Bodybuilding#Non muscle-developing methods

{{See also|History of physical training and fitness}}

File:Hercules Farnese 3637104088 9c95d7fe3c b.jpg, 216 AD]]

Stone-lifting competitions were practiced in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Tamilakam.{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/locked-horns-and-a-flurry-of-feathers/article4294435.ece|title=Locked horns and a flurry of feathers|vauthors=Karthikeyan D|date=January 12, 2013|via=www.thehindu.com|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=July 2, 2017|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511091147/http://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/locked-horns-and-a-flurry-of-feathers/article4294435.ece|url-status=live}} Western weightlifting developed in Europe from 1880 to 1953, with strongmen displaying feats of strength for the public and challenging each other. The focus was not on their physique, and they possessed relatively large bellies and fatty limbs compared to bodybuilders of today.{{cite book| vauthors = Schwarzenegger A |title=The New Encyclopedia of Modern Bodybuilding|year=1999|location=Fireside, NY|isbn=978-0684857213|publisher=Simon & Schuster}}

File:Falk,_Benjamin_J._(1853-1925)_-_Eugen_Sandow_(1867-1925).jpg, often referred to as the "Father of Modern Bodybuilding"]]

Bodybuilding developed in the late 19th century, promoted in England by Eugen Sandow. He allowed audiences to enjoy viewing his physique in "muscle display performances". Although audiences were thrilled to see a well-developed physique, the men simply displayed their bodies as part of strength demonstrations or wrestling matches. Sandow had a stage show built around these displays through his manager, Florenz Ziegfeld. The Oscar-winning 1936 musical film The Great Ziegfeld depicts the beginning of modern bodybuilding, when Sandow began to display his body for carnivals.{{Cite web|date=2016-03-26|title=This footage taken by Thomas Edison in 1904, shows women and men bodybuilding|url=https://www.thevintagenews.com/2016/03/26/footage-taken-thomas-edison-1904-show-women-men-bodybuilding/|access-date=2021-04-23|website=The Vintage News|language=en|archive-date=April 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423123452/https://www.thevintagenews.com/2016/03/26/footage-taken-thomas-edison-1904-show-women-men-bodybuilding/|url-status=live}}

Sandow was so successful at flexing and posing his physique that he later created several businesses around his fame, and was among the first to market products branded with his name. He was credited with inventing and selling the first exercise equipment for the masses: machined dumbbells, spring pulleys, and tension bands. Even his image was sold by the thousands in "cabinet cards" and other prints.

Sandow organized the first bodybuilding contest on September 14, 1901, called the "Great Competition". It was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London.{{cite web|last=Rhodes|first=Jesse|name-list-style=vanc|title=Bodybuilders Through the Ages|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Bodybuilders-Through-the-Ages.html|date=July 19, 2009|access-date=September 24, 2013|archive-date=November 6, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106002608/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Bodybuilders-Through-the-Ages.html|url-status=dead}} Judged by Sandow, Sir Charles Lawes, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the contest was a great success and many bodybuilding enthusiasts were turned away due to the overwhelming number of audience members. The trophy presented to the winner was a gold statue of Sandow sculpted by Frederick Pomeroy. The winner was William L. Murray of Nottingham. The silver Sandow trophy was presented to second-place winner D. Cooper. The bronze Sandow trophy—now the most famous of all—was presented to third-place winner A.C. Smythe.{{Cite web|date=2018-05-16|title=The Fascinating Story of the First Bodybuilding Show|url=https://barbend.com/first-bodybuilding-show-eugen-sandow/|access-date=2021-04-23|website=BarBend|language=en-US|archive-date=April 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423123443/https://barbend.com/first-bodybuilding-show-eugen-sandow/|url-status=live}} In 1950, this same bronze trophy was presented to Steve Reeves for winning the inaugural NABBA Mr. Universe contest. It would not resurface again until 1977 when the winner of the IFBB Mr. Olympia contest, Frank Zane, was presented with a replica of the bronze trophy. Since then, Mr. Olympia winners have been consistently awarded a replica of the bronze Sandow.

The first large-scale bodybuilding competition in America took place from December 28, 1903, to January 2, 1904,{{cite web |last1=Ryan |first1=Eugene Avery |year=1899 |title=Physical Culture, vol. 10, no. 6 (December 1903), p. 555 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951000756772n&view=1up&seq=569 |access-date=August 16, 2019 |archive-date=February 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204210450/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951000756772n&view=1up&seq=569 |url-status=live }} at Madison Square Garden in New York City. The competition was promoted by Bernarr Macfadden, the father of physical culture and publisher of original bodybuilding magazines such as Health & Strength. The winner was Al Treloar, who was declared "The Most Perfectly Developed Man in the World".{{cite web |url=http://www.sandowplus.co.uk/Competition/Treloar/treloar.htm|title=Al Treloar at SandowPlus.com|publisher=Sandowplus.co.uk|date=December 28, 1903|access-date=October 5, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120629104307/http://www.sandowplus.co.uk/Competition/Treloar/treloar.htm|archive-date=June 29, 2012|df=mdy-all}} Treloar won a thousand dollar cash prize, a substantial sum at that time. Two weeks later, Thomas Edison made a film of Treloar's posing routine. Edison had also made two films of Sandow a few years before. Those were the first three motion pictures featuring a bodybuilder. In the early 20th century, Macfadden and Charles Atlas continued to promote bodybuilding across the world.

Many other important bodybuilders in the early history of bodybuilding prior to 1930 include: Earle Liederman (writer of some of bodybuilding's earliest books), Zishe Breitbart, George Hackenschmidt, Emy Nkemena, George F. Jowett, Finn Hateral (a pioneer in the art of posing){{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}, Frank Saldo, Monte Saldo, William Bankier, Launceston Elliot, Sig Klein, Sgt. Alfred Moss, Joe Nordquist, Lionel Strongfort ("Strongfortism"),{{cite web|url=http://www.sandowplus.co.uk/Competition/Strongfort/course/lesson1.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080802165327/http://www.sandowplus.co.uk/Competition/Strongfort/course/lesson1.htm|archive-date=August 2, 2008|title=Strongfortism – Lesson One}} Gustav Frištenský, Ralph Parcaut (a champion wrestler who also authored an early book on "physical culture"), and Alan P. Mead (who became a muscle champion despite the fact that he lost a leg in World War I). Actor Francis X. Bushman, who was a disciple of Sandow, started his career as a bodybuilder and sculptor's model before beginning his famous silent movie career.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xz2eGt6InJIC&q=Actor+Francis+X.+Bushman%2C+who+was+a+disciple+of+Sandow%2C+started+his+career+as+a+bodybuilder+and+sculptor%27s+model+before+beginning+his+famous+silent+movie+career&pg=PA1743|title=Creativity of God in the Human Body: "Bodybuilding"|publisher=Abdullah F Shrit|isbn=978-1-4840-1198-0|language=en|access-date=May 3, 2021|archive-date=April 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405222239/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xz2eGt6InJIC&q=Actor+Francis+X.+Bushman%2C+who+was+a+disciple+of+Sandow%2C+started+his+career+as+a+bodybuilder+and+sculptor%27s+model+before+beginning+his+famous+silent+movie+career&pg=PA1743|url-status=live}}

Bodybuilding became more popular in the 1950s and 1960s with the emergence of strength and gymnastics champions, and the simultaneous popularization of bodybuilding magazines, training principles, nutrition for bulking up and cutting down, the use of protein and other food supplements, and the opportunity to enter physique contests. The number of bodybuilding organizations grew, and most notably the International Federation of Bodybuilders (IFBB) was founded in 1946 by Canadian brothers Joe and Ben Weider. Other bodybuilding organizations included the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), National Amateur Bodybuilding Association (NABBA), and the World Bodybuilding Guild (WBBG). Consequently, the contests grew both in number and in size. Besides the many "Mr. XXX" (insert town, city, state, or region) championships, the most prestigious titles{{According to whom|date=February 2017}} were Mr. America, Mr. World, Mr. Universe, Mr. Galaxy, and ultimately Mr. Olympia, which was started in 1965 by the IFBB and is now considered the most important bodybuilding competition in the world.

During the 1950s, the most successful and most famous competing bodybuilders were Bill Pearl, Reg Park, Leroy Colbert, and Clarence Ross.{{Cite web|date=2005-03-21|title=A History Lesson In Bodybuilding|url=https://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/drobson61.htm|access-date=2021-04-23|website=Bodybuilding.com|language=en|archive-date=April 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423123443/https://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/drobson61.htm|url-status=live}} Certain bodybuilders rose to fame thanks to the relatively new medium of television, as well as cinema. The most notable were Jack LaLanne, Steve Reeves, Reg Park, and Mickey Hargitay.{{Cite thesis|title=Flex marks the spot: histories of Muscle Beach|url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/26057|date=August 2014|degree=Thesis|language=en|first=Tolga|last=Ozyurtcu|access-date=April 23, 2021|archive-date=April 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423123444/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/26057|url-status=live}} While there were well-known gyms throughout the country during the 1950s (such as Vince's Gym in North Hollywood, California and Vic Tanny's chain gyms), there were still segments of the United States that had no "hardcore" bodybuilding gyms until the advent of Gold's Gym in the mid-1960s. Finally, the famed Muscle Beach in Santa Monica continued its popularity as the place to be for witnessing acrobatic acts, feats of strength, and the like. The movement grew more in the 1960s with increased TV and movie exposure, as bodybuilders were typecast in popular shows and movies.

File:Ed_Fury_and_Jackie_Coey,_1953.jpg posing with model Jackie Coey in 1953]]

In the 1970s, bodybuilding had major publicity thanks to the appearance of Arnold Schwarzenegger, Franco Columbu, Lou Ferrigno, Mike Mentzer and others in the 1977 docudrama Pumping Iron. By this time, the IFBB dominated the competitive bodybuilding landscape and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) took a back seat. The National Physique Committee (NPC) was formed in 1981 by Jim Manion,{{cite web |url=http://www.ifbbpro.com/features/jim-manion-chairman-ifbb-professional-league/|title=IFBB Professional League – Jim Manion, Chairman IFBB Professional League|publisher=Ifbbpro.com|date=September 26, 2007|access-date=October 5, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921210350/http://abhivacrossfitarena.com/|archive-date=September 21, 2012|df=mdy-all}} who had just stepped down as chairman of the AAU Physique Committee. The NPC has gone on to become the most successful bodybuilding organization in the United States and is the amateur division of the IFBB. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the decline of AAU-sponsored bodybuilding contests. In 1999, the AAU voted to discontinue its bodybuilding events.

This period also saw the rise of anabolic steroids in bodybuilding and many other sports. More significant use began with Arnold Schwarzenegger, Sergio Oliva, and Lou Ferrigno in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and continuing through the 1980s with Lee Haney, the 1990s with Dorian Yates, Ronnie Coleman, and Markus Rühl, and up to the present day. Bodybuilders such as Greg Kovacs attained mass and size never seen previously but were not successful at the pro level. Others were renowned for their spectacular development of a particular body part, like Tom Platz or Paul Demayo for their leg muscles. At the time of shooting Pumping Iron, Schwarzenegger, while never admitting to steroid use until long after his retirement, said, "You have to do anything you can to get the advantage in competition".{{citation needed|date=November 2014}} He would later say that he did not regret using steroids.{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/arnold-no-regrets-about-steroids/|newspaper=CBS|date=February 11, 2009|title=Arnold: No Regrets About Steroids|access-date=August 13, 2013|archive-date=November 6, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106123539/http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-250_162-676684.html|url-status=live}}

To combat anabolic steroid use and in the hopes of becoming a member of the IOC, the IFBB introduced doping tests for both steroids and other banned substances. Although doping tests occurred, the majority of professional bodybuilders still used anabolic steroids for competition. During the 1970s, the use of anabolic steroids was openly discussed, partly due to the fact they were legal.{{cite web |last=Theunissen|first=Steve | name-list-style = vanc |title=Arnold & Steroids: Truth Revealed|url=http://hjem.get2net.dk/JamesBond/www/artikler/steroidemisbrug/arnoldandsteroids.htm|access-date=February 27, 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031008172601/http://hjem.get2net.dk/JamesBond/www/artikler/steroidemisbrug/arnoldandsteroids.htm|archive-date=October 8, 2003|df=mdy-all}} In the Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990, U.S. Congress placed anabolic steroids into Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act (CSA). In Canada, steroids are listed under Schedule IV of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, enacted by the federal Parliament in 1996.{{Cite web|url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-38.8/|title=Consolidated federal laws of canada, Controlled Drugs and Substances Act|first=Legislative Services|last=Branch|date=September 19, 2019|website=laws-lois.justice.gc.ca|access-date=January 24, 2020|archive-date=April 8, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408213707/https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-38.8/|url-status=live}}

{{Main|World Bodybuilding Federation}}

In 1990, professional wrestling promoter Vince McMahon attempted to form his own bodybuilding organization known as the World Bodybuilding Federation (WBF). It operated as a sister to the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE), which provided cross-promotion via its performers and personalities. Tom Platz served as the WBF's director of talent development, and announced the new organization during an ambush of that year's Mr. Olympia (which, unbeknownst to organizers, McMahon and Platz had attended as representatives of an accompanying magazine, Bodybuilding Lifestyles). It touted efforts to bring bigger prize money and more "dramatic" events to the sport of bodybuilding—which resulted in its championships being held as pay-per-view events with WWF-inspired sports entertainment features and showmanship. The organization signed high-valued contracts with a number of IFBB regulars.{{Cite web|date=2020-03-17|title=When Bodybuilding Met Wrestling: The Bizarre Tale of the World Bodybuilding Federation|url=https://barbend.com/world-bodybuilding-federation/|access-date=2021-05-24|website=BarBend|language=en-US|archive-date=May 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524051152/https://barbend.com/world-bodybuilding-federation/|url-status=live}}{{Cite book|last=Muchnick|first=Irvin|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/244769018|title=Wrestling Babylon: piledriving tales of drugs, sex, death and scandal|date=2007|publisher=ECW Press|isbn=978-1-55490-761-8|location=Toronto [Ont.]|oclc=244769018}}{{Cite web|date=2019-03-07|title=Vince McMahon's Attempt to Take Over Bodybuilding|url=https://www.muscleandfitness.com/athletes-celebrities/news/vince-mcmahons-failed-attempt-take-over-world-bodybuilding/|access-date=2021-05-24|website=Muscle & Fitness|language=en-US|archive-date=June 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625104211/https://www.muscleandfitness.com/athletes-celebrities/news/vince-mcmahons-failed-attempt-take-over-world-bodybuilding/|url-status=live}}

The IFBB's inaugural championship in June 1991 (won by Gary Strydom) received mixed reviews. The WBF would be indirectly impacted by a steroid scandal involving the WWF, prompting the organization to impose a drug testing policy prior to the 1992 championship. The drug testing policy hampered the quality of the 1992 championship, while attempts to increase interest by hiring WCW wrestler Lex Luger as a figurehead (hosting a WBF television program on USA Network, and planning to make a guest pose during the 1992 championship before being injured in a motorcycle accident) and attempting to sign Lou Ferrigno (who left the organization shortly after the drug testing policy was announced) did not come to fruition. The second PPV received a minuscule audience, and the WBF dissolved only one month later in July 1992.

File:Ronnie Coleman 8 x Mr Olympia - 2009 - 5.png Ronnie Coleman in October 2009]]

In 2003, Joe Weider sold Weider Publications to American Media, Inc. (AMI). The position of president of the IFBB was filled by Rafael Santonja following the death of Ben Weider in October 2008. In 2004, contest promoter Wayne DeMilia broke ranks with the IFBB and AMI took over the promotion of the Mr. Olympia contest: in 2017 AMI took the contest outright.{{Cite press release| date= 5 September 2017|title=American Media, Inc. Acquires Full Ownership Of Mr. Olympia Competition|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/american-media-inc-acquires-full-ownership-of-mr-olympia-competition-300513901.html|access-date=2023-02-08|website=www.prnewswire.com|language=en|archive-date=May 19, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519015657/https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/american-media-inc-acquires-full-ownership-of-mr-olympia-competition-300513901.html|url-status=live}}

In the early 21st century, patterns of consumption and recreation similar to those of the United States became more widespread in Europe and especially in Eastern Europe following the collapse of the Soviet Union. This resulted in the emergence of whole new populations of bodybuilders from former Eastern Bloc states.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xz2eGt6InJIC&pg=PA1759|title=Creativity of God in the Human Body "Bodybuilding" |publisher=Abdullah F Shrit|isbn=978-1-4840-1198-0 |author= Abdullah F. Shirt}}{{self-published inline|date=July 2023}}

In the early 2000s, the IFBB was attempting to make bodybuilding an Olympic sport. It obtained full IOC membership in 2000 and was attempting to get approved as a demonstration event at the Olympics, which would hopefully lead to it being added as a full contest. This did not happen and Olympic recognition for bodybuilding remains controversial since many argue that bodybuilding is not a sport.{{cite web |last=Littman|first=Jean | name-list-style = vanc |title=Bodybuilding And The Olympics: An Ongoing Controversy|publisher=article99.com|url=http://www.article99.com/recreation-and-sports/olympics/article.php?art=63758|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071205174022/http://www.article99.com/recreation-and-sports/olympics/article.php?art=63758|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 5, 2007|date=November 13, 2007}}

The advent of social media had a profound influence on fitness and bodybuilding. It is common to see platforms such as Instagram, TikTok, and YouTube flooded with fitness-related content, changing how the average person views and interacts with fitness culture. Gym clothing brands like Gymshark, YoungLA and Rawgear leveraged this platform to create their brands.{{Cite web |last=Kulke |first=Catherine |title=How YoungLA Became 2022's Hottest Men's Activewear Brand |url=https://www.tribedynamics.com/blog/youngla-hottest-mens-activewear-brand |access-date=2023-05-17 |website=www.tribedynamics.com |language=en}} By recruiting fitness ambassadors—real people who embody their brand values—these companies personalize their marketing strategy and create a more relatable image. These ambassadors, often in the form of fitness influencers or personal trainers, promote the brand by sharing their workout routines, dietary plans, and gym clothing. YouTube in particular has seen a surge in fitness content, ranging from gym vlogs to detailed discussions on workout attire. This not only provides consumers with an abundance of free resources to aid their fitness journey, but also creates a more informed consumer base.

Another growing trend with gym-related social media is the phenomenon of gym-shaming; a video posted by content creator Jessica Fernandez on Twitch that went viral showed her lifting weights in a gym while a man in the background stared at her, sparking a widespread debate about narcissism and an increasingly toxic gym culture in the age of social media. The video led to criticism of an emerging trend in which gyms, once known as places for focused workouts, are now being treated as filming locations for aspiring or established influencers with bystanders being unintentionally placed under the public eye in the process. Bodybuilder Joey Swoll, who voiced his concerns over this culture, addressed the controversy by stating that while harassment in gyms needs to be addressed, the man in Fernandez's video was not guilty of it.{{Cite web |date=23 February 2023|title=Bodybuilder Joey Swoll has had enough of fitness influencers |url=https://nypost.com/2023/02/23/bodybuilder-joey-swoll-has-had-enough-of-fitness-influencers/ |access-date=2023-05-17 |author= Kristen Fleming}}{{unreliable source?|date=July 2023| reason= per WP:NYPOST}} Although social media is giving more attention to the world of bodybuilding, there are still some areas that are controversial.

For instance, concerns are growing over the influence which bodybuilding content on social media has on young adults and their perception of their own bodies, as they tend to compare themselves to gym influencers online. These concerns get further exacerbated by the poor transparency about steroid use on social media, as many influencers either do not elaborate about whether or not they are "natural" bodybuilders, or firmly deny accusations about being "enhanced". This blurs the line between what can be achieved naturally and what can only be achieved through the use of anabolic steroids. This is also detrimental for adult lifters since they often find their body image being skewed by the content they consume, potentially leading to an unhealthy relationship towards nutrition and exercise. Mental disorders such as body dysmorphia or eating disorders might also be a consequence. However, more and more influencers are opening up about steroid use and strongly advocate for transparency about steroid use online. This has sparked an ongoing open debate about the risks of anabolic steroids. Many people view this as a positive trend as it raises awareness and educates about the effects, uses and dangers of steroids. Another topic which is now widely discussed online is mental health in association with bodybuilding, as aforementioned mental disorders might affect hobby lifters of all ages and backgrounds.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

{{Main|Professional bodybuilding}}

In the modern bodybuilding industry, the term "professional" generally means a bodybuilder who has won qualifying competitions as an amateur and has earned a "pro card" from their respective organization. Professionals earn the right to compete in competitions that include monetary prizes. A pro card also prohibits the athlete from competing in federations other than the one from which they have received the pro card.{{Cite web|title=IFBB FAQ|url=https://ifbb.com/ifbb-faq/|access-date=2023-02-08|website=International Fitness and Bodybuilding Federation|language=en-GB|archive-date=February 8, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208100337/https://ifbb.com/ifbb-faq/|url-status=live}} Depending on the level of success, these bodybuilders may receive monetary compensation from sponsors, much like athletes in other sports.

{{Main|Natural bodybuilding}}

Due to the growing concerns of the high cost, health consequences, and illegal nature of some steroids, many organizations have formed in response and have deemed themselves "natural" bodybuilding competitions. In addition to the concerns noted, many promoters of bodybuilding have sought to shed the "freakish" perception that the general public has of bodybuilding and have successfully introduced a more mainstream audience to the sport of bodybuilding by including competitors whose physiques appear much more attainable and realistic.{{cite web|url=https://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/beginner_natural_bodybuilding_guide.htm|title=Beginner's Guide To Natural Bodybuilding Competition: Disseminating Misconception From Reality!|website=Bodybuilding.com|date=May 10, 2009|access-date=2020-01-24|archive-date=January 26, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126101905/https://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/beginner_natural_bodybuilding_guide.htm|url-status=live}}

In natural contests, the testing protocol ranges among organizations from lie detectors to urinalysis. Penalties range from organization to organization, from suspensions to strict bans from competition. Natural organizations also have their own list of banned substances and it is important to refer to each organization's website for more information about which substances are banned from competition. There are many natural bodybuilding organizations; some of the larger ones include: MuscleMania, Ultimate Fitness Events (UFE), INBF/WNBF, and INBA/PNBA. These organizations either have an American or worldwide presence and are not limited to the country in which they are headquartered.

Due to those who found open-bodybuilding to be "too big" or "ugly" and unhealthy, a new category was started in 2013.{{Cite web|last=Spice|first=Robyn Charlotte|date=2016|title=Strong is the new slim: a study of the body and gender amongst female free weights users| publisher=University of Stirling|url=http://dspace.stir.ac.uk/handle/1893/24355|language=en|access-date=April 23, 2021|archive-date=May 12, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512151142/https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/handle/1893/24355|url-status=live}} The first Men's Physique Olympia winner was Mark Wingson, who was followed by Jeremy Buendia for four consecutive years. Like open-bodybuilding, the federations in which bodybuilders can compete are natural divisions as well as normal ones. The main difference between the two is that men's physique competitors pose in board shorts rather than a traditional posing suit and open-bodybuilders are much larger and are more muscular than the men's physique competitors.{{Cite web|date=2020-11-27|title=How Bodybuilding is Judged, Different Divisions, and Scoring|url=https://barbend.com/how-bodybuilding-is-judged/|access-date=2021-04-23|website=BarBend|language=en-US|archive-date=April 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423123452/https://barbend.com/how-bodybuilding-is-judged/|url-status=live}} Open-bodybuilders have an extensive routine for posing while the Physique category is primarily judged by the front and back poses.{{Cite web|date=2005-03-20|title=Excellence In Execution: Perfecting The Pose|url=https://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/drobson62.htm|access-date=2021-04-23|website=Bodybuilding.com|language=en|archive-date=April 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423123443/https://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/drobson62.htm|url-status=live}} Many of the men's physique competitors are not above 200 lbs and have a bit of a more attainable and aesthetic physique in comparison to open-bodybuilders.{{Cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=Brandon M|last2=Helms|first2=Eric R|last3=Trexler|first3=Eric T|last4=Fitschen|first4=Peter J|date=2020-01-31|title=Nutritional Recommendations for Physique Athletes|journal=Journal of Human Kinetics|volume=71|pages=79–108|doi=10.2478/hukin-2019-0096|issn=1640-5544|pmc=7052702|pmid=32148575}} Although this category started off slowly, it has grown tremendously, and currently men's physique seems to be a more popular class than open-bodybuilding.{{Cite thesis|title=From 'Classical' To 'Freaky:' An Exploration of the Development of Dominant, Organised, Male Bodybuilding Culture|url=http://research.gold.ac.uk/id/eprint/8006/|publisher=Goldsmiths, University of London|date=February 2012|degree=doctoral|first=Dimitrios|last=Liokaftos|access-date=April 23, 2021|archive-date=April 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423123444/http://research.gold.ac.uk/id/eprint/8006/|url-status=live}}

This is the middle ground of Men's Physique and Bodybuilding, a category that emphasizes symmetry, proportion, pleasing lines, and a small waist over size and mass.{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2007-02-24 |title=A Brief History of the Classic Physique |url=https://www.muscleandfitness.com/flexonline/training/brief-history-classic-physique/ |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=Muscle & Fitness |language=en-US}} The competitors in this category are not nearly as big as Open class bodybuilders but not as small as Men's Physique competitors. They pose and perform in men's boxer briefs or posing trunks to show off the legs as in the Open class, unlike Men's Physique which hide the legs in board shorts. The judging criteria also looks to see certain poses emphasized, such as ones accentuating the vacuum to illustrate a tapered torso and lack of the infamous bloated gut of Open bodybuilding.

The Classic Physique division in Mr. Olympia began in 2016. Danny Hester was the first classic physique Mr. Olympia. {{as of|2024}}, Chris Bumstead is the 6x reigning Mr. Olympia.{{Cite web |last=Bachu |first=Ramya |date=2022-12-18 |title=Bodybuilding World Reacts to Chris Bumstead's Fourth Mr.Olympia Triumph |url=https://www.essentiallysports.com/us-sports-news-bodybuilding-news-can-sleep-peacefully-seeing-dad-win-bodybuilding-world-reacts-to-chris-bumsteads-fourth-mr-olympia-triumph-classic-physique/ |access-date=2023-08-30 |website=EssentiallySports}}{{Cite web |last=Lockridge |first=Roger "Rock" |date=2024-10-13 |title=Chris Bumstead Wins 6th Olympia Classic Physique Title, Announces Retirement |url=https://www.muscleandfitness.com/flexonline/flex-news/olympia-2024-chris-bumstead-wins-6th-straight-classic-physique-title-announces-retirement/ |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=Muscle & Fitness |language=en-US}}

{{main|Female bodybuilding}}The female movement of the 1960s, combined with Title IX and the all around fitness revolution, gave birth to new alternative perspectives of feminine beauty that included an athletic physique of toned muscle. This athletic physique was found in various popular media outlets such as fashion magazines. Female bodybuilders changed the limits of traditional femininity as their bodies showed that muscles are not only just for men.{{Cite book|last=Locks|first=Adam|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203809457|title=Critical Readings in Bodybuilding|date=2013-03-01|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780203809457|isbn=978-0-203-80945-7|access-date=October 4, 2021|archive-date=April 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405222233/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9780203809457/critical-readings-bodybuilding-niall-richardson-adam-locks|url-status=live}}

File:Nikki_Fuller.jpg posing]]

The first U.S. Women's National Physique Championship, promoted by Henry McGhee and held in 1978 in Canton, Ohio, is generally regarded as the first true female bodybuilding contest—that is, the first contest where the entrants were judged solely on muscularity.Todd, Jan, "Bodybuilding", St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture, Gale Group, 1999 In 1980, the first Ms. Olympia (initially known as the "Miss" Olympia), the most prestigious contest for professionals, was held. The first winner was Rachel McLish, who had also won the NPC's USA Championship earlier in the year. The contest was a major turning point for female bodybuilding.

In 1985, the documentary Pumping Iron II: The Women was released. It documented the preparation of several women for the 1983 Caesars Palace World Cup Championship. Competitors prominently featured in the film were Kris Alexander, Lori Bowen, Lydia Cheng, Carla Dunlap, Bev Francis, and McLish. At the time, Francis was actually a powerlifter, though she soon made a successful transition to bodybuilding, becoming one of the leading competitors of the late 1980s and early 1990s.{{Cite web |last=Shain |first=Cera R. |date=March 20, 2019 |title="The Most Muscular Woman I Have Ever Seen": Bev Francis's Performance of Gender in Pumping Iron II: The Women |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=9133&context=etd |access-date=November 2, 2023 |page=43}}

The related areas of fitness and figure competition increased in popularity, surpassing that of female bodybuilding, and provided an alternative for women who choose not to develop the level of muscularity necessary for bodybuilding. McLish would closely resemble what is thought of today as a fitness and figure competitor, instead of what is now considered a female bodybuilder.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

E. Wilma Conner competed in the 2011 NPC Armbrust Pro Gym Warrior Classic Championships in Loveland, Colorado, at the age of 75 years and 349 days.{{Cite book|title=Guinness World Records 2014|last=Glenday|first=Craig | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=The Jim Pattison Group|year=2013|isbn=978-1-908843-15-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse_r3e7/page/60 60]|url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse_r3e7/page/60}}

In competitive bodybuilding, bodybuilders aspire to present an "aesthetically pleasing" body on stage.{{cite web| title = Top 10 Most Impressive Bodybuilder Physiques of All Time| publisher = Muscleprodigy| url = http://www.muscleprodigy.com/top-10-most-impressive-bodybuilder-physiques-of-all-time-arcl-1797.html| access-date = June 14, 2013| archive-date = July 29, 2017| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170729212646/https://www.muscleprodigy.com/top-10-best-bodybuilder-physiques-of-all-time/| url-status = live}}{{cite web|url=http://muscletime.com/news/judging-the-2008-mr-olympia-judges-provide-full-transparency-and-complete-explanation-of-results|title=Judging the 2008 Mr. Olympia: Judges Provide Full Transparency and Complete Explanation of Results|publisher=Muscletime|access-date=June 14, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516184738/http://muscletime.com/news/judging-the-2008-mr-olympia-judges-provide-full-transparency-and-complete-explanation-of-results|archive-date=May 16, 2019|url-status=dead}} In prejudging, competitors do a series of mandatory poses: the front lat spread, rear lat spread, front double biceps, back double biceps, side chest, side triceps, Most Muscular (men only), abdominals and thighs. Each competitor also performs a personal choreographed routine to display their physique. A posedown is usually held at the end of a posing round, while judges are finishing their scoring. Bodybuilders are advised to spend a lot of time practising their posing in front of mirrors or under the guidance of their coach.{{Cite web |title=Posing Room |url=https://ultimatefitnessbirmingham.co.uk/posing-room/ |access-date=2024-07-04 |website=Ultimate Fitness Birmingham |language=en-GB}}

In contrast to strongman or powerlifting competitions, where physical strength is paramount, or to Olympic weightlifting, where the main point is equally split between strength and technique, bodybuilding competitions typically emphasize condition, size, and symmetry. Different organizations emphasize particular aspects of competition, and sometimes have different categories in which to compete.{{Cite journal|last1=Probert|first1=Anne|last2=Leberman|first2=Sarah|last3=Palmer|first3=Farah|date=2007-03-01|title=New Zealand Bodybuilder Identities: Beyond Homogeneity|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690207081921|journal=International Review for the Sociology of Sport|language=en|volume=42|issue=1|pages=5–26|doi=10.1177/1012690207081921|s2cid=144186372|issn=1012-6902}}

{{further information|Weight cycling}}

File:Lukáš_Osladil.jpg pose]]

The general strategy adopted by most present-day competitive bodybuilders is to make muscle gains for most of the year (known as the "off-season") and, approximately 12–14 weeks from competition, lose a maximum of body fat (referred to as "cutting") while preserving as much muscular mass as possible. The bulking phase entails remaining in a net positive energy balance (calorie surplus). The amount of a surplus in which a person remains is based on the person's goals, as a bigger surplus and longer bulking phase will create more fat tissue. The surplus of calories relative to one's energy balance will ensure that muscles remain in a state of anabolism.{{cite news|url=https://www.mensjournal.com/food-drink/reverse-dieting-how-go-cut-bulk-without-gaining-fat|work=Men's Journal|title=Reverse Dieting: How to Go From Cut to Bulk Without Gaining Fat|date=December 2017|access-date=2020-01-24|archive-date=January 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124222218/https://www.mensjournal.com/food-drink/reverse-dieting-how-go-cut-bulk-without-gaining-fat|url-status=live}}

The cutting phase entails remaining in a net negative energy balance (calorie deficit). The main goal of cutting is to oxidize fat while preserving as much muscle as possible. The larger the calorie deficit, the faster one will lose weight. However, a large calorie deficit will also create the risk of losing muscle tissue.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lambert CP, Frank LL, Evans WJ | s2cid = 17233384 | title = Macronutrient considerations for the sport of bodybuilding | journal = Sports Medicine | volume = 34 | issue = 5 | pages = 317–27 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 15107010 | doi = 10.2165/00007256-200434050-00004 }}

The bulking and cutting strategy is considered effective because there is a well-established link between muscle hypertrophy and being in a state of positive energy balance.the science and development of muscle hypertrophy, Dr. Brad Schoenfeld, page 139-140 A sustained period of caloric surplus will allow the athlete to gain more fat-free mass than they could otherwise gain under eucaloric conditions. Some gain in fat mass is expected, which athletes seek to oxidize in a cutting period while maintaining as much lean mass as possible.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} However, it is unclear whether one can maintain enough fat-free mass during cutting for the overall process to be worth it.{{Cite journal|title=Nutrition, Pharmacological and Training Strategies Adopted by Six Bodybuilders: Case Report and Critical Review|first1=Paulo|last1=Gentil|first2=Claudio Andre Barbosa|last2=de Lira|first3=Antonio|last3=Paoli|first4=José Alexandre Barbosa|last4=dos Santos|first5=Roberto Deivide Teixeira|last5=da Silva|first6=José Romulo Pereira|last6=Junior|first7=Edson Pereira|last7=da Silva|first8=Rodrigo Ferro|last8=Magosso|date=March 24, 2017|journal=European Journal of Translational Myology|volume=27|issue=1|pages=6247|doi=10.4081/ejtm.2017.6247|pmid=28458804|pmc=5391526}}{{cite journal |last1=Lenzi |first1=Jaqueline L. |last2=Teixeira |first2=Emerson L. |last3=de Jesus |first3=Guilherme |last4=Schoenfeld |first4=Brad J. |last5=de Salles Painelli |first5=Vitor |title=Dietary Strategies of Modern Bodybuilders During Different Phases of the Competitive Cycle |journal=Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research |publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) |volume=35 |issue=9 |year=2021 |issn=1064-8011 |doi=10.1519/jsc.0000000000003169 |pages=2546–2551|pmid=31009437 |s2cid=128359542 }}

The attempt to increase muscle mass in one's body without any gain in fat is called clean bulking. Competitive bodybuilders focus their efforts to achieve a peak appearance during a brief "competition season".{{Cite web|url=https://www.bodybuilding.com/content/the-clean-bulk-a-new-approach-to-adding-offseason-muscle.html|title=The Clean Bulk: A New Approach To Adding Offseason Muscle|date=2016-10-16|website=Bodybuilding.com|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-07|archive-date=April 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407000732/https://www.bodybuilding.com/content/the-clean-bulk-a-new-approach-to-adding-offseason-muscle.html|url-status=live}} Clean bulking takes longer and is a more refined approach to achieving the body fat and muscle mass percentage a person is looking for. A common tactic for keeping fat low and muscle mass high is to have higher calorie and lower calorie days to maintain a balance between gain and loss. Many clean bulk diets start off with a moderate amount of carbs, moderate amount of protein, and a low amount of fats.Giblin, Chris. "Clean Bulking: for Frustrated Hard-Gainers, Clean Bulking Is Attainable If You Focus Your Diet Accordingly with the Right Foods and Strategy." Joe Weider's Muscle & Fitness, vol. 75, no. 8, 2014, p. 89. To maintain a clean bulk, it is important to reach calorie goals every day. Macronutrient goals (carbs, fats, and proteins) will be different for each person, but it is ideal to get as close as possible.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

"Dirty bulking" is the process of eating at a massive caloric surplus without trying to figure out the exact amount of ingested macronutrients, often down with junk food such as burgers and fries. Weightlifters who attempt to gain mass quickly with no aesthetic concerns often choose to do this. "Dirty bulking" is often favored by bodybuilders in the off-season who are looking to rapidly increase size and strength without worrying about fat gain. While it can lead to quick weight gain and increased muscle mass due to the abundance of calories, it also typically results in a significant increase in body fat. This means a more aggressive cutting phase is usually required afterward to shed the excess fat, which can be physically and mentally taxing. Additionally, consuming large amounts of processed foods high in sugar and unhealthy fats can negatively impact cardiovascular health and insulin sensitivity over time. Despite these risks, some lifters find dirty bulking psychologically easier, as it removes the pressure of strict meal planning and food tracking.{{Cite web|date=2010-06-13|title=Dirty Bulking: Why You Need To Know The Dirty Truth!|url=https://www.bodybuilding.com/content/dirty-bulking-why-you-need-to-know-the-dirty-truth.html|access-date=2023-02-08|website=Bodybuilding.com|author= Rian Evans|archive-date=February 8, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208100337/https://www.bodybuilding.com/content/dirty-bulking-why-you-need-to-know-the-dirty-truth.html|url-status=dead}}

Bodybuilders use three main strategies to maximize muscle hypertrophy:

• Strength training through weights or elastic/hydraulic resistance.
• Specialized nutrition, incorporating extra protein and supplements when necessary.
• Adequate rest, including sleep and recuperation between workouts.{{Cite news|date=2017-03-01|title=9 things every athlete needs to know about sleep and recovery|url=https://www.mensjournal.com/health-fitness/9-things-every-athlete-needs-know-about-sleep-and-recovery/|access-date=2021-10-14|website=Men's Journal|language=en-US|archive-date=October 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029171723/https://www.mensjournal.com/health-fitness/9-things-every-athlete-needs-know-about-sleep-and-recovery/|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Weight training|Strength training}}

{{more medical citations needed|section|date=March 2022|This section covers medical topices, so WP:MEDRS should apply here.|talk=1}}

Intensive weight training causes micro-tears to the muscles being trained; this is generally known as microtrauma. These micro-tears in the muscle contribute to the soreness felt after exercise, called delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). It is the repair of these micro-traumas that results in muscle growth. Normally, this soreness becomes most apparent a day or two after a workout. However, as muscles become adapted to the exercises, soreness tends to decrease.{{cite journal | vauthors = MacDougall JD, Elder GC, Sale DG, Moroz JR, Sutton JR | s2cid = 28377940 | title = Effects of strength training and immobilization on human muscle fibres | journal = European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology | volume = 43 | issue = 1 | pages = 25–34 | date = February 1980 | pmid = 7371625 | doi = 10.1007/BF00421352 }}

Weight training aims to build muscle by prompting two different types of hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy leads to larger muscles and so is favored by bodybuilders more than myofibrillar hypertrophy, which builds athletic strength. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy is triggered by increasing repetitions, whereas myofibrillar hypertrophy is triggered by lifting heavier weight.{{cite web|title=Weight Training Intensity or Volume for Bigger Muscles?|date=October 15, 2010 |url=http://www.motleyhealth.com/strength/weight-training-intensity-or-volume-for-bigger-muscles|access-date=February 24, 2012|archive-date=March 10, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310092836/http://www.motleyhealth.com/strength/weight-training-intensity-or-volume-for-bigger-muscles|url-status=live}} In either case, there is an increase in both size and strength of the muscles (compared to what happens if that same individual does not lift weights at all), although the emphasis is different.

The high levels of muscle growth and repair achieved by bodybuilders require a specialized diet. Generally speaking, bodybuilders require more calories than the average person of the same weight to provide the protein and energy requirements needed to support their training and increase muscle mass. In preparation of a contest, a sub-maintenance level of food energy is combined with cardiovascular exercise to lose body fat. Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are the three major macronutrients that the human body needs to build muscle.{{cite web|title=Major Nutrients in Food|work=WebMD |url=http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/major-nutrients-in-food-topic-overview|access-date=August 27, 2013|archive-date=September 5, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905081801/http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/major-nutrients-in-food-topic-overview|url-status=live}} The ratios of calories from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats vary depending on the goals of the bodybuilder.{{cite journal | vauthors = Manore MM, Thompson J, Russo M | title = Diet and exercise strategies of a world-class bodybuilder | journal = International Journal of Sport Nutrition | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 76–86 | date = March 1993 | pmid = 8499940 | doi = 10.1123/ijsn.3.1.76 | s2cid = 38151979 }}

Carbohydrates play an important role for bodybuilders. They give the body energy to deal with the rigors of training and recovery. Carbohydrates also promote secretion of insulin, a hormone enabling cells to get the glucose they need. Insulin also carries amino acids into cells and promotes protein synthesis.{{cite magazine|last=Skinner|first=Rob | name-list-style = vanc |magazine=Scholastic Coach and Athletic Director |title=Nutrition for Muscle Mass|date=March 2002|volume=71|issue=8|page=3 |id={{ProQuest|208050071}} |department=Sidelines |issn=1077-5625}} Insulin has steroid-like effects in terms of muscle gains.{{cite journal | vauthors = Dimitriadis G, Mitrou P, Lambadiari V, Maratou E, Raptis SA | title = Insulin effects in muscle and adipose tissue | journal = Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice | volume = 93 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S52-9 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21864752 | doi = 10.1016/S0168-8227(11)70014-6 }} It is impossible to promote protein synthesis without the existence of insulin, which means that without ingesting carbohydrates or protein—which also induces the release of insulin—it is impossible to add muscle mass.{{cite journal | vauthors = Miranda L, Horman S, De Potter I, Hue L, Jensen J, Rider MH | s2cid = 6649224 | title = Effects of contraction and insulin on protein synthesis, AMP-activated protein kinase and phosphorylation state of translation factors in rat skeletal muscle | journal = Pflügers Archiv | volume = 455 | issue = 6 | pages = 1129–40 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 17957382 | doi = 10.1007/s00424-007-0368-2 }} Bodybuilders seek out low-glycemic polysaccharides and other slowly digesting carbohydrates, which release energy in a more stable fashion than high-glycemic sugars and starches. This is important as high-glycemic carbohydrates cause a sharp insulin response, which places the body in a state where it is likely to store additional food energy as fat. However, bodybuilders frequently do ingest some quickly digesting sugars (often in form of pure dextrose or maltodextrin) just before, during, and/or just after a workout. This may help to replenish glycogen stored within the muscle, and to stimulate muscle protein synthesis.{{cite web|last=King|first=Michael W.|name-list-style=vanc|title=Substrates for Gluconeogenesis|publisher=IU School of Medicine|url=http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gluconeogenesis.html|access-date=March 11, 2007|archive-date=June 21, 2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000621005841/http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/gluconeogenesis.html|url-status=live}}

File:Protein_shake.jpg.]]

The motor proteins actin and myosin generate the forces exerted by contracting muscles. Cortisol decreases amino acid uptake by muscle and inhibits protein synthesis.{{cite book | vauthors = Manchester KL |chapter=Sites of Hormonal Regulation of Protein Metabolism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgMwXpQRGQ8C&pg=PA229|pages=229–98 |veditors = Munro HN |year=2012|title=Mammalian Protein Metabolism, Volume 4|publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-323-14257-1}} Current recommendations suggest that bodybuilders should consume 25–30% of protein per total calorie intake to further their goal of maintaining and improving their body composition.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lambert CP, Frank LL, Evans WJ | s2cid = 17233384 | title = Macronutrient considerations for the sport of bodybuilding | journal = Sports Medicine | volume = 34 | issue = 5 | pages = 317–27 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15107010 | doi = 10.2165/00007256-200434050-00004 }} This is a widely debated topic, with many arguing that 1 gram of protein per pound of body weight per day is ideal, some suggesting that less is sufficient, while others recommending 1.5, 2, or more.{{Cite web|date=2004 | author= Samantha Heller|title=Protein: a guide to maximum muscle: confused? Let us separate the gristle from the meat.(Nutrition) |website= Men's Fitness |publisher=HighBeam Research|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-114819458.html|access-date=2023-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703013711/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-114819458.html |archive-date=July 3, 2013 | url-status=usurped | url-access= subscription }}{{better source needed|date=July 2023| reason = subscription required to deadlinked site}} It is believed that protein needs to be consumed frequently throughout the day, especially during/after a workout, and before sleep."Your nutrition problems solved; This month: pre- and postworkout nutrition, calculating protein intake and adding simple carbs".

FLEX Magazine, January 2005 There is also some debate concerning the best type of protein to take. Chicken, turkey, beef, pork, fish, eggs and dairy foods are high in protein, as are some nuts, seeds, beans, and lentils. Casein or whey are often used to supplement the diet with additional protein. Whey is the type of protein contained in many popular brands of protein supplements and is preferred by many bodybuilders because of its high biological value (BV) and quick absorption rates. Whey protein also has a bigger effect than casein on insulin levels, triggering about double the amount of insulin release.{{cite journal | vauthors = Burd NA, Yang Y, Moore DR, Tang JE, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM | title = Greater stimulation of myofibrillar protein synthesis with ingestion of whey protein isolate v. micellar casein at rest and after resistance exercise in elderly men | journal = The British Journal of Nutrition | volume = 108 | issue = 6 | pages = 958–62 | date = September 2012 | pmid = 22289570 | doi = 10.1017/S0007114511006271 | doi-access = free }} That effect is somewhat overcome by combining casein and whey.

Bodybuilders were previously thought to require protein with a higher BV than that of soy, which was additionally avoided due to its alleged estrogenic (female hormone) properties, though more recent studies have shown that soy actually contains phytoestrogens which compete with estrogens in the male body and can block estrogenic actions.{{cite web|last=Falcon|first=Mike | name-list-style = vanc |url=http://www.maxmuscle.com/index.cfm?fa=article&doc_id=116&subcat=science|title=Estrogens, Testosterone & Phytoestrogens|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025023850/http://www.maxmuscle.com/index.cfm?fa=article&doc_id=116&subcat=science|archive-date=October 25, 2006|website=maxmuscle.com}} Soy, flax, and other plant-based foods that contain phytoestrogens are also beneficial because they can inhibit some pituitary functions while stimulating the liver's P450 system (which eliminates hormones, drugs, and waste from the body) to more actively process and excrete excess estrogen.{{cite book| first1 = Eugene | last1 = Shippen | first2 = William | last2 = Fryer | name-list-style = vanc |title=The testosterone syndrome: the critical factor for energy, health, and sexuality: reversing the male menopause|publisher=M. Evans|location=New York|year=1998|isbn=978-0-87131-829-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/testosteronesynd00euge}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}

Some bodybuilders often split their food intake into 5 to 7 meals of equal nutritional content and eat at regular intervals (e.g., every 2 to 3 hours). This approach serves two purposes: to limit overindulging in the cutting phase, and to allow for the consumption of large volumes of food during the bulking phase. Eating more frequently does not increase basal metabolic rate when compared to 3 meals a day.{{cite journal | vauthors = Verboeket-van de Venne WP, Westerterp KR, Kester AD | title = Effect of the pattern of food intake on human energy metabolism | journal = The British Journal of Nutrition | volume = 70 | issue = 1 | pages = 103–15 | date = July 1993 | pmid = 8399092 | doi = 10.1079/BJN19930108 | doi-access = free }} While food does have a metabolic cost to digest, absorb, and store, called the thermic effect of food, it depends on the quantity and type of food, not how the food is spread across the meals of the day. Well-controlled studies using whole-body calorimetry and doubly labeled water have demonstrated that there is no metabolic advantage to eating more frequently.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bellisle F, McDevitt R, Prentice AM | title = Meal frequency and energy balance | journal = The British Journal of Nutrition | volume = 77 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S57-70 | date = April 1997 | pmid = 9155494 | doi = 10.1079/BJN19970104 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Taylor MA, Garrow JS | s2cid = 19686244 | title = Compared with nibbling, neither gorging nor a morning fast affect short-term energy balance in obese patients in a chamber calorimeter | journal = International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders | volume = 25 | issue = 4 | pages = 519–28 | date = April 2001 | pmid = 11319656 | doi = 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801572 | doi-access = }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Smeets AJ, Westerterp-Plantenga MS | title = Acute effects on metabolism and appetite profile of one meal difference in the lower range of meal frequency | journal = The British Journal of Nutrition | volume = 99 | issue = 6 | pages = 1316–21 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18053311 | doi = 10.1017/S0007114507877646 | doi-access = free }}

{{Main|Bodybuilding supplement}}

The important role of nutrition in building muscle and losing fat means bodybuilders may consume a wide variety of dietary supplements.{{cite journal | vauthors = Philen RM, Ortiz DI, Auerbach SB, Falk H | title = Survey of advertising for nutritional supplements in health and bodybuilding magazines | journal = JAMA | volume = 268 | issue = 8 | pages = 1008–11 | date = August 1992 | pmid = 1501305 | doi = 10.1001/jama.268.8.1008 }} Various products are used in an attempt to augment muscle size, increase the rate of fat loss, improve joint health, increase natural testosterone production, enhance training performance and prevent potential nutrient deficiencies.

Some bodybuilders use drugs such as anabolic steroids and precursor substances such as prohormones to increase muscle hypertrophy. Anabolic steroids cause hypertrophy of both types (I and II) of muscle fibers, likely caused by an increased synthesis of muscle proteins. They also provoke undesired side effects including hepatotoxicity, gynecomastia, acne, the early onset of male pattern baldness and a decline in the body's own testosterone production, which can cause testicular atrophy.{{cite journal | vauthors = Schroeder ET, Vallejo AF, Zheng L, Stewart Y, Flores C, Nakao S, Martinez C, Sattler FR | display-authors = 6 | title = Six-week improvements in muscle mass and strength during androgen therapy in older men | journal = The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences | volume = 60 | issue = 12 | pages = 1586–92 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16424293 | doi = 10.1093/gerona/60.12.1586 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Grunfeld C, Kotler DP, Dobs A, Glesby M, Bhasin S | s2cid = 25911263 | title = Oxandrolone in the treatment of HIV-associated weight loss in men: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study | journal = Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes | volume = 41 | issue = 3 | pages = 304–14 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16540931 | doi = 10.1097/01.qai.0000197546.56131.40 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Giorgi A, Weatherby RP, Murphy PW | title = Muscular strength, body composition and health responses to the use of testosterone enanthate: a double blind study | journal = Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport | volume = 2 | issue = 4 | pages = 341–55 | date = December 1999 | pmid = 10710012 | doi = 10.1016/S1440-2440(99)80007-3 }} Other performance-enhancing substances used by competitive bodybuilders include human growth hormone (HGH). HGH is also used by female bodybuilders to obtain bigger muscles "while maintaining a 'female appearance{{'"}}.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9juCAgAAQBAJ|publisher=Routledge|title=Bodybuilding, Drugs and Risk|year=2002|author=Lee Monaghan|isbn=9781134588527|pages=145|access-date=June 30, 2020|archive-date=April 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405222424/https://books.google.com/books?id=9juCAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}

Muscle growth is more difficult to achieve in older adults than younger adults because of biological aging, which leads to many metabolic changes detrimental to muscle growth; for instance, by diminishing growth hormone and testosterone levels. Some recent clinical studies have shown that low-dose HGH treatment for adults with HGH deficiency changes the body composition by increasing muscle mass, decreasing fat mass, increasing bone density and muscle strength, improves cardiovascular parameters, and affects the quality of life without significant side effects.{{cite journal | vauthors = Alexopoulou O, Abs R, Maiter D | s2cid = 24874132 | title = Treatment of adult growth hormone deficiency: who, why and how? A review | journal = Acta Clinica Belgica | volume = 65 | issue = 1 | pages = 13–22 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20373593 | doi = 10.1179/acb.2010.002 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Ahmad AM, Hopkins MT, Thomas J, Ibrahim H, Fraser WD, Vora JP | title = Body composition and quality of life in adults with growth hormone deficiency; effects of low-dose growth hormone replacement | journal = Clinical Endocrinology | volume = 54 | issue = 6 | pages = 709–17 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11422104 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2265.2001.01275.x | s2cid = 12681649 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Savine R, Sönksen P | s2cid = 30263334 | title = Growth hormone - hormone replacement for the somatopause? | journal = Hormone Research | volume = 53 | issue = Suppl 3 | pages = 37–41 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10971102 | doi = 10.1159/000023531 }}

In rodents, knockdown of metallothionein gene expression results in activation of the Akt pathway and increases in myotube size, in type IIb fiber hypertrophy, and ultimately in muscle strength.{{cite journal | vauthors = Summermatter S, Bouzan A, Pierrel E, Melly S, Stauffer D, Gutzwiller S, Nolin E, Dornelas C, Fryer C, Leighton-Davies J, Glass DJ, Fournier B | display-authors = 6 | title = Blockade of Metallothioneins 1 and 2 Increases Skeletal Muscle Mass and Strength | journal = Molecular and Cellular Biology | volume = 37 | issue = 5 | date = March 2017 | pmid = 27956698 | pmc = 5311239 | doi = 10.1128/MCB.00305-16 }} This has not been studied well in humans.

{{main|Site enhancement oil}}

Some bodybuilders inject oils or other compounds into their muscles (sometimes known as "synthol") to enhance their size or appearance. This practice can have serious health consequences and risks for humans.{{cite journal |last1=Sisti |first1=Andrea |last2=Huayllani |first2=Maria T. |last3=Restrepo |first3=David J. |last4=Boczar |first4=Daniel |last5=Manrique |first5=Oscar J. |last6=Broer |first6=Peter N. |last7=Shapiro |first7=Shane A. |last8=Forte |first8=Antonio J. |title=Oil injection for cosmetic enhancement of the upper extremities: a case report and review of literature |journal=Acta Bio Medica: Atenei Parmensis |date=2020 |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=e2020082 |doi=10.23750/abm.v91i3.8533 |pmid=32921778 |pmc=7716972 |issn=0392-4203}}

Although muscle stimulation occurs when lifting weights, muscle growth occurs during rest periods for up to 48 hours after the workout.{{Cite journal |last1=MacDougall |first1=J. Duncan |last2=Gibala |first2=Martin J. |last3=Tarnopolsky |first3=Mark A. |last4=MacDonald |first4=Jay R. |last5=Interisano |first5=Stephen A. |last6=Yarasheski |first6=Kevin E. |date=1995-12-01 |title=The Time Course for Elevated Muscle Protein Synthesis Following Heavy Resistance Exercise |url=http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/10.1139/h95-038 |journal=Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology |language=en |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=480–486 |doi=10.1139/h95-038 |pmid=8563679 |issn=1066-7814}}{{cite web |last1=Braverman |first1=Jody |title=When Do Muscles Grow After Working Out With Weights? |url=https://www.livestrong.com/article/406021-when-do-muscles-grow-after-working-out-with-weights/ |website=livestrong |access-date=2 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924094855/https://www.livestrong.com/article/406021-when-do-muscles-grow-after-working-out-with-weights/ |archive-date=24 September 2023 |language=en |date=10 April 2019 |quote=It's after you finish your workout…that your body is busy making new muscle protein. |url-status=live}} Some bodybuilders add a massage at the end of each workout to their routine as a method of recovering.{{cite book|last1=Shusterman|first1=Richard | name-list-style = vanc |title=Thinking Through the Body: Essays in Somaesthetics|date=2012|page=43|publisher=Cambridge University|isbn=978-1107019065}}

{{Main|Overtraining}}

Overtraining occurs when a bodybuilder has trained to the point where their workload exceeds their recovery capacity. There are many reasons why overtraining occurs, including lack of adequate nutrition, lack of recovery time between workouts, insufficient sleep, and training at a high intensity for too long (a lack of splitting apart workouts). Training at a high intensity too frequently also stimulates the central nervous system (CNS) and can result in a hyperadrenergic state that interferes with sleep patterns.{{Cite web|date=2004| author = Lonnie Lowery | title= The Warrior Nerd: Overtraining or Undereating, part 1|work=TESTOSTERONE! NATION|url=http://www.t-nation.com/readTopic.do?id=459318|access-date=2023-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927191307/http://www.t-nation.com/readTopic.do?id=459318 |archive-date=September 27, 2007 | url-status= dead }} To avoid overtraining, intense frequent training must be met with at least an equal amount of purposeful recovery. Timely provision of carbohydrates, proteins, and various micronutrients such as vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, even nutritional supplements are critical. A mental disorder, informally called bigorexia (by analogy with anorexia), may account for overtraining in some individuals. Sufferers feel as if they are never big enough or muscular enough, which forces them to overtrain to try to reach their goal physique.{{cite journal | vauthors = Mosley PE | title = Bigorexia: bodybuilding and muscle dysmorphia | journal = European Eating Disorders Review | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 191–8 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 18759381 | doi = 10.1002/erv.897 | s2cid = 20128770 }}

An article by Muscle & Fitness magazine, "Overtrain for Big Gains", claimed that overtraining for a brief period can be beneficial. Overtraining can be used advantageously, as when a bodybuilder is purposely overtrained for a brief period of time to super compensate during a regeneration phase. These are known as "shock micro-cycles" and were a key training technique used by Soviet athletes.{{cite journal | vauthors = Smith DJ | s2cid = 2021999 | title = A framework for understanding the training process leading to elite performance | journal = Sports Medicine | volume = 33 | issue = 15 | pages = 1103–26 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 14719980 | doi = 10.2165/00007256-200333150-00003 | url = http://www.pgedf.ufpr.br/Smith%20SpMed%202003%20%20SG%20%20DEspor%201.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170809052905/http://www.pgedf.ufpr.br/Smith%20SpMed%202003%20%20SG%20%20DEspor%201.pdf | archive-date = August 9, 2017 | url-status = live }}

Beginning in the 2010s, studies on bodybuilding athletes found higher mortality rates, particularly when compared with other sport specific mortality rates. Risks cited were sudden cardiac death, as well as use of performance enhancing drugs and unique competitive training, such as extreme weight changes and intentional dehydration. Unlike other professional sports, the IFBB Pro League, the largest professional bodybuilding federation in the US, does not routinely test athletes for steroids or other performance-enhancing drugs and there is no athletes' union. Bodybuilders say steroids are easily obtained and widely used by competitors.{{cite web | last=Abelson | first=Jenn | last2=Jones | first2=Nate | last3=Bauerova | first3=Ladka | title=Bodybuilders dying as coaches and judges encourage extreme measures | website=Washington Post | date=2022-12-07 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/investigations/interactive/2022/bodybuilding-extreme-training/ }}{{cite web | url=https://academic.oup.com/eurjpc/article/31/Supplement_1/zwae175.277/7692650 | doi=10.1093/eurjpc/zwae175.277 | title=Mortality risk in bodybuilding: A call for action to promote safe sport participation | date=2024 | last1=Vecchiato | first1=M. | last2=Da Col | first2=M. | last3=Berton | first3=G. | last4=Palermi | first4=S. | last5=Aghi | first5=A. | last6=Ermolao | first6=A. | last7=Niebauer | first7=J. | last8=Drezner | first8=J. | last9=Neunhaeuserer | first9=D. | journal=European Journal of Preventive Cardiology | volume=31 }}{{cite web | url=https://www.renalandurologynews.com/conference-highlights/american-urological-association-annual-meeting/aua-2016-misc-urinary-problems/mortality-rate-higher-among-bodybuilders/ | title=Mortality Rate Higher Among Bodybuilders | date=May 9, 2016 }}

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