/ |first1=Sophie |last1=Lewis |access-date=2023-03-23 |publisher=CBS News |language=en-US |archive-date=April 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404055037/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/endangered-species-animal-population-decline-world-wildlife-fund-new-report/ |url-status=live}}

{{main|Decline in insect populations|Insect biodiversity||}}

{{excerpt|Decline in insect populations|paragraphs=1-2}}

File:Earthworm on plant.jpg

Scientists have studied loss of earthworms from several long-term agronomic trials. They found that relative biomass losses of minus 50–100% (with a mean of minus 83%) match or exceed those reported for other faunal groups. Thus it is clear that earthworms are similarly depleted in the soils of fields used for intensive agriculture.{{cite journal |vauthors=Blakemore RJ |date=2018 |title=Critical Decline of Earthworms from Organic Origins under Intensive, Humic SOM-Depleting Agriculture |journal=Soil Systems |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=33 |doi=10.3390/soilsystems2020033 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018SoiSy...2...33B}} 50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]. Earthworms play an important role in ecosystem function, helping with biological processing in soil, water, and even greenhouse gas balancing.{{cite journal |vauthors=Dewi WS, Senge M |date=2015 |title=Earthworm diversity and ecosystem services under threat. |journal=Reviews in Agricultural Science |volume=3 |pages=25–35 |doi=10.7831/ras.3.0_25 |doi-access=free |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ras/3/0/3_25/_article |via=J-STAGE |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202121848/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ras/3/0/3_25/_pdf/-char/en |archive-date= 2024-02-02}} There are five reasons for the decline of earthworm diversity: "(1) soil degradation and habitat loss, (2) climate change, (3) excessive nutrient and other forms of contamination load, (4) over-exploitation and unsustainable management of soil, and (5) invasive species".{{rp|26}} Factors like tillage practices and intensive land use decimate the soil and plant roots that earthworms use to create their biomass.{{Cite journal |last1=Briones |first1=María Jesús I. |last2=Schmidt |first2=Olaf |date=October 2017 |title=Conventional tillage decreases the abundance and biomass of earthworms and alters their community structure in a global meta-analysis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28464547/ |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=23 |issue=10 |pages=4396–4419 |doi=10.1111/gcb.13744 |issn=1365-2486 |pmid=28464547|bibcode=2017GCBio..23.4396B}} This interferes with carbon and nitrogen cycles.

Knowledge of earthworm species diversity is quite limited as not even 50% of them have been described. Sustainable agriculture methods could help prevent earthworm diversity decline, for example reduced tillage.{{rp|32}} The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity is trying to take action and promote the restoration and maintenance of the many diverse species of earthworms.

{{excerpt|Decline in amphibian populations|paragraphs=1-2}}

{{excerpt|Decline in wild mammal populations|paragraphs=1-2}}

{{main|Bird conservation#Threats to birds}}

Some pesticides, like insecticides, likely play a role in reducing the populations of specific bird species.{{cite web |author-link=Elizabeth Pennisi |date=September 12, 2019 |title=Common pesticide makes migrating birds anorexic |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/common-pesticide-makes-migrating-birds-anorexic |access-date=September 19, 2019 |website=Science |vauthors=Pennisi E |archive-date=April 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411044129/https://www.science.org/content/article/common-pesticide-makes-migrating-birds-anorexic |url-status=live}} According to a study funded by BirdLife International, 51 bird species are critically endangered and eight could be classified as extinct or in danger of extinction. Nearly 30% of extinction is due to hunting and trapping for the exotic pet trade. Deforestation, caused by unsustainable logging and agriculture, could be the next extinction driver, because birds lose their habitat and their food.{{Cite web |date=September 5, 2018 |title=These 8 Bird Species Have Disappeared This Decade |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2018/09/news-macaw-extinct-bird-species-deforestation/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180905225909/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2018/09/news-macaw-extinct-bird-species-deforestation/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 5, 2018 |access-date=September 25, 2020 |website=Environment}}{{cite journal |vauthors=de Moraes KF, Santos MP, Gonçalves GS, de Oliveira GL, Gomes LB, Lima MG |date=July 17, 2020 |title=Climate change and bird extinctions in the Amazon |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=15 |issue=7 |pages=e0236103 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1536103D |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0236103 |pmc=7367466 |pmid=32678834 |doi-access=free}}

{{See also|Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity}}

While plants are essential for human survival, they have not received the same attention as the conservation of animals.{{cite journal |vauthors=Corlett RT |date=February 2016 |title=Plant diversity in a changing world: Status, trends, and conservation needs |journal=Plant Diversity |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=10–16 |doi=10.1016/j.pld.2016.01.001 |pmc=6112092 |pmid=30159445|bibcode=2016PlDiv..38...10C}} It is estimated that a third of all land plant species are at risk of extinction and 94% have yet to be evaluated in terms of their conservation status. Plants existing at the lowest trophic level require increased conservation to reduce negative impacts at higher trophic levels.{{cite journal |vauthors=Krauss J, Bommarco R, Guardiola M, Heikkinen RK, Helm A, Kuussaari M, Lindborg R, Ockinger E, Pärtel M, Pino J, Pöyry J, Raatikainen KM, Sang A, Stefanescu C, Teder T, Zobel M, Steffan-Dewenter I |date=May 2010 |title=Habitat fragmentation causes immediate and time-delayed biodiversity loss at different trophic levels |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=597–605 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01457.x |pmc=2871172 |pmid=20337698|bibcode=2010EcolL..13..597K}}

In 2022, scientists warned that a third of tree species are threatened with extinction. This will significantly alter the world's ecosystems because their carbon, water and nutrient cycles will be affected.{{cite news |date=2 September 2022 |title=Prevent tree extinctions or face global ecological catastrophe, scientists warn |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/sep/02/tree-extinctions-species-wildlife-ecosystems-scientists-aoe |access-date=15 September 2022 |work=The Guardian |language=en |archive-date=November 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108223449/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/sep/02/tree-extinctions-species-wildlife-ecosystems-scientists-aoe |url-status=live}}{{Cite journal |last1=Rivers |first1=Malin |last2=Newton |first2=Adrian C. |last3=Oldfield |first3=Sara |author4=((Global Tree Assessment Contributors)) |date=2022-08-31 |title=Scientists' warning to humanity on tree extinctions |journal=Plants, People, Planet |language=en |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=466–482 |doi=10.1002/ppp3.10314 |issn=2572-2611 |s2cid=251991010 |doi-access=free}} Forest areas are degraded due to common factors such as logging, fire, and firewood harvesting.{{Cite journal |last=Corlett |first=Richard T. |date=February 2016 |title=Plant diversity in a changing world: Status, trends, and conservation needs |journal=Plant Diversity |language=en |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=10–16 |doi=10.1016/j.pld.2016.01.001 |pmc=6112092 |pmid=30159445|bibcode=2016PlDiv..38...10C}} The GTA (global tree assessment) has determined that "17,510 (29.9%) tree species are considered threatened with extinction. In addition, there are 142 tree species recorded as Extinct or Extinct in the Wild."

Possible solutions can be found in some silvicultural methods of forest management that promote tree biodiversity, such as selective logging, thinning or crop tree management, and clear cutting and coppicing.{{cite journal |last1=Latterini |first1=Francesco |last2=Mederski |first2=Piotr |last3=Jaeger |first3=Dirk |last4=Venanzi |first4=Rachele |last5=Tavankar |first5=Farzam |last6=Picchio |first6=Rodolfo |date=2023-02-28 |title=The Influence of Various Silvicultural Treatments and Forest Operations on Tree Species Biodiversity |url=https://rdcu.be/da0n9 |journal=Current Forestry Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=59–71 |doi=10.1007/s40725-023-00179-0 |s2cid=257320452 |access-date=2023-04-29 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2023CForR...9...59L}} Without solutions, secondary forests recovery in species richness can take 50 years to recover the same amount as the primary forest, or 20 years to recover 80% of species richness.{{Cite journal |last1=Rozendaal |first1=Danaë M. A. |last2=Bongers |first2=Frans |last3=Aide |first3=T. Mitchell |last4=Alvarez-Dávila |first4=Esteban |last5=Ascarrunz |first5=Nataly |last6=Balvanera |first6=Patricia |last7=Becknell |first7=Justin M. |last8=Bentos |first8=Tony V. |last9=Brancalion |first9=Pedro H. S. |last10=Cabral |first10=George A. L. |last11=Calvo-Rodriguez |first11=Sofia |last12=Chave |first12=Jerome |last13=César |first13=Ricardo G. |last14=Chazdon |first14=Robin L. |last15=Condit |first15=Richard |date=March 2019 |title=Biodiversity recovery of Neotropical secondary forests |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=eaau3114 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aau3114 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=6402850 |pmid=30854424|bibcode=2019SciA....5.3114R}}

{{excerpt|Flowering plants#Conservation|paragraphs=1-2}}

{{main|Freshwater ecosystem#Threats}}

Freshwater ecosystems such as swamps, deltas, and rivers make up 1% of earth's surface. They are important because they are home to approximately one third of vertebrate species.{{cite journal |vauthors=Tickner D, Opperman JJ, Abell R, Acreman M, Arthington AH, Bunn SE, Cooke SJ, Dalton J, Darwall W, Edwards G, Harrison I, Hughes K, Jones T, Leclère D, Lynch AJ, Leonard P, McClain ME, Muruven D, Olden JD, Ormerod SJ, Robinson J, Tharme RE, Thieme M, Tockner K, Wright M, Young L |date=April 2020 |title=Bending the Curve of Global Freshwater Biodiversity Loss: An Emergency Recovery Plan |journal=BioScience |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=330–342 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biaa002 |pmc=7138689 |pmid=32284631}} Freshwater species are beginning to decline at twice the rate of species that live on land or in the ocean. This rapid loss has already placed 27% of 29,500 species dependent on fresh water on the IUCN Red List.

Global populations of freshwater fish are collapsing due to water pollution and overfishing. Migratory fish populations have declined by 76% since 1970, and large "megafish" populations have fallen by 94% with 16 species declared extinct in 2020.{{cite news |date=February 23, 2021 |title=Global freshwater fish populations at risk of extinction, study finds |work=The Guardian |location= |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/23/global-freshwater-fish-populations-at-risk-of-extinction-study-finds |access-date=February 24, 2021 |vauthors=Harvey F |archive-date=May 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515192231/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/23/global-freshwater-fish-populations-at-risk-of-extinction-study-finds |url-status=live}}

{{main|Human impact on marine life|Marine life#Biodiversity and extinction events}}

Marine biodiversity encompasses any living organism that resides in the ocean or in estuaries.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Sala E, Knowlton N |date=2006 |title=Global Marine Biodiversity Trends |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=93–122 |doi=10.1146/annurev.energy.31.020105.100235 |doi-access=free}} By 2018, approximately 240,000 marine species had been documented. But many marine species—estimates range between 178,000 and 10 million oceanic species—remain to be described. It is therefore likely that a number of rare species (not seen for decades in the wild) have already disappeared or are on the brink of extinction, unnoticed.{{cite news |last1=Briand |first1=F. |date=October 2012 |title=Species Missing in Action – Rare or Already Extinct? |work=National Geographic |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233408388}}

Human activities have a strong and detrimental influence on marine biodiversity. The main drivers of marine species extinction are habitat loss, pollution, invasive species, and overexploitation.{{cite journal |vauthors=Worm B, Barbier EB, Beaumont N, Duffy JE, Folke C, Halpern BS, Jackson JB, Lotze HK, Micheli F, Palumbi SR, Sala E, Selkoe KA, Stachowicz JJ, Watson R |date=November 2006 |title=Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services |journal=Science |volume=314 |issue=5800 |pages=787–90 |bibcode=2006Sci...314..787W |doi=10.1126/science.1132294 |jstor=20031683 |pmid=17082450 |s2cid=37235806}}{{Cite journal |vauthors=Gamfeldt L, Lefcheck JS, Byrnes JE, Cardinale BJ, Duffy JE, Griffin JN |date=2015 |title=Marine biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: what's known and what's next? |url=https://scholarworks.wm.edu/vimsarticles/849 |journal=Oikos |volume=124 |issue=3 |pages=252–265 |doi=10.1111/oik.01549 |bibcode=2015Oikos.124..252G |access-date=April 24, 2021 |archive-date=June 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614053025/https://scholarworks.wm.edu/vimsarticles/849/ |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }} Greater pressure is placed on marine ecosystems near coastal areas because of the human settlements in those areas.{{cite journal |vauthors=Halpern BS, Frazier M, Potapenko J, Casey KS, Koenig K, Longo C, Lowndes JS, Rockwood RC, Selig ER, Selkoe KA, Walbridge S |date=July 2015 |title=Spatial and temporal changes in cumulative human impacts on the world's ocean |journal=Nature Communications |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=7615 |bibcode=2015NatCo...6.7615H |doi=10.1038/ncomms8615 |pmc=4510691 |pmid=26172980 |doi-access=free}}

Overexploitation has resulted in the extinction of over 25 marine species. This includes seabirds, marine mammals, algae, and fish.{{cite journal |last1=Georgian |first1=Samuel |last2=Hameed |first2=Sarah |last3=Morgan |first3=Lance |last4=Amon |first4=Diva J. |last5=Sumaila |first5=U. Rashid |last6=Johns |first6=David |last7=Ripple |first7=William J. |author-link7=William J. Ripple |date=2022 |title=Scientists' warning of an imperiled ocean |url= |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=272 |issue= |page=109595 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109595 |bibcode=2022BCons.27209595G |s2cid=249142365}} Examples of extinct marine species include Steller's sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas) and the Caribbean monk seal (Monachus tropicalis). Not all extinctions are because of humans. For example, in the 1930s, the eelgrass limpet (Lottia alveus) became extinct in the Atlantic once the Zostera marina seagrass population declined upon exposure to a disease.{{Cite journal |last1=Carlton |first1=J. T. |last2=Vermeij |first2=G. J. |last3=Lindberg |first3=D. R. |last4=Carlton |first4=D. A. |last5=Dubley |first5=E. C. |date=1991 |title=The First Historical Extinction of a Marine Invertebrate in an Ocean Basin: The Demise of the Eelgrass Limpet Lottia alveus |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/1542430 |journal=The Biological Bulletin |language=en |volume=180 |issue=1 |pages=72–80 |doi=10.2307/1542430 |jstor=1542430 |pmid=29303643 |issn=0006-3185 |access-date=March 23, 2023 |archive-date=March 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323214932/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/1542430 |url-status=live}} The Lottia alveus were greatly impacted because the Zostera marina were their sole habitats.

The main causes of current biodiversity loss are:

1. Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation;{{cite web |year=2010 |title=Global Biodiversity Outlook 3 |url=https://www.cbd.int/gbo3/ |publisher=Convention on Biological Diversity |access-date=January 24, 2017 |archive-date=May 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519223227/https://www.cbd.int/gbo3/ |url-status=live}} for example habitat fragmentation for commercial and agricultural uses (specifically monoculture farming)
2. Land use intensification (and ensuing land loss/habitat loss); a significant factor in loss of ecological services due to direct effects as well as biodiversity loss{{cite journal |vauthors=Allan E, Manning P, Alt F, Binkenstein J, Blaser S, Blüthgen N, Böhm S, Grassein F, Hölzel N, Klaus VH, Kleinebecker T, Morris EK, Oelmann Y, Prati D, Renner SC, Rillig MC, Schaefer M, Schloter M, Schmitt B, Schöning I, Schrumpf M, Solly E, Sorkau E, Steckel J, Steffen-Dewenter I, Stempfhuber B, Tschapka M, Weiner CN, Weisser WW, Werner M, Westphal C, Wilcke W, Fischer M |date=August 2015 |title=Land use intensification alters ecosystem multifunctionality via loss of biodiversity and changes to functional composition |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=834–843 |doi=10.1111/ele.12469 |pmc=4744976 |pmid=26096863|bibcode=2015EcolL..18..834A}}
3. Nutrient pollution and other forms of pollution (air and water pollution)
4. Overexploitation and unsustainable use (for example unsustainable fishing methods, overfishing, overconsumption and human overpopulation)
5. Invasive species that effectively compete for a niche, replacing indigenous species{{cite journal |vauthors=Walsh JR, Carpenter SR, Vander Zanden MJ |date=April 2016 |title=Invasive species triggers a massive loss of ecosystem services through a trophic cascade |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=113 |issue=15 |pages=4081–5 |bibcode=2016PNAS..113.4081W |doi=10.1073/pnas.1600366113 |pmc=4839401 |pmid=27001838 |doi-access=free}}
6. Climate change (e.g. extinction risk from climate change, effects of climate change on plant biodiversity)

Jared Diamond describes an "Evil Quartet" of habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species and secondary extinctions.{{cite book |last1=Moulton |first1=Michael P. |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=or6sngEACAAJ}} |title=Wildlife Issues in a Changing World |last2=Sanderson |first2=James |date=1 September 1998 |publisher=CRC-Press |isbn=978-1-56670-351-2}} Edward O. Wilson suggested the acronym HIPPO for the main causes of biodiversity loss: Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, human over-Population and Over-harvesting.{{cite book |last=Chen |first=Jim |title=The Jurisdynamics of Environmental Protection: Change and the Pragmatic Voice in Environmental Law |publisher=Environmental Law Institute |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-58576-071-8 |page=197 |chapter=Across the Apocalypse on Horseback: Imperfect Legal Responses to Biodiversity Loss |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=8vCkSM1auwIC|page=197}}}}{{cite book |title=Windows on the Wild |publisher=New Africa Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-86928-380-3 |chapter=Hippo dilemma |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=1rzqxEVsMO8C}}}}

File:Biodiversity Hotspots Map.jpg. These regions contain a high number of plant and animal species and have been subjected to high levels of habitat destruction by human activity, leading to biodiversity loss.]]

File:Sugarcane_Deforestation,_Bolivia,_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg and increased road-building in the Amazon Rainforest in Bolivia cause significant concern because of increased human encroachment upon wild areas, increased resource extraction and further threats to biodiversity.]]

{{excerpt|Habitat destruction|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}}For example, habitat loss is one of the causes in the decline of insect populations (see the section below on insects).

{{Further|Habitat fragmentation}}

The direct effects of urban growth on habitat loss are well understood: building construction often results in habitat destruction and fragmentation.{{cite journal |vauthors=Haddad NM, Brudvig LA, Clobert J, Davies KF, Gonzalez A, Holt RD, Lovejoy TE, Sexton JO, Austin MP, Collins CD, Cook WM, Damschen EI, Ewers RM, Foster BL, Jenkins CN, King AJ, Laurance WF, Levey DJ, Margules CR, Melbourne BA, Nicholls AO, Orrock JL, Song DX, Townshend JR |date=March 2015 |title=Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth's ecosystems |journal=Science Advances |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=e1500052 |bibcode=2015SciA....1E0052H |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1500052 |pmc=4643828 |pmid=26601154}} This leads to selection for species that are adapted to urban environments.{{Cite journal |last=Otto |first=Sarah P. |date=2018-11-21 |title=Adaptation, speciation and extinction in the Anthropocene |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=285 |issue=1891 |pages=20182047 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2018.2047 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=6253383 |pmid=30429309}} Small habitat patches cannot support the level of genetic or taxonomic diversity they formerly could while some more sensitive species may become locally extinct.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Tomimatsu H, Ohara M |date=2003 |title=Genetic diversity and local population structure of fragmented populations of Trillium camschatcense (Trilliaceae) |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=109 |issue=2 |pages=249–258 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00153-2|bibcode=2003BCons.109..249T}} Species abundance populations are reduced due to the reduced fragmented area of habitat. This causes an increase of species isolation and forces species toward edge habitats and to adapt to foraging elsewhere. Additionally, edge effects often result in altered light, temperature, and humidity conditions that change vegetation structure and microhabitat suitability, further reducing biodiversity in fragmented urban patches.{{Cite journal |title=Edge Influence on Forest Structure and Composition in Fragmented Landscapes |date=2005 |url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00045.x |language=en |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00045.x |issn=1523-1739 |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=768–782 | vauthors = Harper KA, MacDonald SE, Burton PJ, Chen J, Brosofske KD, Saunders SC, Euskirchen ES, Roberts D, Jaiteh MS, Esseen P |url-access=subscription }} Urban environments also favor fast-reproducing, mobile species, contributing to biotic homogenization and the global decline of ecological uniqueness.{{Cite journal |last=McKinney |first=Michael L. |date=2006-01-01 |title=Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320705003563 |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=127 |issue=3 |pages=247–260 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2005.09.005 |bibcode=2006BCons.127..247M |issn=0006-3207|url-access=subscription }}

Infrastructure development in Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA) is a major driver of biodiversity loss, with infrastructure present in roughly 80% of KBAs.{{cite journal |last1=Simkins |first1=Ashley T. |last2=Beresford |first2=Alison E. |date=March 23, 2023 |title=A global assessment of the prevalence of current and potential future infrastructure in Key Biodiversity Areas |url= |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=281 |issue= |page=109953 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2023.109953 |s2cid=257735200 |quote= |doi-access=free|bibcode=2023BCons.28109953S}} 50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=October 16, 2017}} Infrastructure development leads to conversion and fragmentation of natural habitat, pollution and disturbance. There can also be direct harm to animals through collisions with vehicles and structures. This can have impacts beyond the infrastructure site. For example, chronic noise from roads can interfere with bird song used in mating and territory defense, reducing reproductive success.{{Cite journal |last1=Halfwerk |first1=Wouter |last2=Slabbekoorn |first2=Hans |date=April 2015 |title=Pollution going multimodal: the complex impact of the human-altered sensory environment on animal perception and performance |journal=Biology Letters |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=20141051 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2014.1051 |pmc=4424613 |pmid=25904319}} Artificial lighting can disrupt nocturnal foraging patterns, predator-prey interactions, and migratory navigation in species such as bats, amphibians, and sea turtles.{{Cite journal |last1=Gaston |first1=Kevin J. |last2=Visser |first2=Marcel E. |last3=Hölker |first3=Franz |date=2015-05-05 |title=The biological impacts of artificial light at night: the research challenge |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=370 |issue=1667 |pages=20140133 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2014.0133 |pmc=4375372 |pmid=25780244}} Infrastructure can also create ecological traps, where animals are drawn to altered environments that ultimately reduce their fitness or survival. Furthermore, road mortality and bird collisions with buildings and power lines cause direct harm to wildlife, with cascading impacts across trophic levels. These impacts often extend well beyond the development footprint and may disrupt landscape connectivity critical for migration and climate adaptation. Fragmented landscapes also impede species’ range shifts in response to climate change, making it harder for populations to track suitable environmental conditions and increasing extinction risk.{{Cite journal |last1=Opdam |first1=Paul |last2=Wascher |first2=Dirk |date=2004-05-01 |title=Climate change meets habitat fragmentation: linking landscape and biogeographical scale levels in research and conservation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320703004890 |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=117 |issue=3 |pages=285–297 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2003.12.008 |bibcode=2004BCons.117..285O |issn=0006-3207|url-access=subscription }}

{{See also|Land use, land-use change, and forestry|Nature conservation}}

Humans are changing the uses of land in various ways, and each can lead to habitat destruction and biodiversity loss. The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services found that industrial agriculture is the primary driver of biodiversity collapse.{{cite news |date=March 15, 2019 |title=The Rapid Decline Of The Natural World Is A Crisis Even Bigger Than Climate Change |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/nature-destruction-climate-change-world-biodiversity_n_5c49e78ce4b06ba6d3bb2d44 |access-date=March 16, 2019 |work=The Huffington Post |vauthors=Vidal J |archive-date=November 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124023239/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/nature-destruction-climate-change-world-biodiversity_n_5c49e78ce4b06ba6d3bb2d44 |url-status=live}} The UN's Global Biodiversity Outlook 2014 estimated that 70% of the projected loss of terrestrial biodiversity is caused by agriculture use.{{Update inline|date=March 2021|reason=check https://www.cbd.int/gbo5}}This is supported by more recent findings from the 2022 Global Land Outlook report by the UN Convention to Combat Desertification, which states that over 50% of agricultural land is moderately or severely degraded.{{Cite web |title=Global Land Outlook 2 |url=https://www.unccd.int/resources/global-land-outlook/glo2 |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=UNCCD |language=en}} According to a 2005 publication, "Cultivated systems [...] cover 24% of Earth's surface".{{rp|51}} The publication defined cultivated areas as "areas in which at least 30% of the landscape is in croplands, shifting cultivation, confined livestock production, or freshwater aquaculture in any particular year".{{rp|51}}As of 2023, approximately 38% of the Earth's terrestrial surface is used for agriculture, including grazing and crop production, making it the dominant land use globally.{{Cite book |last=Fao |first=Ifad |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/445c9d27-b396-4126-96c9-50b335364d01 |title=The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023 |date=2023 |publisher=FAO; IFAD; UNICEF; WFP; WHO |isbn=978-92-5-137226-5 |language=English}}

More than 17,000 species are at risk of losing habitat by 2050 as agriculture continues to expand to meet future food needs (as of 2020).{{cite news |date=December 22, 2020 |title=More than 17,000 species worldwide to lose part of habitat if agriculture continues to expand |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/species-habitat-loss-agriculture-food-b1777097.html |access-date=January 17, 2021 |work=The Independent |location= |vauthors=Dunne D |archive-date=January 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121052842/https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/species-habitat-loss-agriculture-food-b1777097.html |url-status=live}} A global shift toward largely plant-based diets would free up land to allow for the restoration of ecosystems and biodiversity. In the 2010s over 80% of all global farmland was used to rear animals.{{cite news |date=February 3, 2021 |title=Plant-based diets crucial to saving global wildlife, says report |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/03/plant-based-diets-crucial-to-saving-global-wildlife-says-report |access-date=February 6, 2021 |work=The Guardian |location= |vauthors=Carrington D |archive-date=December 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218134247/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/03/plant-based-diets-crucial-to-saving-global-wildlife-says-report |url-status=live}} Recent FAO data shows that livestock systems occupy about 77% of agricultural land while providing less than 20% of the global calorie supply — highlighting an imbalance between land use and nutritional output.{{Cite web |title=FAO Biodiversity {{!}} FAO |url=https://www.fao.org/family-farming/detail/en/c/1633360/ |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=www.fao.org}}

As of 2022, 44% of Earth's land area required conservation attention, which may include declaring protected areas and following land-use policies.{{Cite journal |last1=Allan |first1=James R. |last2=Possingham |first2=Hugh P. |last3=Atkinson |first3=Scott C. |last4=Waldron |first4=Anthony |last5=Di Marco |first5=Moreno |last6=Butchart |first6=Stuart H. M. |last7=Adams |first7=Vanessa M. |last8=Kissling |first8=W. Daniel |last9=Worsdell |first9=Thomas |last10=Sandbrook |first10=Chris |last11=Gibbon |first11=Gwili |last12=Kumar |first12=Kundan |last13=Mehta |first13=Piyush |last14=Maron |first14=Martine |last15=Williams |first15=Brooke A. |date=2022 |title=The minimum land area requiring conservation attention to safeguard biodiversity |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl9127 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=376 |issue=6597 |pages=1094–1101 |doi=10.1126/science.abl9127 |pmid=35653463 |bibcode=2022Sci...376.1094A |issn=0036-8075 |hdl=11573/1640006 |s2cid=233423065 |hdl-access=free |access-date=June 7, 2022 |archive-date=November 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221115213416/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl9127 |url-status=live}} Additionally, a 2023 analysis in Science Advances concluded that at least 30% of land must be actively protected and ecologically restored by 2030 to meet global biodiversity goals, aligning with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework agreed upon at COP15.{{Cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C. |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |date=2017-06-01 |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |pages=534–545 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |issn=0006-3568 |pmc=5451287 |pmid=28608869}}

{{Further|Nutrient pollution}}

File:Air pollution3.jpg

Air pollution adversely affects biodiversity.{{Cite book |last=Barker |first=Jerry R. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/840285207 |title=Air Pollution Effects on Biodiversity |date=1992 |publisher=Springer US |others=David T. Tingey |isbn=978-1-4615-3538-6 |location=Boston, MA |oclc=840285207}} Pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels and biomass, for example. Industrial and agricultural activity releases the pollutants sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.{{cite book |title=Environmental and Ecological Chemistry – Volume I |vauthors=Sabljic A |date=2009 |publisher=EOLSS Publications |isbn=978-1-84826-186-0}}{{page needed|date=November 2021}} Once sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are introduced into the atmosphere, they can react with cloud droplets (cloud condensation nuclei), raindrops, or snowflakes, forming sulfuric acid and nitric acid. With the interaction between water droplets and sulfuric and nitric acids, wet deposition occurs and creates acid rain.{{cite journal |vauthors=Singh A, Agrawal M |title=Acid rain and its ecological consequences |journal=Journal of Environmental Biology |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |date=January 2008 |pmid=18831326}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Payne RJ, Dise NB, Field CD, Dore AJ, Caporn SJ, Stevens CJ |title=Nitrogen deposition and plant biodiversity: past, present, and future |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |date=October 2017 |volume=15 |issue=8 |pages=431–436 |doi=10.1002/fee.1528 |bibcode=2017FrEE...15..431P |s2cid=54972418 |url=https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/619669/1/Payne%20et%20al.%20Nitrogen%20Pollution%20%281%29.pdf |access-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-date=November 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121145750/https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/619669/1/Payne%20et%20al.%20Nitrogen%20Pollution%20(1).pdf |url-status=live}}

A 2009 review studied four air pollutants (sulfur, nitrogen, ozone, and mercury) and several types of ecosystems.{{Cite journal |last1=Lovett |first1=Gary M. |last2=Tear |first2=Timothy H. |last3=Evers |first3=David C. |last4=Findlay |first4=Stuart E.G. |last5=Cosby |first5=B. Jack |last6=Dunscomb |first6=Judy K. |last7=Driscoll |first7=Charles T. |last8=Weathers |first8=Kathleen C. |date=2009 |title=Effects of Air Pollution on Ecosystems and Biological Diversity in the Eastern United States |url=https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04153.x |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=1162 |issue=1 |pages=99–135 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04153.x |pmid=19432647 |bibcode=2009NYASA1162...99L |s2cid=9368346 |issn=0077-8923 |access-date=February 6, 2024 |archive-date=February 6, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240206155218/https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04153.x |url-status=live}} Air pollution affects the functioning and biodiversity of terrestrial as well as aquatic ecosystems. For example, "air pollution causes or contributes to acidification of lakes, eutrophication of estuaries and coastal waters, and mercury bioaccumulation in aquatic food webs".

{{Further|Noise pollution#Impacts}}

Noise generated by traffic, ships, vehicles, and aircraft can affect the survivability of wildlife species and can reach undisturbed habitats.{{Cite journal| vauthors=Sordello R, De Lachapelle FF, Livoreil B, Vanpeene S |date=2019|title=Evidence of the environmental impact of noise pollution on biodiversity: a systematic map protocol|journal=Environmental Evidence|volume=8|issue=1|pages=8|doi=10.1186/s13750-019-0146-6 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2019EnvEv...8....8S}} Noise pollution is common in marine ecosystems, affecting at least 55 marine species.{{cite thesis |vauthors=Weilgart LS |title=The Impact of Ocean Noise Pollution on Marine Biodiversity |date=2008 |url=https://awionline.org/sites/default/files/uploads/documents/Weilgart_Biodiversity_2008-1238105851-10133.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.542.534 |s2cid=13176067 |access-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-date=November 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101133214/https://awionline.org/sites/default/files/uploads/documents/Weilgart_Biodiversity_2008-1238105851-10133.pdf |url-status=live}} One study found that as seismic noises and naval sonar increases in marine ecosystems, cetacean diversity decreases (including whales and dolphins).{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández A, Edwards JF, Rodríguez F, Espinosa de los Monteros A, Herráez P, Castro P, Jaber JR, Martín V, Arbelo M |title='Gas and fat embolic syndrome' involving a mass stranding of beaked whales (family Ziphiidae) exposed to anthropogenic sonar signals |journal=Veterinary Pathology |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=446–57 |date=July 2005 |pmid=16006604 |doi=10.1354/vp.42-4-446 |s2cid=43571676 |doi-access=free}} Multiple studies have found that fewer fishes, such as cod, haddock, rockfish, herring, sand seal, and blue whiting, have been spotted in areas with seismic noises, with catch rates declining by 40–80%.{{Cite journal| vauthors=Engås A, Løkkeborg S, Ona E, Soldal AV |date=2011|title=Effects of seismic shooting on local abundance and catch rates of cod ((Gadus morhua) and haddock )(Melanogrammus aeglefinus) |journal=Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences |volume=53|issue=10|pages=2238–2249|doi=10.1139/f96-177|hdl=11250/108647|hdl-access=free}}{{Cite journal| vauthors=Skalski JR, Pearson WH, Malme CI |date=2011|title=Effects of Sounds from a Geophysical Survey Device on Catch-per-Unit-Effort in a Hook-and-Line Fishery for Rockfish (Sebastes spp.) |journal=Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences |volume=49|issue=7|pages=1357–1365|doi=10.1139/f92-151}}{{Cite journal| vauthors=Slotte A, Hansen K, Dalen J, Ona E |date=2004|title=Acoustic mapping of pelagic fish distribution and abundance in relation to a seismic shooting area off the Norwegian west coast |journal=Fisheries Research |volume=67|issue=2|pages=143–150|doi=10.1016/j.fishres.2003.09.046 |bibcode=2004FishR..67..143S}}

Noise pollution has also altered avian communities and diversity. Noise can reduce reproductive success, minimize nesting areas, increase stress response, and reduce species abundance.{{cite journal |vauthors=Francis CD, Ortega CP, Cruz A |date=August 2009 |title=Noise pollution changes avian communities and species interactions |journal=Current Biology |volume=19 |issue=16 |pages=1415–9 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2009.06.052 |pmid=19631542 |s2cid=15985432 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2009CBio...19.1415F}} Noise pollution can alter the distribution and abundance of prey species, which can then impact predator populations.{{Cite journal |last1=Barber |first1=Jesse R. |last2=Crooks |first2=Kevin R. |last3=Fristrup |first3=Kurt M. |date=2010-03-01 |title=The costs of chronic noise exposure for terrestrial organisms |url=https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/abstract/S0169-5347(09)00261-4 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |language=English |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=180–189 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2009.08.002 |issn=0169-5347 |pmid=19762112 |bibcode=2010TEcoE..25..180B |access-date=February 24, 2023 |archive-date=October 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012013959/http://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/abstract/S0169-5347(09)00261-4 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}

File:Locations and proportions of oil and gas fields overlapping IUCN Protected Areas.png (PAs) (gray polygons) of different IUCN Protected Area management categories by UN regions: North America (a), Europe (b), West Asia (c), LAC (d), Africa (e), and Asia Pacific (f). Absolute area of overlap across all IUCN management categories is shown above histograms. Location of fields overlapping with PAs are shown in (g). Shading is used so that points can be visualized even where their spatial locations coincide, so darker points indicate higher densities of fields overlapping PAs.]]

Fossil fuel extraction and associated oil and gas pipelines have major impacts on the biodiversity of many biomes due to land conversion, habitat loss and degradation, and pollution. An example is the Western Amazon region.{{cite journal |vauthors=Butt N, Beyer HL, Bennett JR, Biggs D, Maggini R, Mills M, Renwick AR, Seabrook LM, Possingham HP |date=October 2013 |title=Conservation. Biodiversity risks from fossil fuel extraction |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:314798/UQ314798_OA.pdf |journal=Science |volume=342 |issue=6157 |pages=425–6 |bibcode=2013Sci...342..425B |doi=10.1126/science.1237261 |jstor=42619941 |pmid=24159031 |s2cid=206548697}} Exploitation of fossil fuels there has had significant impacts on biodiversity.{{Cite journal |last1=Harfoot |first1=Michael B. J. |last2=Tittensor |first2=Derek P. |last3=Knight |first3=Sarah |last4=Arnell |first4=Andrew P. |last5=Blyth |first5=Simon |last6=Brooks |first6=Sharon |last7=Butchart |first7=Stuart H. M. |last8=Hutton |first8=Jon |last9=Jones |first9=Matthew I. |last10=Kapos |first10=Valerie |last11=Scharlemann |first11=Jӧrn P.W. |last12=Burgess |first12=Neil D. |date=2018 |title=Present and future biodiversity risks from fossil fuel exploitation |journal=Conservation Letters |language=en |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=e12448 |doi=10.1111/conl.12448|s2cid=74872049 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018ConL...11E2448H}} 50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=October 16, 2017}} As of 2018, many of the protected areas with rich biodiversity were in areas containing unexploited fossil fuel reserves worth between $3 and $15 trillion. The protected areas may be under threat in future.

{{Further|Overexploitation}}

Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to replenish. The term applies to natural resources such as water aquifers, grazing pastures and forests, wild medicinal plants, fish stocks and other wildlife.

{{Main|Overfishing}}

File:Trawlers overfishing cod.jpg (with possible bycatch) with a Chilean purse seiner.]]

File:Surexploitation_morue_surpêcheEn.jpg stocks were severely overexploited in the 1970s and 1980s, leading to their abrupt collapse in 1992.{{cite journal |last1=Frank |first1=Kenneth T. |last2=Petrie |first2=Brian |last3=Choi |first3=Jae S. |last4=Leggett |first4=William C. |year=2005 |title=Trophic Cascades in a Formerly Cod-Dominated Ecosystem |journal=Science |volume=308 |issue=5728 |pages=1621–1623 |bibcode=2005Sci...308.1621F |doi=10.1126/science.1113075 |pmid=15947186 |s2cid=45088691}}]]

A 2019 Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services report found that overfishing is the main driver of mass species extinction in oceans.{{cite journal |vauthors=Pacoureau N, Rigby CL, Kyne PM, Sherley RB, Winker H, Carlson JK, Fordham SV, Barreto R, Fernando D, Francis MP, Jabado RW, Herman KB, Liu KM, Marshall AD, Pollom RA, Romanov EV, Simpfendorfer CA, Yin JS, Kindsvater HK, Dulvy NK |date=January 2021 |title=Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and rays |journal=Nature |volume=589 |issue=7843 |pages=567–571 |bibcode=2021Natur.589..567P |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-03173-9 |pmid=33505035 |s2cid=231723355 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10871/124531}}{{Cite web |date=May 6, 2019 |title=UN report: Humans accelerating extinction of other species |url=https://apnews.com/aaf1091c5aae40b0a110daaf04950672 |access-date=March 17, 2021 |publisher=Associated Press |vauthors=Borenstein S |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301192840/https://apnews.com/aaf1091c5aae40b0a110daaf04950672/ |url-status=live}} Overfishing has reduced fish and marine mammal biomass by 60% since the 1800s.{{cite journal |vauthors=Hatton IA, Heneghan RF, Bar-On YM, Galbraith ED |date=November 2021 |title=The global ocean size spectrum from bacteria to whales |journal=Science Advances |volume=7 |issue=46 |pages=eabh3732 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.3732H |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abh3732 |pmc=8580314 |pmid=34757796}} It is currently pushing over one-third of sharks and rays toward extinction.{{cite journal |vauthors=Dulvy NK, Pacoureau N, Rigby CL, Pollom RA, Jabado RW, Ebert DA, Finucci B, Pollock CM, Cheok J, Derrick DH, Herman KB, Sherman CS, VanderWright WJ, Lawson JM, Walls RH, Carlson JK, Charvet P, Bineesh KK, Fernando D, Ralph GM, Matsushiba JH, Hilton-Taylor C, Fordham SV, Simpfendorfer CA |date=November 2021 |title=Overfishing drives over one-third of all sharks and rays toward a global extinction crisis |journal=Current Biology |volume=31 |issue=21 |pages=4773–4787.e8 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2021.08.062 |pmid=34492229 |s2cid=237443284 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021CBio...31E4773D}}

Many commercial fishes have been overharvested: a 2020 FAO report classified as overfished 34% of the fish stocks of the world's marine fisheries.{{Cite book|url=http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca9229en|title=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020|date=2020|publisher=FAO|isbn=978-92-5-132692-3|language=en|doi=10.4060/ca9229en|hdl=10535/3776|s2cid=242949831|access-date=November 30, 2022|archive-date=October 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007122503/http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca9229en|url-status=live}} By 2020, global fish populations had declined 38% since 1970.{{cite book |vauthors=Luypaert T, Hagan JG, McCarthy ML, Poti M |chapter=Status of Marine Biodiversity in the Anthropocene|date=2020 |title=YOUMARES 9 – The Oceans: Our Research, Our Future: Proceedings of the 2018 conference for YOUng MArine RESearcher in Oldenburg, Germany|pages=57–82| veditors=Jungblut S, Liebich V, Bode-Dalby M |place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-20389-4_4|isbn=978-3-030-20389-4 |s2cid=210304421}}

Many regulatory measures are available for controlling overfishing. These include fishing quotas, bag limits, licensing, closed seasons, size limits, and the creation of marine reserves and other marine protected areas.

File:Decline-of-the-worlds-wild-mammals.png of wild land mammals has declined by 85% since the emergence of humans.{{cite web |last=Ritchie |first=Hannah |author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |date=April 20, 2021 |title=Wild mammals have declined by 85% since the rise of humans, but there is a possible future where they flourish |url=https://ourworldindata.org/wild-mammal-decline |access-date=April 18, 2023 |website=Our World in Data |publisher= |quote= |archive-date=February 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216013950/https://ourworldindata.org/wild-mammal-decline |url-status=live}} ]]

The world's population numbered nearly 7.6 billion as of mid-2017 and is forecast to peak toward the end of the 21st century at 10–12 billion people.{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=World Population Prospects 2022, Graphs / Profiles |url=https://population.un.org/wpp/Graphs/Probabilistic/POP/TOT/900 |access-date= |publisher=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division |archive-date=December 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211083505/https://population.un.org/wpp/Graphs/Probabilistic/POP/TOT/900 |url-status=live}} Scholars have argued that population size and growth, along with overconsumption, are significant factors in biodiversity loss and soil degradation.{{cite journal |last1=Ceballos |first1=Gerardo |last2=Ehrlich |first2=Paul R |last3=Dirzo |first3=Rodolfo |date=23 May 2017 |title=Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines |journal=PNAS |volume=114 |issue=30 |pages=E6089–E6096 |bibcode=2017PNAS..114E6089C |doi=10.1073/pnas.1704949114 |pmc=5544311 |pmid=28696295 |quote=Much less frequently mentioned are, however, the ultimate drivers of those immediate causes of biotic destruction, namely, human overpopulation and continued population growth, and overconsumption, especially by the rich. These drivers, all of which trace to the fiction that perpetual growth can occur on a finite planet, are themselves increasing rapidly. |doi-access=free}}{{cite news |last=Weston |first=Phoebe |date=13 January 2021 |title=Top scientists warn of 'ghastly future of mass extinction' and climate disruption |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jan/13/top-scientists-warn-of-ghastly-future-of-mass-extinction-and-climate-disruption-aoe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113050606/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jan/13/top-scientists-warn-of-ghastly-future-of-mass-extinction-and-climate-disruption-aoe |archive-date=13 January 2021 |access-date=4 August 2021 |work=The Guardian |location=}} Review articles, including the 2019 IPBES report, have also noted that human population growth and overconsumption are significant drivers of species decline. A 2022 study warned that conservation efforts will continue to fail if the primary drivers of biodiversity loss continue to be ignored, including population size and growth.

Other scientists have criticized the assertion that population growth is a key driver for biodiversity loss. They argue that the main driver is the loss of habitat, caused by "the growth of commodities for export, particularly soybean and oil-palm, primarily for livestock feed or biofuel consumption in higher income economies." Because of the wealth disparities between countries, there is a negative correlation between a country's total population and its per capita footprint. On the other hand, the correlation between a country's GDP and its footprint is strong. The study argues that population as a metric is unhelpful and counterproductive for tackling environmental challenges.

{{Main|Invasive species}}

The term invasive is poorly defined and often very subjective.{{cite journal |last1=Colautti |first1=Robert I. |last2=MacIsaac |first2=Hugh J. |date=24 February 2004 |title=A neutral terminology to define 'invasive' species: Defining invasive species |journal=Diversity and Distributions |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=135–141 |doi=10.1111/j.1366-9516.2004.00061.x |s2cid=18971654 |doi-access=free}} The European Union defines invasive alien species as those outside their natural distribution area that threaten biological diversity.{{cite web |title=Communication From The Commission To The Council, The European Parliament, The European Economic And Social Committee And The Committee Of The Regions Towards An EU Strategy On Invasive Species |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/invasivealien/docs/1_EN_resume_impact_assesment_part1_v3.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305033628/http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/invasivealien/docs/1_EN_resume_impact_assesment_part1_v3.pdf |archive-date=March 5, 2016 |access-date=May 17, 2011}}{{cite journal |last1=Lakicevic |first1=Milena |last2=Mladenovic |first2=Emina |year=2018 |title=Non-native and invasive tree species – their impact on biodiversity loss |journal=Zbornik Matice Srpske Za Prirodne Nauke |issue=134 |pages=19–26 |doi=10.2298/ZMSPN1834019L |doi-access=free}} Biotic invasion is considered one of the five top drivers of global biodiversity loss and is increasing because of tourism and globalization.{{Cite book |author1=National Research Council (US) Committee on the Scientific Basis for Predicting the Invasive Potential of Nonindigenous Plants Plant Pests in the United States |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10259/chapter/1 |title=Predicting Invasions of Nonindigenous Plants and Plant Pests |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-309-08264-8 |doi=10.17226/10259 |pmid=25032288 |access-date=November 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117204337/https://www.nap.edu/read/10259/chapter/1 |archive-date=November 17, 2019 |url-status=live}}{{cite journal |last1=Lewis |first1=Simon L. |last2=Maslin |first2=Mark A. |year=2015 |title=Defining the Anthropocene |journal=Nature |volume=519 |issue=7542 |pages=171–180 |bibcode=2015Natur.519..171L |doi=10.1038/nature14258 |pmid=25762280 |s2cid=205242896}} This may be particularly true in poorly regulated fresh water systems, though quarantines and ballast water rules have improved the situation.{{cite web |author=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |author-link=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |year=2005 |title=Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis |url=http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014033601/http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf |archive-date=October 14, 2019 |access-date=September 18, 2007 |publisher=World Resources Institute}}

Invasive species may drive local native species to extinction via competitive exclusion, niche displacement, or hybridisation with related native species. Therefore, alien invasions may result in extensive changes in the structure, composition and global distribution of the biota at sites of introduction. This leads to the homogenisation of the world's fauna and flora and biodiversity loss.{{cite journal |last1=Baiser |first1=Benjamin |last2=Olden |first2=Julian D. |last3=Record |first3=Sydne |last4=Lockwood |first4=Julie L. |last5=McKinney |first5=Michael L. |year=2012 |title=Pattern and process of biotic homogenization in the New Pangaea |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=279 |issue=1748 |pages=4772–4777 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.1651 |pmc=3497087 |pmid=23055062}}{{cite journal |last1=Odendaal |first1=L. J. |last2=Haupt |first2=T. M. |last3=Griffiths |first3=C. L. |year=2008 |title=The alien invasive land snail Theba pisana in the West Coast National Park: Is there cause for concern? |journal=Koedoe |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=93–98 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v50i1.153 |doi-access=free}}

File:Song_2021_rate_relationship.png (including both large increases and decreases in global temperature) and the extinction rate, over the past 450 million years.{{Cite journal |last1=Song |first1=Haijun |last2=Kemp |first2=David B. |last3=Tian |first3=Li |last4=Chu |first4=Daoliang |last5=Song |first5=Huyue |last6=Dai |first6=Xu |date=August 4, 2021 |title=Thresholds of temperature change for mass extinctions |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=4694 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-25019-2 |pmid=34349121 |pmc=8338942 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.4694S}} This graph does not include the recent human made climate change.]]

Climate change is another threat to global biodiversity. But habitat destruction, e.g., for the expansion of agriculture, is currently a more significant driver of biodiversity loss.

A 2021 collaborative report by scientists from the IPBES and the IPCC found that biodiversity loss and climate change must be addressed simultaneously, as they are inextricably linked and have similar effects on human well-being.{{cite news |date=June 10, 2021 |title=Climate change and biodiversity loss must be tackled together – report |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/climate-change-biodiversity-loss-must-be-tackled-together-report-2021-06-10/ |access-date=June 12, 2021 |work=Reuters |location= |vauthors=Kapoor K |archive-date=May 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515192230/https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/climate-change-biodiversity-loss-must-be-tackled-together-report-2021-06-10/ |url-status=live}} In 2022, Frans Timmermans, Vice-President of the European Commission, said that people are less aware of the threat of biodiversity loss than they are of the threat of climate change.{{cite news |last1=Rankin |first1=Jennifer |last2=Harvey |first2=Fiona |date=July 21, 2022 |title=Destruction of nature as threatening as climate crisis, EU deputy warns |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/21/destruction-nature-as-threatening-climate-crisis-eu-deputy-warns-frans-timmerman |access-date=August 1, 2022 |work=The Guardian |location= |archive-date=August 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205257/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/21/destruction-nature-as-threatening-climate-crisis-eu-deputy-warns-frans-timmerman |url-status=live}}

The interaction between climate change and invasive species is complex and not easy to assess. Climate change is likely to favour some invasive species and harm others,{{cite journal |vauthors=Dukes JS, Mooney HA |date=April 1999 |title=Does global change increase the success of biological invaders? |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=135–139 |doi=10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01554-7 |pmid=10322518 |doi-access=free}} but few authors have identified specific consequences of climate change for invasive species.{{cite journal |vauthors=Hellmann JJ, Byers JE, Bierwagen BG, Dukes JS |date=June 2008 |title=Five potential consequences of climate change for invasive species |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=534–543 |bibcode=2008ConBi..22..534H |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00951.x |pmid=18577082 |s2cid=16026020}}

Invasive species and other disturbances have become more common in forests in the last several decades. These tend to be directly or indirectly connected to climate change and have negative consequences for forest ecosystems.

{{excerpt|Habitat destruction#Climate change|file=no}}

{{Excerpt|Extinction risk from climate change|paragraph=1-2}}

{{See also|Ecological effects of biodiversity}}

Biodiversity loss has bad effects on the functioning of ecosystems. This in turn affects humans, because affected ecosystems can no longer provide the same quality of ecosystem services, such as crop pollination, cleaning air and water, decomposing waste, and providing forest products as well as areas for recreation and tourism.

Two key statements of a 2012 comprehensive review of the previous 20 years of research include:

• "There is now unequivocal evidence that biodiversity loss reduces the efficiency by which ecological communities capture biologically essential resources, produce biomass, decompose and recycle biologically essential nutrients"; and 
• "Impacts of diversity loss on ecological processes might be sufficiently large to rival the impacts of many other global drivers of environmental change"

Permanent global species loss (extinction) is a more dramatic phenomenon than regional changes in species composition. But even minor changes from a healthy stable state can have a dramatic influence on the food web and the food chain, because reductions in one species can adversely affect the entire chain (coextinction). This can lead to an overall reduction in biodiversity, unless alternative stable states of the ecosystem are possible.{{Cite journal |last1=Dirzo |first1=Rodolfo |last2=Raven |first2=Peter H. |date=November 2003 |title=Global State of Biodiversity and Loss |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=137–167 |doi=10.1146/annurev.energy.28.050302.105532 |issn=1543-5938|doi-access=free}}

For example, a study on grasslands used manipulated grassland plant diversity and found that ecosystems with higher biodiversity show more resistance of their productivity to climate extremes.{{cite journal |vauthors=Isbell F, Craven D, Connolly J, Loreau M, Schmid B, Beierkuhnlein C, Bezemer TM, Bonin C, Bruelheide H, de Luca E, Ebeling A, Griffin JN, Guo Q, Hautier Y, Hector A, Jentsch A, Kreyling J, Lanta V, Manning P, Meyer ST, Mori AS, Naeem S, Niklaus PA, Polley HW, Reich PB, Roscher C, Seabloom EW, Smith MD, Thakur MP, Tilman D, Tracy BF, van der Putten WH, van Ruijven J, Weigelt A, Weisser WW, Wilsey B, Eisenhauer N |date=2015 |title=Biodiversity increases the resistance of ecosystem productivity to climate extremes |journal=Nature |volume=526 |issue=7574 |pages=574–577 |bibcode=2015Natur.526..574I |doi=10.1038/nature15374 |pmid=26466564 |s2cid=4465811 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11299/184546}}

File:Global state and trends figures for key elements of biodiversity important to food and agriculture.svg

In 2019, the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) produced its first report on The State of the World's Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture. It warned that "Many key components of biodiversity for food and agriculture at genetic, species and ecosystem levels are in decline."{{cite report |url=http://www.fao.org/state-of-biodiversity-for-food-agriculture/en/ |publisher=FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture |year=2019 |veditors=Bélanger J, Pilling D |location=Rome |title=The State of the World's Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture |access-date=February 22, 2019 |archive-date=May 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210528030404/http://www.fao.org/state-of-biodiversity-for-food-agriculture/en |url-status=live}}{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-47308235 |work=BBC News |title=UN: Growing threat to food from decline in biodiversity |vauthors=McGrath M |date=February 22, 2019 |access-date=February 22, 2019 |archive-date=May 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515192230/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-47308235 |url-status=live}}

The report also said, "Many of the drivers that have negative impacts on BFA (biodiversity for food and agriculture), including overexploitation, overharvesting, pollution, overuse of external inputs, and changes in land and water management, are at least partially caused by inappropriate agricultural practices"{{Cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/3/ca3229en/ca3229en.pdf |title=In brief – The State of the World's Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture |publisher=FAO |year=2019 |location=Rome |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004065605/http://www.fao.org/3/ca3229en/ca3229en.pdf |archive-date=October 4, 2019}} Alt URL, text has been copied from this publication and a Wikipedia-specific license statement is available.{{rp|6}} and "transition to intensive production of a reduced number of species, breeds and varieties, remain major drivers of loss of BFA and ecosystem services."{{rp|6}}

To reduce biodiversity loss related to agricultural practices, FAO encourages the use of "biodiversity-friendly management practices in crop and livestock production, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture".{{rp|13}}

The WHO has analyzed how biodiversity and human health are connected: "Biodiversity and human health, and the respective policies and activities, are interlinked in various ways. First, biodiversity gives rise to health benefits. For example, the variety of species and genotypes provide nutrients and medicines."{{Cite book |last1=World Health Organization |url=https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/174012 |title=Connecting global priorities: biodiversity and human health: a state of knowledge review |last2=Convention on Biological Diversity |date=2015 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-150853-7 |location=Geneva |language=en |access-date=February 6, 2024 |archive-date=February 6, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240206233147/https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/174012 |url-status=live}} The ongoing drivers and effects of biodiversity loss has the potential to lead to future zoonotic disease outbreaks like the COVID-19 pandemic.{{Cite journal |last1=Lawler |first1=Odette K |last2=Allan |first2=Hannah L |last3=Baxter |first3=Peter W J |last4=Castagnino |first4=Romi |last5=Tor |first5=Marina Corella |last6=Dann |first6=Leah E |last7=Hungerford |first7=Joshua |last8=Karmacharya |first8=Dibesh |last9=Lloyd |first9=Thomas J |last10=López-Jara |first10=María José |last11=Massie |first11=Gloeta N |last12=Novera |first12=Junior |last13=Rogers |first13=Andrew M |last14=Kark |first14=Salit |date=2021 |title=The COVID-19 pandemic is intricately linked to biodiversity loss and ecosystem health |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00258-8 |journal=The Lancet Planetary Health |volume=5 |issue=11 |pages=e840–e850 |doi=10.1016/s2542-5196(21)00258-8 |issn=2542-5196 |pmc=8580505 |pmid=34774124}}

Medicinal and aromatic plants are widely used in traditional medicine as well as in cosmetic and food industries.{{rp|12}} The WHO estimated in 2015 that about "60,000 species are used for their medicinal, nutritional and aromatic properties".{{rp|12}} There is a global trade in plants for medicinal purposes.{{rp|12}}

Biodiversity contributes to the development of pharmaceuticals. A significant proportion of medicines are derived from natural products, either directly or indirectly. Many of these natural products come from marine ecosystems.{{cite journal |last=Roopesh |first=J. |year=2008 |title=Marine organisms: Potential Source for Drug Discovery |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/feb102008/292a.pdf |journal=Current Science |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=292 |access-date=February 6, 2024 |archive-date=November 11, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111145626/https://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/feb102008/292a.pdf |url-status=live}} However, unregulated and inappropriate over-harvesting (bioprospecting) could potentially lead to overexploitation, ecosystem degradation and loss of biodiversity.{{cite journal |last1=Dhillion |first1=S. S. |last2=Svarstad |first2=H. |last3=Amundsen |first3=C. |last4=Bugge |first4=H. C. |date=September 2002 |title=Bioprospecting: Effects on Environment and Development |journal=Ambio |volume=31 |issue=6 |pages=491–493 |doi=10.1639/0044-7447(2002)031[0491:beoead]2.0.co;2 |jstor=4315292 |pmid=12436849}}{{cite journal |last=Cole |first=Andrew |year=2005 |title=Looking for new compounds in sea is endangering ecosystem |journal=BMJ |volume=330 |issue=7504 |pages=1350 |doi=10.1136/bmj.330.7504.1350-d |pmc=558324 |pmid=15947392}} Users and traders harvest plants for traditional medicine either by planting them or by collecting them in the wild. In both cases, sustainable medicinal resource management is important.{{rp|13}}

{{Further|Conservation movement|Environmental protection|Wildlife conservation}}

File:Red_List_Index,_OWID.svg (2019): The Red List Index (RLI) defines the conservation status of major species groups, and measures trends in the proportion of species expected to remain extant in the near future without additional conservation action. An RLI value of 1.0 equates to all species being categorised as 'Least Concern', and hence that none are expected to go extinct in the near future. A value of 0 indicates that all species have gone extinct.{{Cite web |title=Red List Index |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/red-list-index |access-date=2024-02-07 |website=Our World in Data |archive-date=February 7, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207231505/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/red-list-index |url-status=live}}]]

Scientists are investigating what can be done to address biodiversity loss and climate change together. For both of these crises, there is a need to "conserve enough nature and in the right places".{{cite journal |vauthors=Dinerstein E, Joshi AR, Vynne C, Lee AT, Pharand-Deschênes F, França M, Fernando S, Birch T, Burkart K, Asner GP, Olson D |date=September 2020 |title=A "Global Safety Net" to reverse biodiversity loss and stabilize Earth's climate |journal=Science Advances |volume=6 |issue=36 |pages=eabb2824 |bibcode=2020SciA....6.2824D |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abb2824 |pmc=7473742 |pmid=32917614 |doi-access=free}} A 2020 study found that "beyond the 15% land area currently protected, 35% of land area is needed to conserve additional sites of particular importance for biodiversity and stabilize the climate."

Additional measures for protecting biodiversity, beyond just environmental protection, are important. Such measures include addressing drivers of land use change, increasing efficiency in agriculture, and reducing the need for animal agriculture. The latter could be achieved by increasing the shares of plant-based diets.{{cite news |title=Bending the curve of biodiversity loss |language=en |work=phys.org |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-09-biodiversity-loss.html |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=October 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021040956/https://phys.org/news/2020-09-biodiversity-loss.html |url-status=live}}{{cite journal |last1=Leclère |first1=David |last2=Obersteiner |first2=Michael |last3=Barrett |first3=Mike |last4=Butchart |first4=Stuart H. M. |last5=Chaudhary |first5=Abhishek |last6=De Palma |first6=Adriana |last7=DeClerck |first7=Fabrice A. J. |last8=Di Marco |first8=Moreno |last9=Doelman |first9=Jonathan C. |last10=Dürauer |first10=Martina |last11=Freeman |first11=Robin |last12=Harfoot |first12=Michael |last13=Hasegawa |first13=Tomoko |last14=Hellweg |first14=Stefanie |last15=Hilbers |first15=Jelle P. |date=September 2020 |title=Bending the curve of terrestrial biodiversity needs an integrated strategy |url=http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/16699/1/Leclere_et_al_ms_R3_CommentsAccepted.pdf |journal=Nature |volume=585 |issue=7826 |pages=551–556 |bibcode=2020Natur.585..551L |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2705-y |pmid=32908312 |last16=Hill |first16=Samantha L. L. |last17=Humpenöder |first17=Florian |last18=Jennings |first18=Nancy |last19=Krisztin |first19=Tamás |last20=Mace |first20=Georgina M. |last21=Ohashi |first21=Haruka |last22=Popp |first22=Alexander |last23=Purvis |first23=Andy |last24=Schipper |first24=Aafke M. |last25=Tabeau |first25=Andrzej |last26=Valin |first26=Hugo |last27=van Meijl |first27=Hans |last28=van Zeist |first28=Willem-Jan |last29=Visconti |first29=Piero |last30=Alkemade |first30=Rob |last31=Almond |first31=Rosamunde |last32=Bunting |first32=Gill |last33=Burgess |first33=Neil D. |last34=Cornell |first34=Sarah E. |last35=Di Fulvio |first35=Fulvio |last36=Ferrier |first36=Simon |last37=Fritz |first37=Steffen |last38=Fujimori |first38=Shinichiro |last39=Grooten |first39=Monique |last40=Harwood |first40=Thomas |last41=Havlík |first41=Petr |last42=Herrero |first42=Mario |last43=Hoskins |first43=Andrew J. |last44=Jung |first44=Martin |last45=Kram |first45=Tom |last46=Lotze-Campen |first46=Hermann |last47=Matsui |first47=Tetsuya |last48=Meyer |first48=Carsten |last49=Nel |first49=Deon |last50=Newbold |first50=Tim |last51=Schmidt-Traub |first51=Guido |last52=Stehfest |first52=Elke |last53=Strassburg |first53=Bernardo B. N. |last54=van Vuuren |first54=Detlef P. |last55=Ware |first55=Chris |last56=Watson |first56=James E. M. |last57=Wu |first57=Wenchao |last58=Young |first58=Lucy |hdl=2066/228862 |s2cid=221624255 |access-date=March 7, 2023 |archive-date=March 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307095231/https://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/16699/1/Leclere_et_al_ms_R3_CommentsAccepted.pdf |url-status=live}}

{{See also|2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference}}

Many governments have conserved portions of their territories under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), a multilateral treaty signed in 1992–3. The 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets are part of the CBD's Strategic Plan 2011–2020 and were published in 2010.{{cite web |title=Aichi Biodiversity Targets |website=Convention on Biological Diversity |date=May 11, 2018 |url=https://www.cbd.int/sp/targets/ |access-date=September 17, 2020 |archive-date=September 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917072158/https://www.cbd.int/sp/targets/ |url-status=live}} Aichi Target Number 11 aimed to protect 17% of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10% of coastal and marine areas by 2020 .{{Cite web |title=Convention on Biological Diversity |url=https://www.cbd.int/aichi-targets/target/11#:~:text=By%202020,%20at%20least%2017,well%20connected%20systems%20of%20protected |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=Convention on Biological Diversity |language=en |archive-date=January 31, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131185311/https://www.cbd.int/aichi-targets/target/11#:~:text=By%202020,%20at%20least%2017,well%20connected%20systems%20of%20protected |url-status=live}}

Of the 20 biodiversity goals laid out by the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in 2010, only six were partially achieved by 2020.{{cite news |vauthors=Cohen L |date=September 15, 2020 |title=More than 150 countries made a plan to preserve biodiversity a decade ago. A new report says they mostly failed. |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/more-than-150-countries-made-a-plan-to-save-the-worlds-species-and-ecosystems-a-decade-ago-a-new-report-says-they-mostly-failed/ |work=CBS News |access-date=September 16, 2020 |archive-date=May 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515192230/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/more-than-150-countries-made-a-plan-to-save-the-worlds-species-and-ecosystems-a-decade-ago-a-new-report-says-they-mostly-failed/ |url-status=live}} The 2020 CBD report highlighted that if the status quo does not change, biodiversity will continue to decline due to "currently unsustainable patterns of production and consumption, population growth and technological developments".{{cite news |vauthors=Yeung J |date=September 16, 2020 |title=The world set a 2020 deadline to save nature but not a single target was met, UN report says |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/09/16/world/un-biodiversity-report-intl-hnk-scli-scn/ |work=CNN |access-date=September 16, 2020 |archive-date=May 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515192230/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/09/16/world/un-biodiversity-report-intl-hnk-scli-scn/ |url-status=live}}Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2020) [https://www.cbd.int/gbo/gbo5/publication/gbo-5-en.pdf Global Biodiversity Outlook 5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210151833/https://www.cbd.int/gbo/gbo5/publication/gbo-5-en.pdf |date=February 10, 2021}}. Montreal. The report also singled out Australia, Brazil, Cameroon and the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) for having had one of its animals lost to extinction in the previous ten years.{{Cite web|vauthors=Kilvert N|date=September 16, 2020|title=Australia singled out for mammal extinction in UN's dire global biodiversity report|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2020-09-16/un-biodiversity-bramble-cay-melomys-extinction/12668356|access-date=September 16, 2020 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|archive-date=April 7, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407101951/https://amp.abc.net.au/article/12668356|url-status=live}}

Following this, the leaders of 64 nations and the European Union pledged to halt environmental degradation and restore the natural world. The pledge was not signed by leaders from some of the world's biggest polluters, namely China, India, Russia, Brazil and the United States.{{cite news |vauthors=Niranjan A |date=September 28, 2020 |title=Countries pledge to reverse destruction of nature after missing biodiversity targets |url=https://www.dw.com/en/global-biodiversity-outlook-targets-extinction-summit-new-york-pledge/a-54932895 |work=Deutsche Welle |access-date=October 4, 2020 |archive-date=May 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515192230/https://www.dw.com/en/global-biodiversity-outlook-targets-extinction-summit-new-york-pledge/a-54932895 |url-status=live}} Some experts contend that the United States' refusal to ratify the Convention on Biological Diversity is harming global efforts to halt the extinction crisis.{{cite news |vauthors=Jones B |date=May 20, 2021 |title=Why the US won't join the single most important treaty to protect nature |url=https://www.vox.com/22434172/us-cbd-treaty-biological-diversity-nature-conservation |work=Vox |location= |access-date=May 21, 2021 |archive-date=November 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119120755/https://www.vox.com/22434172/us-cbd-treaty-biological-diversity-nature-conservation |url-status=live}}

Scientists say that even if the targets for 2020 had been met, no substantial reduction of extinction rates would likely have resulted. Others have raised concerns that the Convention on Biological Diversity does not go far enough, and argue the goal should be zero extinctions by 2050, along with cutting the impact of unsustainable food production on nature by half. That the targets are not legally binding has also been subject to criticism.{{cite news |vauthors=Cox L |date=July 23, 2021 |title=Nature's Paris moment: does the global bid to stem wildlife decline go far enough? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jul/24/natures-paris-moment-does-the-global-bid-to-stem-wildlife-decline-go-far-enough |work=The Guardian |location= |access-date=July 24, 2021 |archive-date=May 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515192230/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jul/24/natures-paris-moment-does-the-global-bid-to-stem-wildlife-decline-go-far-enough |url-status=live}}

In December 2022, every country except the United States and the Holy See{{cite news|last=Einhorn|first=Catrin|date=December 19, 2022|title=Nearly Every Country Signs On to a Sweeping Deal to Protect Nature|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/19/climate/biodiversity-cop15-montreal-30x30.html|work=The New York Times|location=|access-date=December 27, 2022|quote=The United States is just one of two countries in the world that are not party to the Convention on Biological Diversity, largely because Republicans, who are typically opposed to joining treaties, have blocked United States membership. That means the American delegation was required to participate from the sidelines. (The only other country that has not joined the treaty is the Holy See.)|archive-date=December 19, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221219234121/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/19/climate/biodiversity-cop15-montreal-30x30.html|url-status=live}} signed onto the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework at the 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference. This framework calls for protecting 30% of land and oceans by 2030 (30 by 30). It also has 22 other targets intended to reduce biodiversity loss. At the time of signing the agreement, only 17% of land territory and 10% of ocean territory were protected. The agreement includes protecting the rights of Indigenous peoples and changing the current subsidy policy to one better for biodiversity protection, but it takes a step backward in protecting species from extinction in comparison to the Aichi Targets.{{cite news|last=Paddison|first=Laura|date=December 19, 2022|title=More than 190 countries sign landmark agreement to halt the biodiversity crisis|url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/12/19/world/cop15-biodiversity-agreement-montreal-climate-scn-intl/index.html|work=CNN|location=|access-date=December 20, 2022|archive-date=December 20, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220015200/https://www.cnn.com/2022/12/19/world/cop15-biodiversity-agreement-montreal-climate-scn-intl/index.html|url-status=live}}{{cite news|last=Curry|first=Tierra|date=December 24, 2022|title=COP15 biodiversity summit: Paving the road to extinction with good intentions|url=https://thehill.com/opinion/energy-environment/3787000-cop15-biodiversity-summit-paving-the-road-to-extinction-with-good-intentions/|work=The Hill|location=|access-date=December 27, 2022|archive-date=December 27, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227054903/https://thehill.com/opinion/energy-environment/3787000-cop15-biodiversity-summit-paving-the-road-to-extinction-with-good-intentions/|url-status=live}} Critics said the agreement does not go far enough to protect biodiversity, and that the process was rushed.

In 2019 the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) published the Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. This report said that up to a million plant and animal species are facing extinction because of human activity. The IPBES is an international organization that has a similar role to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),{{cite web |date=January 20, 2012 |title=Biodiversity crisis is worse than climate change, experts say |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/01/120120010357.htm |access-date=May 21, 2021 |website=ScienceDaily |archive-date=December 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229035952/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/01/120120010357.htm |url-status=live}} except that it focuses on biodiversity and ecosystem services, not climate change.

The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 15 (SDG 15), "Life on Land", includes biodiversity targets. Its fifth target is: "Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species."{{cite report |url=https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 |title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017 |date=2017 |publisher=United Nations |chapter=Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development |access-date=February 1, 2024 |archive-date=October 23, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023121826/https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 |url-status=live}} This target has one indicator: the Red List Index.{{Cite web |title=Goal 15: Life on Land – SDG Tracker |url=https://sdg-tracker.org/biodiversity |access-date=2020-09-05 |website=Our World in Data |language=en |archive-date=October 6, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006203803/https://sdg-tracker.org/biodiversity |url-status=live}} 50x50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

Nearly three-quarters of bird species, two thirds of mammals and more than half of hard corals have been recorded at World Heritage Sites, even though they cover less than 1% of the planet. Countries with World Heritage Sites can include them in their national biodiversity strategies and action plans.{{Cite news |last=Greenfield |first=Patrick |date=2023-08-31 |title=Fifth of known species on Earth found in Unesco world heritage sites – survey |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/aug/31/fifth-of-known-life-on-earth-found-in-unesco-world-heritage-sites-survey-finds-aoe |access-date=2023-09-07 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=September 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907102443/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/aug/31/fifth-of-known-life-on-earth-found-in-unesco-world-heritage-sites-survey-finds-aoe |url-status=live}}{{Cite news |title=New research underscores the vital role played by the World Heritage Convention in protecting biodiversity |publisher=UNESCO |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/new-research-underscores-vital-role-played-world-heritage-convention-protecting-biodiversity |access-date=2023-09-07 |language=en |archive-date=September 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907102443/https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/new-research-underscores-vital-role-played-world-heritage-convention-protecting-biodiversity |url-status=live}}

• Biodiversity offsetting
• Defaunation
• Depauperate ecosystem
• Ecological collapse
• Ecological extinction
• Effects of climate change on biomes
• Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity
• Species reintroduction
• Triple planetary crisis

{{reflist}}

• [https://ourworldindata.org/biodiversity Biodiversity] at Our World in Data
• {{cite web |title=Forests, desertification and biodiversity |website=United Nations Sustainable Development |url=http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/biodiversity/ |ref={{sfnref |United Nations Sustainable Development}} |access-date=March 5, 2018}}
• [https://www.cbd.int/gbo/ Global Biodiversity Outlook] Convention on Biological Diversity
• [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/biodiversity-and-health Biodiversity and Health] WHO website

{{Biodiversity Worldwide}}{{Human impact on the environment}}

{{Global catastrophic risks}}

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Category:Extinction

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de:Verlust von Biodiversität