Carl Jung#Alchemy

File:Dozwilerstrasse 3 in Kesswil TG (2025).jpg

Carl Gustav Jung{{refn|group=lower-alpha|As a university student Jung changed the modernized spelling of Karl to the original family form of Carl. {{cite book|last=Bair|first=Deirdre|author-link=Deirdre Bair|title=Jung: A Biography|year=2003|publisher=Back Bay Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0-316-15938-8|pages=7, 53}}}} was born 26 July 1875 in Kesswil, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau, as the first surviving son of Paul Achilles Jung (1842–1896) and Emilie Preiswerk (1848–1923).{{cite journal|last=Schellinski|first=Kristina|date=2014|title=Who am I?|journal=Journal of Analytical Psychology|volume=59|issue=2|pages=189–210|doi=10.1111/1468-5922.12069|pmid=24673274 |issn = 0021-8774}} His birth was preceded by two stillbirths and that of a son named Paul, born in 1873, who survived only a few days.{{cite book|last=Wehr|first=Gerhard|title=Jung: a Biography|year=1987|publisher=Shambhala|location=Moshupa, Dorset|isbn=978-0-87773-455-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/9 9]|url=https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/9}}{{cite book|last=Brome|first=Vincent|title=Jung|date=1978|publisher=Atheneum|location=New York|page=28}}

Paul Jung, Carl's father, was the youngest son of a noted German-Swiss professor of medicine at Basel, Karl Gustav Jung (1794–1864).Bair, pp. 8–13. Paul's hopes of achieving a fortune never materialised, and he did not progress beyond the status of an impoverished rural pastor in the Swiss Reformed Church. Emilie Preiswerk, Carl's mother, had also grown up in a large family whose Swiss roots went back five centuries. Emilie was the youngest child of a distinguished Basel churchman and academic, Samuel Preiswerk (1799–1871), and his second wife. Samuel Preiswerk was an Antistes, the title given to the head of the Reformed clergy in the city, as well as a Hebraist, author, and editor, who taught Paul Jung as his professor of Hebrew at Basel University.{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/17 17–19]|url=https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/17}}

File:Pfarrhaus Kleinhüningen.jpg

Jung's father was appointed to a more prosperous parish in Laufen when Jung was six months old. Tensions between father and mother had developed. Jung's mother was an eccentric and depressed woman; she spent considerable time in her bedroom, where she said spirits visited her at night.{{Cite book|title=Memories, Dreams, Reflections|page=18}} Though she was normal during the day, Jung recalled that at night his mother became strange and mysterious. He said that one night, he saw a faintly luminous and indefinite figure coming from her room, with a head detached from the neck and floating in the air in front of the body. Jung had a better relationship with his father.

Jung's mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization near Basel for an unknown physical ailment. His father took Carl to be cared for by Emilie Jung's unmarried sister in Basel, but he was later brought back to his father's residence. Emilie Jung's continuing bouts of absence and depression deeply troubled her son and caused him to associate women with "innate unreliability", whereas "father" meant for him reliability, but also powerlessness.{{cite book|title=Carl Jung: Wounded Healer of the Soul: An Illustrated Biography|page=5|last=Dunne|first=Claire|publisher=Continuum|year=2002}} In his memoir, Jung would remark that this parental influence was the "handicap I started off with". Later, these early impressions were revised: "I have trusted men friends and been disappointed by them, and I have mistrusted women and was not disappointed."Memories, Dreams, Reflections, p. 8. After three years living in Laufen, Paul Jung requested a transfer. In 1879, he was called to Kleinhüningen, next to Basel, where his family lived in a church parsonage.{{sfn|Hoerni|Fischer|Kaufmann|2019|p=233}} The relocation brought Emilie Jung closer to contact with her family and lifted her melancholy.Bair, p. 25. When he was 9, Jung's sister Johanna Gertrud (1884–1935) was born. Known in the family as "Trudi", she became a secretary to her brother.{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/349 349]|url=https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/349}}

Jung was a solitary and introverted child. From childhood, he believed that, like his mother,{{cite web |last=Stepp |first=G |title=Carl Jung: Forever Jung |url=http://www.vision.org/visionmedia/biography-carl-jung/50365.aspx |work=Vision Journal |access-date=19 December 2011}} he had two personalities—a modern Swiss citizen and a personality more suited to the 18th century.{{cite book |title=Memories, Dreams, Reflections |pages=33–34}} "Personality Number 1", as he termed it, was a typical schoolboy living in the era of the time. "Personality Number 2" was a dignified, authoritative, and influential man from the past. Though Jung was close to both parents, he was disappointed by his father's academic approach to faith.Wehr records that Paul's chosen career path was to achieve a doctorate in philology. He was an Arabist, but the family money ran out for his studies. Relief came from a family legacy; however, a condition of the will was that it should only be offered to a family member who intended to study theology and become a pastor. Paul Jung, therefore, had his career determined by a will, not his will. See p.20.

File:Jung piccolo.jpg

Some childhood memories made lifelong impressions on him. As a boy, he carved a tiny mannequin into the end of the wooden ruler from his pencil case and placed it inside it. He added a stone, which he had painted into upper and lower halves, and hid the case in the attic. Periodically, he would return to the mannequin, often bringing tiny sheets of paper with messages inscribed on them in his own secret language.{{cite book |last=Malchiodi |first=Cathy A. |title=The Art Therapy Sourcebook |page=134 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vno0XgRuRhcC&pg=PA134 |isbn=978-0-07-146827-5 |year=2006 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional}} He later reflected that this ceremonial act brought him a feeling of inner peace and security. Years later, he discovered similarities between his personal experience and the practices associated with totems in Indigenous cultures, such as the collection of soul-stones near Arlesheim or the tjurungas of Australia. He concluded that his intuitive ceremonial act was an unconscious ritual, which he had practiced in a way that was strikingly similar to those in distant locations which he, as a young boy, knew nothing about.{{cite book |title=Memories, Dreams, Reflections |pages=22–23}} His observations about symbols, archetypes, and the collective unconscious were inspired, in part, by these early experiences combined with his later research.Wehr, G. p. 144{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Jung |title=Carl Jung {{!}} Biography, Theory, & Facts |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=19 July 2017}}

At the age of 12, shortly before the end of his first year at the Humanistisches Gymnasium in Basel, Jung was pushed to the ground by another boy so hard he momentarily lost consciousness. (Jung later recognized the incident was indirectly his fault.) A thought then came to him—"Now you won't have to go to school anymore".{{cite book |title=Memories, Dreams, Reflections |page=30}} From then on, whenever he walked to school or began homework, he fainted. He remained home for six months until he overheard his father speaking hurriedly to a visitor about the boy's future ability to support himself. They suspected he had epilepsy. Confronted with his family's poverty, he realized the need for academic excellence. He entered his father's study and began poring over Latin grammar. He fainted three more times but eventually overcame the urge and did not faint again. This event, Jung later recalled, "was when I learned what a neurosis is".{{cite book |title=Memories, Dreams, Reflections |page=32}}

File:11-11-24-basel-by-ralfr-035.jpg, where Jung studied between 1895 and 1900]]

Initially, Jung had aspirations of becoming a Christian minister. His household had a strong moral sense, and several of his family were clergy. Jung had wanted to study archaeology, but his family could not afford to send him further than the University of Basel, which did not teach it. After studying philosophy in his teens, Jung decided against the path of religious traditionalism and decided to pursue psychiatry and medicine.{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Jung|title=Carl Jung {{!}} Biography, Theory, & Facts|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=9 April 2019}} His interest was captured—it combined the biological and spiritual, exactly what he was searching for.{{Cite web|url=http://soultherapynow.com/articles/carl-jung.html|title=Carl Jung Biography|website=soultherapynow.com|access-date=7 March 2009|archive-date=20 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180120004057/http://soultherapynow.com/articles/carl-jung.html|url-status=dead}} In 1895 Jung began to study medicine at the University of Basel. Barely a year later, his father, Paul, died and left the family nearly destitute. They were helped by relatives who also contributed to Jung's studies.Wehr, G. p. 57. During his student days, he entertained his contemporaries with the family legend that his paternal grandfather was the illegitimate son of Goethe and his German great-grandmother, Sophie Ziegler. In later life, he pulled back from this tale, saying only that Sophie was a friend of Goethe's niece.{{cite book|last=Wehr|first=Gerhard|title=Jung: A Biography|year=1987|publisher=Shambhala|location=Boston/Shaftesbury, Dorset|isbn=978-0-87773-455-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/14 14]|url=https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/14}}

It was during this early period when Jung was an assistant at the Anatomical Institute at Basel University, that he took an interest in palaeoanthropology and the revolutionary discoveries of Homo erectus and Neanderthal fossils. These formative experiences contributed to his fascination with the evolutionary past of humanity and his belief that an ancient evolutionary layer in the psyche, represented by early fossil hominins, is still evident in the psychology of modern humans.[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9781032624549-3/fossils-anthropology-hominin-brain-phylogeny-gary-clark?context=ubx&refId=d9df2e63-7963-4b7f-a154-5382d0b1e05f Clark. G. 2024. "Fossils, Anthropology and Hominin Brain Phylogeny". Chapter 2, pp. 38-40. In Carl Jung and the Evolutionary Sciences: A New Vision for Analytical Psychology, Routledge], Routledge,

In 1900, Jung moved to Zurich and began working at the Burghölzli psychiatric hospital under Eugen Bleuler.{{sfn|Hoerni|Fischer|Kaufmann|2019|pp=234, 259}} Bleuler was already in communication with the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud. Jung's dissertation, published in 1903, was titled On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena. It was based on the analysis of the supposed mediumship of Jung's cousin Hélène Preiswerk, under the influence of Freud's contemporary Théodore Flournoy.Stevens, Anthony (1994): Jung: A very short introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford & N.Y. {{ISBN|978-0-19-285458-2}} Jung studied with Pierre Janet in Paris in 1902Gay, p. 198 and later equated his view of the complex with Janet's {{Lang|fr|idée fixe subconsciente}}.Ellenberger, p. 149. In 1905, Jung was appointed as a permanent 'senior' doctor at the hospital and became a lecturer Privatdozent in the medical faculty of Zurich University.Wehr, pp. 79–85. In 1904, he published with Franz Riklin their Diagnostic Association Studies, of which Freud obtained a copy.Jung, Carl Gustav and Riklin, Franz Beda: Diagnoistische Assoziationsstudien. I. Beitrag. Experimentelle Untersuchungen über Assoziationen Gesunder (pp.55–83). 1904, Journ. Psych. Neurol., 3/1-2. – Hrsg. v. August Forel & Oskar Vogt. Red. v. Karl Brodmann. – Leipzig, Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1904, gr.-8°, pp.55–96. (in German){{cite book|editor=McGuire, William|title=The Freud/Jung Letters|year=1979|publisher=Picador|pages=12–13|isbn=978-0-330-25891-3}} In 1909, Jung left the psychiatric hospital and began a private practice in his home in Küsnacht.{{sfn|Hoerni|Fischer|Kaufmann|2019|p=259}}

Eventually, a close friendship and strong professional association developed between the elder Freud and Jung, which left a sizeable correspondence. In late summer 1909, the two sailed for the U.S., where Freud was the featured lecturer at the twentieth-anniversary celebration of the founding of Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts, the Vicennial Conference on Psychology and Pedagogy, September 7–11. Jung spoke as well and received an honorary degree.Rosenzweig, Saul. The Historic Expedition to America (1909): Freud, Jung and Hall the King-Maker. N.p., DIANE Publishing Company, 2000.

It was during this trip that Jung first began separating psychologically from Freud, his mentor, which occurred after intense communications around their individual dreams. It was during this visit that Jung was introduced to the elder philosopher and psychologist William James, known as the "Father of American psychology," whose ideas Jung would incorporate into his own work.{{Cite journal |last=Koelsch |first=William |date=1984-01-01 |title=Incredible day-dream: Freud and Jung at Clark, 1909 |url=https://commons.clarku.edu/clarkuhistory/2 |journal=Clark University History}} Jung connected with James around their mutual interests in mysticism, spiritualism and psychical phenomena.{{Cite book |last=Herrmann |first=Steven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_bZpzgEACAAJ |title=William James and C.G. Jung: Doorways to the Self |date=August 2021 |publisher=Analytical Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-7361945-9-1 |publication-date=2021 |language=en}} James wrote to a friend after the conference stating Jung "left a favorable impression," while "his views of Freud were mixed."Harris, MD, James C. Clark University Vicennial Conference on Psychology and Pedagogy. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(3):218-219. James died about eleven months later.

The ideas of both Jung and James, on topics including hopelessness, self-surrender, and spiritual experiences, were influential in the development and founding of the international altruistic, self-help movement Alcoholics Anonymous on June 10, 1935, in Akron, Ohio, a quarter of a century after James' death and in Jung's sixtieth year.

For six years, Jung and Freud cooperated in their work. In 1912, however, Jung published Psychology of the Unconscious, which manifested the developing theoretical divergence between the two. Consequently, their personal and professional relationship fractured—each stating the other could not admit he could be wrong. After the culminating break in 1913, Jung went through a difficult and pivotal psychological transformation, exacerbated by the outbreak of the First World War. Henri Ellenberger called Jung's intense experience a "creative illness" and compared it favorably to Freud's own period of what he called neurasthenia and hysteria.{{cite book|last=Hayman|first=Ronald|title=A Life of Jung|year=2001|edition=1st American|publisher=W.W. Norton & Co.|location=New York|author-link=Ronald Hayman|isbn=978-0-393-01967-4|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofjung00haym}}{{rp|173}}

File:Emma Jung 1911 sitting.jpg in 1911. She assisted her husband in his early research before becoming a psychoanalyst and author.]]

In 1903, Jung married Emma Rauschenbach (1882–1955), seven years his junior and the elder daughter of a wealthy industrialist in eastern Switzerland, Johannes Rauschenbach-Schenck.{{sfn|Hoerni|Fischer|Kaufmann|2019|p=234}} Rauschenbach was the owner, among other concerns, of IWC Schaffhausen—the International Watch Company, manufacturer of luxury time-pieces. Upon his death in 1905, his two daughters and their husbands became owners of the business. Jung's brother-in-law—Ernst Homberger—became the principal proprietor, but the Jungs remained shareholders in a thriving business that ensured the family's financial security for decades.

{{cite web | title = C. G. JUNG: Experiences |work= IWC Schaffhausen | url = http://www.iwc.com/en/experiences/c-g-jung/

| access-date = 7 September 2015 }} Emma Jung, whose education had been limited, showed considerable ability and interest in her husband's research and threw herself into studies and acted as his assistant at Burghölzli. She eventually became a noted psychoanalyst in her own right. The marriage lasted until Emma died in 1955.Wehr, G. p. 423 They had five children:

• Agathe Niehus, born on December 28, 1904
• Gret Baumann, born on February 8, 1906
• Franz Jung-Merker, born on November 28, 1908
• Marianne Niehus, born on September 20, 1910
• Helene Hoerni, born on March 18, 1914

None of the children continued their father's career. The daughters, Agathe and Marianne, assisted in publishing work.{{Cite web |last=dream-dictionary.com |date=2024-02-21 |title=Carl Gustaw Jung - wife and children |url=https://www.dream-dictionary.com/carl-gustaw-jung-wife-and-children/ |access-date=2024-03-24 |website=Dream Dictionary |language=en-US}}

During his marriage, Jung engaged in at least one extramarital relationship: his affair with his patient and, later, fellow psychoanalyst Sabina Spielrein.{{cite book|last=Hayman|first=Ronald|title=A Life of Jung|year=2001|edition=1st American|publisher=W.W. Norton & Co.|location=New York|author-link=Ronald Hayman|isbn=978-0-393-01967-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lifeofjung00haym/page/84 84–5, 92, 98–9, 102–7, 121, 123, 111, 134–7, 138–9, 145, 147, 152, 176, 177, 184, 185, 186, 189, 194, 213–4]|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofjung00haym/page/84}}Carotenuto, A. A secret symmetry. Sabina Spielrien between Jung and Freud. Tran. Arno Pomerans, John Shepley, Krishna Winston. New York: Pantheon Books, 1982Lothane. Z. Tender love and transference. Unpublished letters of C G Jung and Sabina Spielrein. International Journal of Psychoanalysis'. 80, 1999, 1189–1204; Lothane, Z. (2007b). The snares of seduction in life and in therapy, or what do young [Jewish] girls (Spielrein) seek in their Aryan heroes (Jung), and vice versa? International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 16:12–27, 81–94 A continuing affair with Toni Wolff is also alleged.{{cite book |ref=none|author=Catrine Clay|title=Labyrinths: Emma Jung, her Marriage to Carl and the early Years of Psychoanalysis|year=2016|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-0075106-6-5}}{{cite book|last=Hayman|first=Ronald|title=A Life of Jung|year=2001|edition=1st American|publisher=W.W. Norton & Co.|location=New York|author-link=Ronald Hayman|isbn=978-0-393-01967-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lifeofjung00haym/page/184 184–8, 189, 244, 261, 262]|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofjung00haym/page/184}}

{{See also|Psychoanalysis}}

File:Hall Freud Jung in front of Clark 1909.jpg. Front row, Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung. Back row, Abraham Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi.]]

Jung and Freud influenced each other during the intellectually formative years of Jung's life. Jung became interested in psychiatry as a student by reading Psychopathia Sexualis by Richard von Krafft-Ebing. In 1900, Jung completed his degree and started work as an intern (voluntary doctor) under the psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler at Burghölzli Hospital.Wehr, Gerhard. (1987). Jung – A Biography. Boston/Shaftesbury: Shambhala. {{ISBN|978-0-87773-455-0}}. p. 77 It was Bleuler who introduced him to the writings of Freud by asking him to write a review of The Interpretation of Dreams (1899). In the early 1900s psychology as a science was still in its early stages, but Jung became a qualified proponent of Freud's new "psycho-analysis". Freud needed collaborators and pupils to validate and spread his ideas. Burghölzli was a renowned psychiatric clinic in Zurich, and Jung's research had already gained him international recognition. Jung sent Freud a copy of his Studies in Word Association in 1906.{{Cite journal|date=July 1990|title=William McGuire, Ed. The Freud/Jung letters: The correspondence between Sigmund Freud and C. G. Jung, translated by Ralph Manheim and R. F. C. Hull. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988 (first published in 1974 by Princeton University Press). 736 pp. $15.95 (paper)|journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences|volume=26|issue=3|page=303|doi=10.1002/1520-6696(199007)26:3<303::aid-jhbs2300260335>3.0.co;2-e|issn=0022-5061}} The same year, he published Diagnostic Association Studies, a copy of which he later sent to Freud, who had already purchased a copy. Preceded by a lively correspondence, Jung met Freud for the first time in Vienna on 3 March 1907.Wehr, p. 105-6. Jung recalled the discussion between himself and Freud as interminable and unceasing for 13 hours.Peter Gay, Freud: a Life for Our Time (London, 1988) p. 202. Six months later, the then 50-year-old Freud sent a collection of his latest published essays to Jung in Zurich. This began an intense correspondence and collaboration that lasted six years.McGuire, W. 1974. The Correspondence between Sigmund Freud and C.G. Jung. Translated by Ralph Manheim and R.F.C. Hull. Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-691-09890-6}} In 1908, Jung became an editor of the newly founded Yearbook for Psychoanalytical and Psychopathological Research.

In 1909, Jung traveled with Freud and Hungarian psychoanalyst Sándor Ferenczi to the United States; in September, they took part in a conference at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts. The conference at Clark University was planned by the psychologist G. Stanley Hall and included 27 distinguished psychiatrists, neurologists, and psychologists. It represented a watershed in the acceptance of psychoanalysis in North America. This forged welcome links between Jung and influential Americans.{{Cite book|last=Rosenzwieg |first=Saul |title=Freud, Jung and Hall the King-Maker |year=1992 |publisher=Rana House Press |isbn=978-0-88937-110-1}} Jung returned to the United States the next year for a brief visit.

In 1910, Freud proposed Jung, "his adopted eldest son, his crown prince, and successor," for the position of lifetime President of the newly formed International Psychoanalytical Association. However, after forceful objections from his Viennese colleagues, it was agreed Jung would be elected to serve a two-year term of office.{{cite book|last=Makari|first=George|title=Revolution in Mind: The Creation of Psychoanalysis|publisher=Duckworth|date=2008|pages=[https://archive.org/details/revolutioninmind0000maka/page/249 249]|isbn=978-0-7156-3759-3|url=https://archive.org/details/revolutioninmind0000maka/page/249}}

File:Jung 1910-crop.jpg

While Jung worked on his Psychology of the Unconscious: a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido, tensions manifested between him and Freud because of various disagreements, including those concerning the nature of libido.{{cite book|last=Jung|first=Carl|title=Memories, Dreams, Reflections|url=https://archive.org/details/memoriesdreamsre00jung|url-access=registration|year=1963|publisher=Pantheon Books|page=[https://archive.org/details/memoriesdreamsre00jung/page/206 206]}} Jung {{nowrap|de-emphasized}} the importance of sexual development and focused on the collective unconscious: the part of the unconscious that contains memories and ideas that Jung believed were inherited from ancestors. While he did think that the libido was an important source of personal growth, unlike Freud, Jung did not think that the libido alone was responsible for the formation of the core personality.{{cite book|last=Carlson|first=Heth|title=Psychology: The Science of Behavior|year=2010|publisher=Pearson|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|isbn=978-0-205-64524-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/psychologyscienc0004unse/page/434 434]|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyscienc0004unse/page/434}}

In 1912, these tensions came to a peak because Jung felt severely slighted after Freud visited his colleague Ludwig Binswanger in Kreuzlingen without paying him a visit in nearby Zurich, an incident Jung referred to as "the Kreuzlingen gesture". Shortly thereafter, Jung again traveled to the US and gave the Fordham University lectures, a six-week series, which were published later in the year as Psychology of the Unconscious, subsequently republished as Symbols of Transformation. While they contain remarks on Jung's dissenting view on the libido, they represent largely a "psychoanalytical Jung" and not the theory of analytical psychology, for which he became famous in the following decades. Nonetheless, it was their publication which, Jung declared, "cost me my friendship with Freud".{{cite book|last=Gay|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Gay|title= Freud: A Life for Our Time|publisher=Norton| date =2006 | page = 225}}

Another disagreement with Freud stemmed from their differing concepts of the unconscious.Mary Williams, "The Indivisibility of the Personal and Collective Unconscious", Journal of Analytical Psychology 8.1, January 1963. See also: Jung, Collected Works vol. 9.I (1959), "The Concept of the Collective Unconscious" (1936), ¶91 (p. 43). Jung saw Freud's theory of the unconscious as incomplete, unnecessarily negative, and inelastic. According to Jung, Freud conceived the unconscious solely as a repository of repressed emotions and desires.{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/jun/06/carl-jung-freud-nazis|title=Carl Jung, part 2: A troubled relationship with Freud – and the Nazis|last=Vernon|first=Mark|date=6 June 2011|work=The Guardian|access-date=19 July 2017|issn=0261-3077}} Jung's observations overlap to an extent with Freud's model of the unconscious, what Jung called the "personal unconscious", but his hypothesis is more about a process than a static model, and he also proposed the existence of a second, overarching form of the unconscious beyond the personal, that he named the psychoid—a term borrowed from neo-vitalist philosopher and embryologist Hans Driesch (1867–1941)—but with a somewhat altered meaning.{{cite journal|author=Addison, Ann|title=Jung, vitalism and the psychoid: an historical reconstruction|journal=Journal of Analytical Psychology|year=2009|volume=54|issue=1|pages=123–42|doi=10.1111/j.1468-5922.2008.01762.x|pmid=19161521}} The collective unconscious is not so much a 'geographical location', but a deduction from the alleged ubiquity of archetypes over space and time.{{clarify|date=December 2023}}

In November 1912, Jung and Freud met in Munich for a meeting among prominent colleagues to discuss psychoanalytical journals.Jones, Ernest, ed. Lionel Trilling and Steven Marcus. The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud, New York: Anchor Books, 1963. At a talk about a new psychoanalytic essay on Amenhotep IV, Jung expressed his views on how it related to actual conflicts in the psychoanalytic movement. While Jung spoke, Freud suddenly fainted, and Jung carried him to a couch.

Jung and Freud personally met for the last time in September 1913 at the Fourth International Psychoanalytical Congress in Munich. Jung gave a talk on psychological types, the introvert and extraverted types, in analytical psychology.

It was the publication of Jung's book The Psychology of the Unconscious in 1912 that led to the final break with Freud. The letters they exchanged show Freud's refusal to consider Jung's ideas. This rejection caused what Jung described in his posthumously published autobiography, Memories, Dreams, Reflections (1962) as a "resounding censure". Everyone he knew dropped away from him except two of his colleagues. After the Munich congress, he was on the verge of a suicidal psychosis that precipitated his writing of his Red Book, his seven-volume personal diaries that were only published partially and posthumously in 2009. Eleven years later, in 2020, they were published as his Black Books. Jung described his 1912 book as "an attempt, only partially successful, to create a wider setting for medical psychology and to bring the whole of the psychic phenomena within its purview". The book was later revised and retitled Symbols of Transformation in 1952.{{Cite book |last=Adler |first=Gerhard |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315727615 |title=Symbols of Transformation |date=5 December 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-72761-5 |edition=1 |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781315727615}}

Jung spoke at meetings of the Psycho-Medical Society in London in 1913 and 1914. His travels were soon interrupted by the war, but his ideas continued to receive attention in England primarily through the efforts of Constance Long, who translated and published the first English volume of his collected writings.McGuire, William. (1995), 'Firm Affinities: Jung's relations with Britain and the United States' in Journal of analytical Psychology, 40, p. 301-326.{{cite book|last=Jung|first=C. G.|title=Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology|url=https://archive.org/details/collectedpapers00junggoog|year=1916|publisher=Bailliere, Tindall and Cox|others=Dr. Constance E. Long}}

{{main|The Red Book (Jung)|Black Books (Jung)}}

File:The_Red_Book_-_Liber_Novus.jpg

In 1913, at the age of 38, Jung experienced a horrible "confrontation with the unconscious". He saw visions and heard voices. He worried at times that he was "menaced by a psychosis" or was "doing a schizophrenia". He decided that it was a valuable experience and, in private, he induced hallucinations or, in his words, a process of "active imagination". He recorded everything he experienced in small journals, which Jung referred to in the singular as his Black Book,{{cite book |last1=Jung |first1=Carl |editor1-last=Shamdasani |editor1-first=Sonu |title=The Black Books of C.G. Jung (1913–1932) |date=October 2020 |publisher=Stiftung der Werke von C. G. Jung & W. W. Norton & Company |at=Volume 1 page 113 |section=Editors Note}} considering it a "single integral whole", even though some of these original journals have a brown cover. The material Jung wrote was subjected to several edits, hand-written and typed, including another, "second layer" of text, his continual psychological interpretations during the process of editing.{{cite book |last1=Jung |first1=C.G. |title=The Red Book Reader's Edition |date=2012 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |pages=105–110 |chapter=Editor's Note}}{{cite book |last1=Jung |first1=C.G. |title=The Red Book |date=2009 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |pages=225–226 |chapter=Editor's Note}} Around 1915, Jung commissioned a large red leather-bound book,{{cite book |last1=Jung |first1=C.G. |title=The Red Book |date=2009 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |page=203 |chapter=Introduction}}{{cite book |last1=Jung |first1=C.G. |title=The Red Book Reader's Edition |date=2012 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |page=32 |chapter=Introduction}} and began to transcribe his notes and paint, working intermittently for sixteen years.{{cite news|author=Corbett, Sara|title=The Holy Grail of the Unconscious|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/20/magazine/20jung-t.html|date=16 September 2009|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=20 September 2009}}

Jung left no posthumous instructions about the final disposition of what he called the Liber Novus or Red Book. Sonu Shamdasani, a historian of psychology from London, tried for three years to persuade Jung's resistant heirs to have it published. Ulrich Hoerni, Jung's grandson who manages the Jung archives, decided to publish it when the necessary additional funds were raised through the Philemon Foundation. Up to September 2008, fewer than about two dozen people had ever seen it.

In 2007, two technicians for DigitalFusion, working with New York City publishers W. W. Norton & Company, scanned the manuscript with a 10,200-pixel scanner. It was published on 7 October 2009 in German, with a "separate English translation along with Shamdasani's introduction and footnotes" at the back of the book. According to Sara Corbett, reviewing the text for The New York Times, "The book is bombastic, baroque and like so much else about Carl Jung, a willful oddity, synched with an antediluvian and mystical reality."

The Rubin Museum of Art in New York City displayed Jung's Red Book leather folio, as well as some of his original "Black Book" journals, from 7 October 2009 to 15 February 2010.{{cite web|url=http://www.rmanyc.org/nav/exhibitions/view/308 |title=The Red Book of C. G. Jung |publisher=Rubin Museum of Art |access-date=20 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090711195944/http://www.rmanyc.org/nav/exhibitions/view/308 |archive-date=11 July 2009 }} According to them, "During the period in which he worked on this book Jung developed his principal theories of archetypes, collective unconscious, and the process of individuation." Two-thirds of the pages bear Jung's illuminations and illustrations to the text.

During World War I, Jung was drafted as an army doctor and soon made commandant of an internment camp for British officers and soldiers. The Swiss were neutral and obliged to intern personnel from either side of the conflict, who crossed their frontier to evade capture. Jung worked to improve the conditions of soldiers stranded in Switzerland and encouraged them to attend university courses.{{cite book|last=Crowley|first=Vivianne|title=Jung: A Journey of Transformation|year=1999|publisher=Quest Books|page=[https://archive.org/details/jung00vivi/page/56 56]|isbn=978-0-8356-0782-7|url=https://archive.org/details/jung00vivi/page/56}}{{sfn|Hoerni|Fischer|Kaufmann|2019|p=260}}

Jung emerged from his period of isolation in the late 1910s with the publication of several journal articles, followed in 1921 with Psychological Types, one of his most influential books. There followed a decade of active publication, interspersed with overseas travels.

Constance Long arranged for Jung to deliver a seminar in Cornwall in 1920. Another seminar was held in 1923, this one organized by Jung's British protégé Helton Godwin Baynes (known as "Peter") (1882–1943), and another in 1925.

File:Beatrice Ensor Jung Montreux 1923.jpg and Jung in Montreux, Switzerland, 1923, for the Second International New Education Fellowship Conference]]

In 1935, at the invitation of his close British friends and colleagues, H. G. Baynes, E. A. Bennet and Hugh Crichton-Miller, Jung gave a series of lectures at the Tavistock Clinic in London, later published as part of the Collected Works.{{cite book|author=Jung, C.G.|title=Tavistock Lectures, in The Symbolic Life|series= Collected Works, vol.18 |location = London | publisher = Routledge|pages=1–182|isbn=978-0-7100-8291-6|author-link=Carl Jung}}

In 1938, Jung was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Oxford.{{sfn|Hoerni|Fischer|Kaufmann|2019|p=261}} At the tenth International Medical Congress for Psychotherapy held at Oxford from 29 July to 2 August 1938, Jung gave the presidential address, followed by a visit to Cheshire to stay with the Bailey family at Lawton Mere.{{Cite journal|last1=Lunding|first1=N. Chr.|last2=Bruel|first2=Oluf|date=March 1939|title=The Tenth International Congress of Medical Psychotherapy in Oxford, July 29 to August 2, 1938.|journal=Journal of Personality|language=en|volume=7|issue=3|pages=255–258|doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1939.tb02147.x|issn=0022-3506}}

In 1946, Jung agreed to become the first Honorary President of the newly formed Society of Analytical Psychology in London, having previously approved its training programme devised by Michael Fordham.{{cite book|author=Thomas B. Kirsch|title =The Jungians: a Comparative and Historical Perspective|publisher=Routledge|date=2012|page=40|isbn=978-1-134-72551-9}}

During the period of Jung's collaboration with Freud, both visited the US in 1909 to lecture at Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts, where both were awarded honorary degrees. In 1912, Jung gave a series of lectures at Fordham University, New York, which were published later in the year as Psychology of the Unconscious. Jung made a more extensive trip westward in the winter of 1924–5, financed and organized by Fowler McCormick and George Porter. Of particular value to Jung was a visit with Chief Mountain Lake of the Taos Pueblo near Taos, New Mexico.{{cite journal|last=McGuire|first=William|title= Firm Affinities: Jung's relations with Britain and the United States|journal=Journal of Analytical Psychology|year=1995|volume=40|pages=301–326|doi=10.1111/j.1465-5922.1995.00301.x|issue=3}} Jung made another trip to America in 1936, receiving an honorary degree at Harvard{{cite journal |title=Degrees Conferred at the Harvard Tercentenary Celebration|journal=Science |series=New Series |volume=84|issue=2178 |date=25 September 1936 |pages=285–286|doi=10.1126/science.84.2178.285-a|jstor=1662296}} and giving lectures in New York and New England for his growing group of American followers. He returned in 1937 to deliver the Terry Lectures at Yale University, later published as Psychology and Religion.{{Cite book|title=Psychology and Western Religion|last=Jung|first=Carl|publisher=Ark Routledge|year=1988|isbn=978-0-7448-0091-3|page=v|quote=A third and equally weighty essay is Psychology and Religion, originally given as the Terry Lectures at Yale University in 1937.}} Editorial Note by William McGuire.

In October 1925, Jung embarked on his most ambitious expedition, the "Bugishu Psychological Expedition" to East Africa. He was accompanied by his English friend, "Peter" Baynes, and an American associate, George Beckwith. On the voyage to Africa, they became acquainted with an English woman named Ruth Bailey, who joined their safari a few weeks later. The group traveled through Kenya and Uganda to the slopes of Mount Elgon, where Jung hoped to increase his understanding of "primitive psychology" through conversations with the culturally isolated residents of that area. Later, he concluded that the major insights he had gleaned had to do with himself and the European psychology in which he had been raised.{{cite book|title=Race and White Identity in Southern Fiction: From Faulkner to Morrison|url=https://archive.org/details/racewhiteidentit00duva|url-access=limited|page=[https://archive.org/details/racewhiteidentit00duva/page/n185 165]|year=2008|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|first=John N.|last=Duvall|isbn=978-0-230-61182-5}}{{Cite book|last=Burleson|first=Blake W.|title=Jung in Africa|year=2005|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-8264-6921-2}} One of Jung's most famous proposed constructs is kinship libido. Jung defined this as an instinctive feeling of belonging to a particular group or family and believed it was vital to the human experience and used this as an endogamous aspect of the libido and what lies amongst the family. This is similar to a Bantu term called Ubuntu that emphasizes humanity and almost the same meaning as kinship libido, which is, "I am because you are."{{cite journal |last1=Vaughan |first1=A.G |title=African American cultural history and reflections on Jung in the African Diaspora |journal=Journal of Analytical Psychology |date=2019 |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=320–348 |doi=10.1111/1468-5922.12501|pmid=31070251 |s2cid=148570214 }}

File:ETH-BIB-Jung, Carl Gustav (1875-1961)-Portrait-Portr 14163 (cropped).tif

In December 1937, Jung left Zurich again for an extensive tour of India with Fowler McCormick. In India, he felt himself "under the direct influence of a foreign culture" for the first time. In Africa, his conversations had been strictly limited by the language barrier, but he could converse extensively in India. Hindu philosophy became an important element in his understanding of the role of symbolism and the life of the unconscious, though he avoided a meeting with Ramana Maharshi. He described Ramana as being absorbed in "the self". During these travels, he visited the Vedagiriswarar Temple, where he had a conversation with a local expert about the symbols and sculptures on the gopuram of this temple. He later wrote about this conversation"When I visited the ancient pagoda at Turukalukundram [sic], southern India, a local pundit explained to me that the old temples were purposely covered on the outside, from top to bottom, with obscene sculptures, to remind ordinary people of their sexuality. The spirit, he said, was a great danger because Yama, the god of death, would instantly carry off these people (the "imperfecti") if they trod the spiritual path directly, without preparation. The erotic sculptures were meant to remind them of their dharma (law), which bids them fulfil their ordinary lives. Only when they have fulfilled their dharma can they tread the spiritual path. The obscenities were intended to arouse the erotic curiosity of visitors to the temples so that they should not forget their dharma; otherwise, they would not fulfil it. Only the man who was qualified by his karma (the fate earned through works in previous existences) and who was destined for the life of the spirit could ignore this injunction with impunity, for to him, these obscenities mean nothing. That was also why the two seductresses stood at the temple entrance, luring the people to fulfill their dharma, because only in this way could the ordinary man attain higher spiritual development. And since the temple represented the whole world, all human activities were portrayed. Because most people are always thinking of sex anyway, the great majority of the temple sculptures were of an erotic nature. For this reason, too, he said, the lingam (phallus) stands in the sacred cavity of the adyton (Holy of Holies), in the garbha griha (house of the womb). This pundit was a Tantrist (scholastic; tantra = 'book')." -- C. G. Jung, from {{cite book |last=Segal |first=Rober A. |date=1992 |title=The Gnostic Jung |location=New Jersey |publisher=Princeton University Press|page=86 |isbn=978-0-691-01923-9}} in his book Aion.Also published in his Collected Works as a footnote to paragraph 339 in chapter 7.{{cite book |last=Jung |first=Carl Gustav |date=1989 |title=Aion - Beiträge zur Symbolik des Selbst |edition=7 |series=C G Jung Gesammelte Werke |volume = 9/2 |at=para. 339 |location=Olten und Freiburg im Breisgau |publisher=Walter Verlag |isbn= 3-530-40798-4| chapter=VII-Gnostische Symbole des Selbst}} Jung became seriously ill on this trip and endured two weeks of delirium in a Calcutta hospital. After 1938, his travels were confined to Europe.{{Cite book|last=Bair |first=Deirdre |title= Jung: A Biography |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-316-07665-4 |pages=417–430|publisher=Little, Brown }}

File:Interview with C. G. Jung in Küsnacht (Carl Gustav Jung), Swiss psychiatrist, depth psychologist 5.tif

Jung became a full professor of medical psychology at the University of Basel in 1943 but resigned after a heart attack the next year to lead a more private life. In 1945, he began corresponding with an English Roman Catholic priest, Father Victor White, who became a close friend, regularly visiting the Jungs at the Bollingen estate. Jung became ill again in 1952.{{sfn|Hoerni|Fischer|Kaufmann|2019|p=262}}

Jung continued to publish books until the end of his life, including Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies (1959), which analyzed the archetypal meaning and possible psychological significance of the reported observations of UFOs.The Collected Works of C. G. Jung, p. 152, by Siegfried M. Clemens, Carl Gustav Jung, 1978. In 1961, he wrote his last work, a contribution to Man and His Symbols entitled "Approaching the Unconscious" (published posthumously in 1964).{{sfn|Hoerni|Fischer|Kaufmann|2019|p=262}} Jung died on 6 June 1961 at Küsnacht after a short illness.{{rp|450}}{{cite book|last=Bair|first=Deirdre|title=Jung|url=https://archive.org/details/jungbiography00bair|url-access=limited|publisher=Little, Brown|location=Boston|year=2003|isbn=978-0-316-07665-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/jungbiography00bair/page/622 622]–3}} He had been beset by circulatory diseases.{{Cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0726.html | title=Dr. Carl G. Jung is Dead at 85; Pioneer in Analytic Psychology| newspaper=The New York Times}}

Among his principal distinctions are honorary doctorates from:

• Clark University 1909
• Fordham University 1912
• Harvard University 1936
• University of Allahabad 1937
• University of Benares 1937
• University of Calcutta 1938
• University of Oxford 1938
• University of Geneva 1945
• Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich 1955 on his 80th birthday

In addition, he was:

• given a Literature prize from the city of Zurich, 1932
• made Titular Professor of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, ETH 1935
• appointed Honorary Member of the Royal Society of Medicine 1939
• given a Festschrift at Eranos 1945
• appointed President of the Society of Analytical Psychology, London, 1946
• given a Festschrift by students and friends 1955
• named Honorary citizen of Kűsnacht 1960, on his 85th birthday.{{cite book|author=Wehr, Gerhard|translator=Weeks, David. M.|title=Jung – A Biography|date=1987|publisher=Shambala|place=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/501 501–505]|isbn=978-0-87773-455-0|url=https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/501}}

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Jung's thought derived from the classical education he received at school and from early family influences, which on the maternal side were a combination of Reformed Protestant academic theology with an interest in occult phenomena. On his father's side was a dedication to academic discipline emanating from his grandfather, the physician, scientist, and first Basel Professor of Medicine, Karl Gustav Jung, a one-time student activist and convert from Catholicism to Swiss Reformed Protestantism. Family lore suggested there was at least a social connection to the German polymath, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, through the latter's niece, Lotte Kestner, known as "Lottchen" who was a frequent visitor in Jung senior's household.Wehr, Gerhard. [https://archive.org/details/jungbiography0000wehr/page/14/ p. 14]. "Sophie Ziegler Jung was later friendly with Lotte Kestner, a niece of Goethe's 'Lottchen'. This Lotte frequently came to see my grandfather—as, incidentally, did Franz Liszt. In later years Lotte Kestner settled in Basel, no doubt because of these close ties with the Jung family."

Carl Jung, the practicing clinician, writer, and founder of analytical psychology, had, through his marriage, the economic security to pursue interests in other intellectual topics of the moment. His early celebrity as a research scientist through the Word Association Test led to the start of prolific correspondence and worldwide travel. It opened academic as well as social avenues, supported by his explorations into anthropology, quantum physics, vitalism, Eastern and Western philosophy. He delved into epistemology, alchemy, astrology, and sociology, as well as literature and the arts. Jung's interest in philosophy and spiritual subjects led many to label him a mystic, although he preferred to be seen as a man of science. Jung, unlike Freud, was deeply knowledgeable about philosophical concepts and sought links between epistemology and emergent theories of psychology.{{Cite web|url=http://mlwi.magix.net/jungmetaphysic.htm|title=Jung's metaphysic and epistemology: Platonism or Phenomenology?|website=mlwi.magix.net}}{{cite book|last=Lachman|first=Gary|title=Jung the Mystic|year=2010|publisher=Tarcher/Penguin|location=New York|isbn=978-1-58542-792-5|page=258}}

File:C. G. Jung institute.jpg, Switzerland]]

Within the field of analytical psychology, a brief survey of major concepts developed by Jung include (alphabetical):Anthony Stevens (1991) On Jung London: Penguin Books, pp. 27–53

• Anima and animus—(archetype) the contrasexual aspect of a person's psyche. In a woman's psyche, her inner personal masculine is conceived as a complex and an archetypal image; in a man's psyche, his inner personal feminine is conceived both as a complex and an archetypal image.
• Archetype—a concept "borrowed" from anthropology to denote supposedly universal and recurring mental images or themes. Jung's descriptions of archetypes varied over time.
• Archetypal images—universal symbols that mediate opposites in the psyche, often found in religious art, mythology, and fairy tales across cultures.
• Collective unconscious—aspects of unconsciousness experienced by all people in different cultures.
• Complex—the repressed organisation of images and experiences that governs perception and behaviour.
• Extraversion and introversion—personality traits of degrees of openness or reserve contributing to psychological type.Dicks-Mireaux, M. J. (1964). "Extraversion-Introversion in Experimental Psychology: Examples of Experimental Evidence and their Theoretical Explanations", Journal of Analytical Psychology, 9, 2.
• Individuation—the process of fulfilment of each individual "which negates neither the conscious or unconscious position but does justice to them both".Anthony Stevens (1991) On Jung London: Penguin Books, p. 199.
• Interpersonal relationship—the way people relate to others is a reflection of the way they relate to their own selves. This may also be extended to relations with the natural environment.
• Numinous—a healing, transformative or destructive spiritual power. Also, an invisible power inherent in an object. Jung develops the concept from the work of Rudolf Otto, who based it on the Latin numen.
• Persona—element of the personality that arises "for reasons of adaptation or personal convenience"—the "masks" one puts on in various situations.{{Cite web|url=http://journalpsyche.org/jungian-model-psyche/|title=The Jungian Model of the Psyche|website=journalpsyche.org|access-date=11 January 2020}}
• Psychological types—a framework for consciously orienting psychotherapists to patients by raising particular modes of personality to consciousness and differentiation between analyst and patient.
• Shadow—(archetype) the repressed, therefore unknown, aspects of the personality, including those often considered to be negative.
• Self—(archetype) the central overarching concept governing the individuation process, as symbolised by mandalas, the union of male and female, totality, and unity. Jung viewed it as the psyche's central archetype.
• Synchronicity—an acausal principle as a basis for the apparently random concurrence of phenomena.Bright, George. (1997) "Synchronicity as a basis of analytic attitude", Journal of Analytical Psychology, 42, 4

{{main|Collective unconscious}}

Since the establishment of psychoanalytic theory, the notion and meaning of individuals having a personal unconscious has gradually come to be commonly accepted. This was popularised by both Freud and Jung. Whereas an individual's personal unconscious is made up of thoughts and emotions that have, at some time, been experienced or held in mind but which have been repressed or forgotten, in contrast, the collective unconscious is neither acquired by activities within an individual's life nor a container of things that are thoughts, memories or ideas which are capable of being conscious during one's life. The contents of it were never naturally "known" through physical or cognitive experience and then forgotten.

The collective unconscious consists of universal heritable elements common to all humans, distinct from other species.{{cite book |author=Carl Jung |title=The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1 |chapter=Psychological Aspects of the Mother Archetype |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 152 }} However, this does not necessarily imply a genetic cause. It encapsulates fields of evolutionary biology, history of civilization, ethnology, brain and nervous system development, and general psychological development.{{cite book |author=Carl Jung |title=The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 90-92,118 }} Considering its composition in practical physiological and psychological terms, "it consists of pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain psychic contents." Jung writes about causal factors in personal psychology as stemming from, influenced by an abstraction of the impersonal physical layer, the common and universal physiology among all humans.{{cite book |author=Carl Jung |title=The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 91 }} Jung considers that science would hardly deny the existence and basic nature of "instincts", existing as a whole set of motivating urges. The collective unconscious acts as the frame where science can distinguish individual motivating urges, thought to be universal across all individuals of the human species, while instincts are present in all species. Jung contends, "The hypothesis of the collective unconscious is, therefore, no more daring than to assume there are instincts."

{{main|Jungian archetypes}}

{{image frame|content={{Photo montage

| right

| photo1a = Saturn Devouring His Son.jpg

| alt1a = Isis, The Great mother of divine son Horus

| photo1b = Demeter Altemps Inv8546.jpg

| alt1b = Demeter, Great Mother of divine daughter Persephone

| photo1c = Zhang Lu-Laozi Riding an Ox.jpg

| alt1c = Lao Tzu, Wise Old Man

| photo1d = Spas vsederzhitel sinay.jpg

| alt1d = Christ, Hero

| size = 450

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| width = 450

| caption = Common archetypal motifs: Devourer, Great/Benevolent Mother, Wise Old Man, Hero/Self

}}

The archetype is a concept "borrowed" from anthropology to denote a process of nature. Jung's definitions of archetypes varied over time and have been the subject of debate regarding their usefulness. Archetypal images, also referred to as motifs in mythology,{{Efn|Also see other general concepts of 'motif' covering visual arts, narrative, et cetera.}} are universal symbols that can mediate opposites in the psyche, are often found in religious art, mythology and fairy tales across cultures. Jung saw archetypes as pre-configurations in nature that give rise to repeating, understandable, describable experiences. In addition, the concept considers the passage of time and patterns resulting from transformation.{{cite book |author=Carl Jung |title=The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 80-81 }} Archetypes are said to exist independently of any current event or its effect. They are said to exert influence both across all domains of experience and throughout the stages of each individual's unique development. Being in part based on heritable physiology, they are thought to have "existed" since humans became a differentiated species. They have been deduced through the development of storytelling over tens of thousands of years, indicating repeating patterns of individual and group experience, behaviors, and effects across the planet, apparently displaying common themes.

The concept did not originate with Jung but with Plato, who first conceived of primordial patterns. Later contributions came from Adolf Bastian and Hermann Usener, among others.{{cite book |author=Carl Jung |title=The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 153 }} In the first half of the twentieth century, it proved impossible to objectively isolate and categorize the notion of an archetype within a materialist frame. According to Jung, there are "as many archetypes as there are typical situations in life",{{cite book |author=Carl Jung |title=The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 99 }} and he asserted that they have a dynamic mutual influence on one another. Their alleged presence could be extracted from thousand-year-old narratives, from comparative religion, and from mythology.{{cite book |author=Carl Jung |title=The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-01833-1 |at=para. 89,110,115 }} Jung elaborated on many archetypes in "The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious" and in "Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self". Examples of archetypes might be the shadow, the hero, the self, anima, animus, mother, father, child, and trickster.

{{See also|shadow (psychology)}}

The shadow exists as part of the unconscious mind and is composed of the traits individuals instinctively or consciously resist identifying as their own and would rather ignore, typically repressed ideas, weaknesses, desires, instincts, and shortcomings. Much of the shadow comes as a result of an individual's adaptation to cultural norms and expectations. Thus, this archetype not only consists of all the things deemed unacceptable by society but also those things that are not aligned with one's own personal morals and values.

Jung argues that the shadow plays a distinctive role in balancing one's overall psyche, the counter-balancing to consciousness—"where there is light, there must also be shadow". Without a well-developed shadow (often "shadow work", "integrating one's shadow"), an individual can become shallow and extremely preoccupied with the opinions of others; that is, a walking persona. Not wanting to look at their shadows directly, Jung argues, often results in psychological projection. Individuals project imagined attitudes onto others without awareness. The qualities an individual may hate (or love) in another may manifest in those who do not see the external, material truth. In order to truly grow as an individual, Jung believed that both the persona and shadow should be balanced.

The shadow can often appear as a dark, wild, exotic figure in dreams or visions.{{cite web | url=https://psychotreat.com/what-is-jungian-psychology/ | title=What is Jungian Psychology? – Types, Archetypes, Complexes and More |website=PsychoTreat | date=27 August 2021 }}

{{main|Extraversion and introversion}}

{{see also-text|Apollonian and Dionysian}}

Jung was one of the first people to define introversion and extraversion in a psychological context. In Jung's Psychological Types, he theorizes that each person falls into one of two categories: the introvert or the extravert. Jung compares these two psychological types to ancient archetypes, Apollo and Dionysus. The introvert is likened to Apollo, who shines a light on understanding. The introvert is focused on the internal world of reflection, dreaming, and vision. Thoughtful and insightful, the introvert can sometimes be uninterested in joining the activities of others. The extravert is associated with Dionysus, interested in joining the activities of the world. The extravert is focused on the outside world of objects, sensory perception, and action. Energetic and lively, the extravert may lose their sense of self in the intoxication of Dionysian pursuits.{{cite book|title=Psychological Types|author=C.G. Jung|publisher=Princeton University Press, 1971|pages=136–147}} Jungian introversion and extraversion is quite different from the modern idea of introversion and extraversion.{{cite web|last=Stepp|first=G|title=People: Who Needs Them|url=http://www.vision.org/visionmedia/social-relationships-introvert-vs-extrovert/50363.aspx|work=Vision Journal|access-date=19 December 2011}} Modern theories often stay true to behaviourist means of describing such a trait (sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, etc.), whereas Jungian introversion and extraversion are expressed as a perspective: introverts interpret the world subjectively, whereas extraverts interpret the world objectively.{{cite web | url=http://www.celebritytypes.com/blog/2014/04/5-basic-facts-about-jung-and-types/ | title=5 Basic Facts about Jung and Types | work=CelebrityTypes | publisher=CelebrityTypes International | date=19 April 2014 | access-date=9 June 2015 | author=Arild, Sigurd | page=1}}

{{see also|Persona (psychology)}}

In his psychological theory—which is not necessarily linked to a particular theory of social structure—the persona appears as a consciously created personality or identity, fashioned out of part of the collective psyche through socialization, acculturation and experience.Jolande Székács Jacobi, Masks of the Soul. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1977; Robert H. Hopcke, Persona. Berkeley: Shambhala Publications, 1995. Jung applied the term persona explicitly because, in Latin, it means both personality and the masks worn by Roman actors of the classical period, expressive of the individual roles played.

The persona, he argues, is a mask for the "collective psyche", a mask that 'pretends' individuality so that both self and others believe in that identity, even if it is really no more than a well-played role through which the collective psyche is expressed. Jung regarded the "persona-mask" as a complicated system that mediates between individual consciousness and the social community: it is "a compromise between the individual and society as to what a man should appear to be".Carl Jung", The Relations between the Ego and the Unconscious", in: Joseph Campbell (ed.), The Portable Jung. New York: Viking Press, 1971, p. 106. But he also makes it quite explicit that it is, in substance, a character mask in the classical sense known to theatre, with its double function: both intended to make a certain impression on others and to hide (part of) the true nature of the individual.Carl Jung, Two Essays on Analytical Psychology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2nd ed. 1977, p. 157. The therapist then aims to assist the individuation process through which the client (re)gains their "own self"—by liberating the self, both from the deceptive cover of the persona and from the power of unconscious impulses.

Jung has influenced management theory because managers and executives create an appropriate "management persona" (a corporate mask) and a persuasive identity,Joann S. Lublin, "How to Look and Act Like a Leader", The Wall Street Journal, 12 September 2011. and they have to evaluate what sort of people the workers are, to manage them (for example, using personality tests and peer reviews).Kees van der Pijl, "May 1968 and the Alternative Globalist Movement – Cadre Class Formation and the Transition to Socialism". In: Angelika Ebbinghaus et al. (ed.), 1968: A View of the Protest Movements 40 Years after, from a Global Perspective. 43rd {{ill|International Conference of Labour and Social History|de}} 2008. Vienna: Akademische Verlagsanstalt, 2009, pp. 192, 193, 194.

Of his early years, Jung would write that "mentally my greatest adventure had been the study of Kant and Schopenhauer. The great news of the day was the work of

Charles Darwin."Jung, C.G. 2014b. Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 18: The Symbolic Life: Miscellaneous Writings (Princeton University Press), p. 213 While Jung’s conception of human psychology is grounded in Darwinian evolutionary theory it is important to note that his evolutionary thought had a distinctively German quality to it. This is because the idiosyncratic reception of Darwin in late nineteenth and early twentieth century Germany resulted in the integration of Darwin's ideas with German embryological and developmental traditions formulated by the Naturphilosophen and theorists such as Ernst Haeckel. It was these traditions that formed the intellectual background of Jung’s evolutionary thought.Clark, G. 2023. "Rethinking Jung’s Reception of Kant and the Naturphilosophen: Archetypes,

Evolutionary Developmental Biology and the Future of Analytical Psychology", International Journal of Jungian Studies, 1: 1–31.

The result was that Jung's evolutionary conception of mind focused on embryology and development. From this perspective, the emergence of consciousness both in ontogeny (development) and phylogeny (evolution) was built upon much more archaic, affect-based subcortical brain systems. It was this developmental approach to evolution that underpinned his "archaeological" conception of the human psyche consisting of different evolutionary layers, from the deeply archaic to the more evolutionarily recent. Those more archaic structures in the brain Jung believed to be the basis of the “collective unconscious” - an aspect of human psychology shared by all members of the species Homo sapiens.Clark. G. 2024. "Fossils, Anthropology and Hominin Brain Phylogeny". Chapter 2, pp. 38-40. In Carl Jung and the Evolutionary Sciences: A New Vision for Analytical Psychology, Routledge

In commenting on humanity's evolution from an ancient primate ancestor, Jung wrote: 'We keep forgetting that we are primates and that we have to make allowances for these primitive layers in our psyche.' Jung, C.G. 2020. C.G. Jung Speaking: Interviews and Encounters (Princeton University

Press). Jung also developed the notion of different evolutionary layers in the psyche in his discussion of fossil hominins such as Pithecanthropus (Homo erectus). As he writes:

For just as a man has a body that is no different in principle from that of an animal, so also his psychology has a whole series of lower {{sic|storeys}} in which the spectres from humanity’s past epochs still dwell, then the animal souls from the age of Pithecanthropus and the hominids, then the “psyche” of the cold-blooded saurian.Jung, C.G. 1970. Mysterium Coniunctionis: An Inquiry into the Separation and Synthesis of

Psychic Opposites in Alchemy (Princeton University Press).pp. 212-3

Jung’s notion of different evolutionary layers in the human mind has been compared with the work of neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp, particularly as outlined in his book The Archaeology of Mind: Neuroevolutionary Origins of Human Emotions. Of these affinities it has been suggested that ‘Jung and Panksepp have, independently it seems, developed similar metaphors of an archeologically layered psyche in which jewels and treasures are discoverable in the deepest phylogenetically ancient regions of the brain – for Jung they are archetypal structures for Panksepp cross-species homologies.'

Significantly, in a 2017 article entitled "The Affective Core of the Self: A Neuro-Archetypical Perspective

on the Foundations of Human (and Animal) Subjectivity",

when noting Jung’s belief that archetypes may be related to evolutionarily ancient subcortical brain systems, Panksepp and colleagues wrote that "such assertions by Jung were not only quite farsighted, but they actually open ways to connect his theory of the psyche with the most advanced scientific theories and discoveries of our day."

Alcaro, A., S. Carta, and J. Panksepp 2017. The Affective Core of the Self: A Neuro-Archetypical Perspective on the Foundations of Human (and Animal) Subjectivity, Frontiers in Psychology, 8: 1–13.

{{Further|Jungian interpretation of religion}}

{{Esotericism}}

Jung's work on himself and his patients convinced him that life has a spiritual purpose beyond material goals.{{cite web| url = https://archive.org/stream/memoriesdreamsre007394mbpmemoriesdreamsre007394mbp_djvu.txt| title = Aniela Jaffe, foreword to Memories, Dreams, Reflections| year = 1963| publisher = Vintage Books}}{{cite book|last=Dunne|first=Clare |title=Carl Jung: Wounded Healer of the Soul: An Illustrated Biography|year=2002|page=3|chapter=Prelude|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uegLZklR0fEC&pg=PA3 | isbn=978-0-8264-6307-4 | publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group}} The main task for people, he believed, is to discover and fulfill their deep, innate potential. Based on his study of Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Gnosticism, Taoism, and other traditions, Jung believed this journey of transformation, which he called individuation, is at the mystical heart of all religions. It is a journey to meet the self and at the same time to meet the Divine.{{cite book|last=Frick|first=Eckhard|author2=Lautenschlager, Bruno|title=Auf Unendliches bezogen – Spirituelle Entdeckungen bei C. G. Jung|publisher= Munich: Koesel|year=2007|page=204|isbn=978-3-466-36780-1}} Unlike Freud's atheistic worldview, Jung's pantheism may have led him to believe that spiritual experience was essential to well-being, as he specifically identifies individual human life with the universe as a whole.{{cite book|last=Crowley|first=Vivianne|title=Jung: A Journey of Transformation: Exploring His Life and Experiencing His Ideas|year=2000|publisher=Quest Books|location=Wheaton Illinois|isbn=978-0-8356-0782-7|url=https://archive.org/details/jung00vivi}}Andrew Reid Fuller, "Psychology and Religion: Eight Points of View", 2002, p. 111

In 1959, Jung was asked by the host, John Freeman, on the BBC interview program Face to Face whether he believed in God, to which Jung answered, "I do not need to believe. I know."{{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2AMu-G51yTY| title = BBC Face to Face broadcast, 22 October 1959| website = YouTube| date = 10 October 2017}}{{cite book |last1=Rollins |first1=Wayne Giibert |title=Jung and the Bible |date=2013 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers [reprint of 1983 edition] |location=Eugene, Oregon |isbn=978-1-62564-261-5 |page=121 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_spNAwAAQBAJ&q=jung+god+%22the+listener%22&pg=PA121 |access-date=23 January 2020}} Jung's ideas on religion counterbalance Freudian skepticism. Jung's idea of religion as a practical road to individuation is still treated in modern textbooks on the psychology of religion, though his ideas have been criticized.{{cite book|last=Wulff|first=David|title=Psychology of Religion: Classic and Contemporary Views|year=1991|publisher=Wiley and Sons|page=[https://archive.org/details/psychologyofreli00wulf/page/464 464]|isbn=978-0-471-50236-4|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyofreli00wulf/page/464}}

Jung recommended spirituality as a cure for alcoholism, and is considered to have had an indirect role in establishing Alcoholics Anonymous.{{cite book|last=Levin|first=Jerome David|title=Introduction to Alcoholism Counseling|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=1995|page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoal00levi/page/167 167]|chapter=Other Etiological Theories of Alcoholism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_y7H9Sq5g6kC&pg=PA167|isbn=978-1-56032-358-7|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoal00levi/page/167}} Jung treated an American patient named Rowland Hazard III who had chronic alcoholism. After working with the patient for some time and achieving no significant progress, Jung told the man that his alcoholic condition was near to hopeless, save only the possibility of a spiritual experience. Jung noted that, occasionally, such experiences had been known to reform alcoholics when all other options had failed. Hazard took Jung's advice seriously and sought a personal, spiritual experience. He returned to the United States and joined a Christian evangelical movement known as the Oxford Group. He told other alcoholics what Jung had told him about the importance of a spiritual experience. One of the alcoholics he brought into the Oxford Group was Ebby Thacher, a long-time friend and drinking buddy of William Griffith Wilson, later co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous. Thacher told Wilson about the Oxford Group, and through them, Wilson became aware of Hazard's experience with Jung. The influence of Jung thus indirectly found its way into the formation of Alcoholics Anonymous, the original twelve-step program.

The above claims are documented in the letters of Jung and Wilson.Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc. (1984) Pass It On: The Story of Bill Wilson and How the A.A. Message Reached the World. New York: Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc. {{ISBN|978-0-916856-12-0}}, page. 381–386. Although some historians dispute the detail, Jung discussed an Oxford Group member, who may have been the same person, in talks around 1940. The remarks were distributed privately in transcript form, from shorthand taken by an attender (Jung reportedly approved the transcript), and later recorded in his Collected Works, "For instance, when a member of the Oxford Group comes to me in order to get treatment, I say, 'You are in the Oxford Group; so long as you are there, you settle your affair with the Oxford Group. I can't do it better than Jesus.{{'"}}Jung, C. G.; Adler, G. and Hull, R. F. C., eds. (1977), Collected Works of C. G. Jung, Volume 18: The Symbolic Life: Miscellaneous Writings Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-09892-0}}, [p. 272, https://web.archive.org/web/20070908023121/http://www.stellarfire.org/additional.html] Jung goes on to state he has seen similar cures among Roman Catholics. The 12-step program of Alcoholics Anonymous has a psychological backdrop involving the human ego and the dichotomy between the conscious and unconscious mind.{{Cite web|url=https://www.hopemakersrecovery.com/psychology/jungian-12-steps|title=Jungian 12 Steps|website=Hope Makers|access-date=5 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609020111/https://www.hopemakersrecovery.com/psychology/jungian-12-steps|archive-date=9 June 2019}}

Jung had an apparent interest in the paranormal and occult. For decades he attended seances and claimed to have witnessed "parapsychic phenomena". Initially, he attributed these to psychological causes, even delivering a 1919 lecture in England for the Society for Psychical Research on "The Psychological Foundations for the belief in spirits".{{cite book|author=Carl Gustav Jung|title=Jung on Synchronicity and the Paranormal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=usrGSaO7QosC|year=1997|publisher=Psychology Press|page=6|isbn=978-0-415-15509-0}} However, he began to "doubt whether an exclusively psychological approach can do justice to the phenomena in question" and stated that "the spirit hypothesis yields better results".{{cite book|author=Carl Gustav Jung|title=Jung on Synchronicity and the Paranormal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=usrGSaO7QosC|year=1997|publisher=Psychology Press|page=7|isbn=978-0-415-15509-0}} But he retained some skepticism toward his own postulation, as he could not find material evidence of the existence of spirits.

Jung's ideas about the paranormal culminated in "synchronicity".{{cite journal |last1=Nickell |first1=Joe |author-link=Joe Nickell |title="Visitations": After-Death Contacts |journal=Skeptical Inquirer |date=September 2002 |volume=12 |issue=3 |url=https://www.csicop.org/sb/show/visitations_after-death_contacts |access-date=8 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808203007/https://www.csicop.org/sb/show/visitations_after-death_contacts |archive-date=8 August 2018}} This is the idea that certain coincidences manifest in the world, have exceptionally intense meaning to observers. Such coincidences have a great effect on the observer from multiple cumulative aspects: from the immediate personal relevance of the coincidence to the observer, from the peculiarities of (the nature of, the character, novelty, curiosity of) any such coincidence; from the sheer improbability of the coincidence, having no apparent causal link (hence Jung's essay subtitle "An Acausal Connecting Principle"). Despite his own experiments failing to confirm the phenomenon{{cite book|author1=Michael Shermer|author2=Pat Linse|title=The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gr4snwg7iaEC&pg=PA241|year=2002|publisher=ABC-CLIO|pages=240–241|isbn=978-1-57607-653-8}} he held on to the idea as an explanation for apparent ESP.{{cite book|author=C. G. Jung|title=Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-Rxhf2gUa8C&pg=PA27|date=15 April 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-96845-9|page=27}} In addition, he proposed it as a functional explanation for how the I-Ching worked. However, he was never clear about how synchronicity worked.{{cite journal |last1=Sullivan |first1=Charles |title=Whats Wrong with the I Ching? Ambiguity, Obscurity, and Synchronicity |journal=Skeptical Inquirer |date=August 2009 |volume=33 |issue=4 |url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/whats_wrong_with_the_i_ching_ambiguity_obscurity_and_synchronicity |access-date=8 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214171807/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/whats_wrong_with_the_i_ching_ambiguity_obscurity_and_synchronicity |archive-date=14 December 2017}}

Jung influenced one philosophical interpretation (not the science) of quantum physics with the concept of synchronicity regarding some events as non-causal. That idea influenced the physicist Wolfgang Pauli (with whom, via a letter correspondence, Jung developed the notion of unus mundus in connection with the idea of nonlocality) and some other physicists.Jung, C. G. and Wolfgang Pauli, The Interpretation of Nature and Psyche, New York: Pantheon Books, 1955.

File:Michael Maier Atalanta Fugiens Emblem 21.jpeg Emblem 21]]

Jung's acquaintance with alchemy came between 1928 and 1930 when he was introduced to a manuscript of The Secret of the Golden Flower, translated by Richard Wilhelm.{{cite book |last1=Jung |first1=Carl |editor1-last=Shamdasani |editor1-first=Sonu |title=The Red Book |date=2012 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |page=555 |edition=Reader |chapter=Epilogue}} The work and writings of Jung from the 1930s onwards shifted to a focus on the psychological significance of alchemy.{{cite book |last1=Jung |first1=Carl |editor1-last=Hull |editor1-first=R.F.C. |title=Psychology and Alchemy |date=1952 |publisher=Princeton University Press |edition=1968 Second Edition completely revised |chapter=From Editorial Note to the First Edition}}

In 1944, Jung published Psychology and Alchemy, in which he analyzed the alchemical symbols and came to the conclusion that there is a direct relationship between them and the psychoanalytical process.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|'For Jung, alchemy is not only part of the pre-history of chemistry, that is, not only laboratory work, but also an essential part of the history of psychology as the history of the discovery of the deep structure of the psyche and its unconscious. Jung emphasized the significance of the symbolic structure of alchemical texts, a structure that is understood as a way independent of laboratory research, as a structure per se.' {{cite book|last=Calian|first=George Florin|title=Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy|url=https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up|publisher=Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU|location=Budapest|year=2010|pages=167–168}}}} He argued that the alchemical process was the transformation of the impure soul (lead) to perfected soul (gold), and a metaphor for the individuation process.

In 1963, Mysterium Coniunctionis first appeared in English as part of The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. Mysterium Coniunctionis was Jung's last major book and focused on the "Mysterium Coniunctionis" archetype, known as the sacred marriage between the sun and moon. Jung argued that the stages of the alchemists, the blackening, the whitening, the reddening, and the yellowing, could be taken as symbolic of individuation—his chosen term for personal growth (75).{{Cite thesis |last=Wagner |first=Christopher Franklin |date=2019-05-15 |title=Of Books and Fire: Approaching the Alchemy of Carl Gustav Jung |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/290574 |language=en |doi=10.17863/CAM.37801}}

{{further|Art therapy}}

Jung proposed that art can be used to alleviate or contain feelings of trauma, fear, or anxiety and also to repair, restore, and heal. In his work with patients and his own personal explorations, Jung wrote that art expression and images found in dreams could help recover from trauma and emotional distress. At times of emotional distress, he often drew, painted, or made objects and constructions, which he recognized as more than recreational.

Dance and movement therapy, as a form of active imagination, was developed by Jung and Toni Wolff in 1916{{cite web|url=https://www.routledge.com/Dance-Therapy-and-Depth-Psychology-The-Moving-Imagination/Chodorow/p/book/9780415041133|title=Dance Therapy and Depth Psychology: The Moving Imagination – Routledge|last=Chodorow|first=Joan|year=1991|access-date=23 November 2017}} and practiced by Tina Keller-Jenny and other analysts. It remained largely unknown until the 1950s when it was rediscovered by Marian Chace and therapist Mary Whitehouse. Whitehouse, after studying with Martha Graham and Mary Wigman, became a dancer and teacher of modern dance,{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xywBCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33|title=Authentic Movement: Moving the Body, Moving the Self, Being Moved: A Collection of Essays – Volume Two|last=Pallaro|first=Patrizia|date=15 January 2007|publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers|isbn=978-1-84642-586-8|location=London|page=33|language=en}} and, along with Swiss dancer Trudi Schoop, is considered one of the founders of dance/movement therapy in the U.S.

Jung stressed the importance of individual rights in a person's relation to the state and society. He saw that the state was treated as "a quasi-animate personality from whom everything is expected" but that this personality was "only camouflage for those individuals who know how to manipulate it".{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|pages=15–16|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}} He referred to the state as a form of slavery.C. G. Jung, Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Ich und dem Unbewußten, chapter one, second section, 1928. Also, C. G. Jung Aufsätze zur Zeitgeschichte, 1946. Speeches made in 1933 and 1937 are excerpted.{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|page=14|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}}{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|pages=23–24|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}}{{cite book|isbn=978-0-300-16650-7|title=Psychology and Religion|page=59|publisher=The Vail-Ballou Press ic.|last=Jung|first=Carl}} He also thought that the state "swallowed up [people's] religious forces",{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|page=23|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}} and therefore that the state had "taken the place of God"—making it comparable to a religion in which "state slavery is a form of worship". Jung observed that "stage acts of [the] state" are comparable to religious displays:

{{blockquote|Brass bands, flags, banners, parades and monster demonstrations are no different in principle from ecclesiastical processions, cannonades and fire to scare off demons.{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|page=25|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}}}}

From Jung's perspective, this replacement of God with the state in a mass society leads to the dislocation of the religious drive and results in the same fanaticism of the church-states of the Dark Ages—wherein the more the state is 'worshipped', the more freedom and morality are suppressed;{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|page=24|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}} this ultimately leaves the individual psychically undeveloped with extreme feelings of marginalization.{{cite book|isbn=978-0-451-21860-5|title=The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society|page=14 & 45|publisher=New American Library|last=Jung|first=Carl|year=2006}}

Jung was in contact with Allen Dulles of the Office of Strategic Services (predecessor of the Central Intelligence Agency) and provided valuable intelligence on the psychological condition of Hitler. Dulles referred to Jung as "Agent 488" and offered the following description of his service: "Nobody will probably ever know how much Professor Jung contributed to the Allied Cause during the war, by seeing people who were connected somehow with the other side". Jung's service to the Allied cause through the OSS remained classified after the war.{{Cite news | url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-shrink-as-secret-agent-jung-hitler-and-the-oss | title=The Shrink as Secret Agent: Jung, Hitler, and the OSS| newspaper=The Daily Beast| date=12 November 2016| last1=Dickey| first1=Christopher}}

In "The State of Psychotherapy Today",Collected Works, Volume 10 published in 1934 in the Zentralblatt für Psychotherapie, Jung wrote: "The Aryan unconscious has a greater potential than the Jewish unconscious" and "The Jew, who is something of a nomad, has never yet created a cultural form of his own and as far as we can see never will".Falk, A Anti-Semitism A History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred Westport Connecticut: Praeger, 2008, pp. 110–111 Andrew Samuels argues that his remarks on the "Aryan unconscious" and the "corrosive character" of Freud's "Jewish gospel"Letter to William M Kranefeldt dd 9 February 1934 reprinted in the International Review of Psychoanalysis Vol. 4:377 (1977) demonstrate a form of antisemitism "fundamental to the structure of Jung's thought" but also argues that there is a "pioneering nature of Jung's contributions" and that "his intuition of the importance of exploring difference remains intact."Samuels, Andrew. (1997), Institute of Historical Research, University of London e-seminar.[http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/4412/1/Jung_And_Antisemitism_by_Andrew_Samuels___Institute_of_Historical_Research.pdf "Jung and Anti-Semitism"], Also published in the Jewish Quarterly, Spring 1994.

In 1933, after the Nazis gained power in Germany, Jung became the president of the new International General Medical Society for Psychotherapy (Allgemeine Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie), a professional body which aimed to have affiliated organizations in different countries.Jaffé, Aniela (1972); From the Life and Work of C. G. Jung; Hodder and Stoughton, London. {{ISBN|978-0-340-12515-1}}; pp. 79–80. The German affiliated organization, the Deutsche Allgemeine Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie, led by Matthias Göring, an Adlerian psychotherapist{{cite news| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1985/01/27/books/psychotherapy-in-the-third-reich.html| title = Lifton, Robert Jay (27 January 1985) "Psychotherapy in the Third Reich"| newspaper = The New York Times| date = 27 January 1985| last1 = Lifton| first1 = Robert Jay}} The New York Times and a cousin of the prominent Nazi Hermann Göring, excluded Jews. In 1933, the society's Zentralblatt für Psychotherapie journal published a statement endorsing Nazi positionsJaffé, Aniela (1972); From the Life and Work of C. G. Jung; Hodder and Stoughton, London. {{ISBN|978-0-340-12515-1}}; p. 80. and Hitler's book Mein Kampf.Mark Medweth. [https://web.archive.org/web/20050331084847/http://www.sfu.ca/~wwwpsyb/issues/1996/winter/medweth.htm "Jung and the Nazis"], in Psybernetika, Winter 1996. In 1934, Jung wrote in a Swiss publication, the Neue Zürcher Zeitung, that he experienced "great surprise and disappointment"Article republished in English in Jung, Carl G. (1970); Collected Works, Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; {{ISBN|978-0-7100-1640-9}}; p. 538. when the Zentralblatt associated his name with the pro-Nazi statement. He did not end his relationship with the Zentralblatt at this time, but he did arrange the appointment of a new managing editor, Carl Alfred Meier of Switzerland. For the next few years, the Zentralblatt under Jung and Meier maintained a position distinct from that of the Nazis in that it continued to acknowledge the contributions of Jewish doctors to psychotherapy.Jaffé, Aniela (1972); From the Life and Work of C. G. Jung; Hodder and Stoughton, London. {{ISBN|978-0-340-12515-1}}; p. 83. In the face of energetic German attempts to Nazify the international body, Jung resigned from its presidency in 1939, the year the Second World War started.

The International Society's constitution permitted individual doctors to join it directly rather than through one of the national affiliated societies, a provision to which Jung drew attention in a circular in 1934.An English translation of the circular is in Jung, Carl G. (1970); Collected Works, Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; {{ISBN|978-0-7100-1640-9}}; pp. 545–546. This implied that German Jewish doctors could maintain their professional status as individual members of the international body, even though they were excluded from the German affiliate, as well as from other German medical societies operating under the Nazis.Jaffé, Aniela (1972); From the Life and Work of C. G. Jung; Hodder and Stoughton, London. {{ISBN|978-0-340-12515-1}}; p. 82.

Jung went on to say, "The main point is to get a young and insecure science into a place of safety during an earthquake."Article republished in English in Jung, Carl G. (1970); Collected Works, Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; {{ISBN|978-0-7100-1640-9}}; p. 538. See also Stevens, Anthony, Jung: a very short introduction, Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-19-285458-2}}

Scholar Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi believed that Jung's antisemitism may have contributed to the schism between Freud and his circle of psychoanalysts, who were predominantly Jews.{{cite book|author=Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi|title=Freud's Moses|year=1991|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0-300-05756-3|page=42}}

Jung's interest in European mythology and folk psychology was shared by the Nazis.{{cite book |last=Noll |first=Richard |edition=1st |date=1994 |title=The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement |page=336 |publisher=Princeton University Press }}{{sfn|Grossman|1979}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/jun/06/carl-jung-freud-nazis|last=Vernon|first=Mark|work=The Guardian|date=6 June 2011|title=Carl Jung, part 2: A troubled relationship with Freud – and the Nazis|access-date=7 June 2015}} Richard Noll describes Jung's own reaction to this connection:

{{blockquote|Jung clearly identifies himself with the spirit of German Volkstumsbewegung throughout this period and well into the 1920s and 1930s, until the horrors of Nazism finally compelled him to reframe these neopagan metaphors in a negative light in his 1936 essay on Wotan.{{cite book |last=Noll |first=Richard |edition=1st |date=1994 |title=The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement |page=134 |publisher=Princeton University Press }}}}

Various statements made by Jung in the 1930s have been cited as evidence of both contempt for Nazism and sympathy for Nazism.Clark, R.W (1980) Freud: the Man and the Cause. London: Cape, pp. 492–3 In the 1936 essay "Wotan", Jung described the influence of Adolf Hitler on Germany as "one man who is obviously 'possessed' has infected a whole nation to such an extent that everything is set in motion and has started rolling on its course towards perdition."{{cite book|title = Carl Gustav Jung: Avant-Garde Conservative|first=Jay|last=Sherry|year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan}}Jung, Carl G. (1970); Collected Works, Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; {{ISBN|978-0-7100-1640-9}}; p. 185. He would later say, during a lengthy interview with H. R. Knickerbocker in October 1938:C. G. Jung Speaking: Interviews and Encounters, eds. William McGuire and R. F. C. Hull, Princeton University Press, pp. 128, reprint from Diagnosing the Dictators (1938).C. G. Jung Speaking: Interviews and Encounters, eds. William McGuire and R. F. C. Hull (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978), pp. 91–93, 115–135, 136–40.

{{blockquote|Hitler seemed like the 'double' of a real person, as if Hitler the man might be hiding inside like an appendix, and deliberately so concealed in order not to disturb the mechanism ... You know you could never talk to this man; because there is nobody there ... It is not an individual; it is an entire nation.}}

In an interview in 1949, Carl Jung said,

{{blockquote|It must be clear to anyone who has read any of my books that I have never been a Nazi sympathizer and I never have been anti-Semitic, and no amount of misquotation, mistranslation, or rearrangement of what I have written can alter the record of my true point of view. Nearly every one of these passages has been tampered with, either by malice or by ignorance. Furthermore, my friendly relations with a large group of Jewish colleagues and patients over a period of many years in itself disproves the charge of anti-Semitism.Carl Jung, interview by Carol Baumann, published in the Bulletin of Analytical Psychology Club of New York (December 1949)}}Jung is also known to have possessed an interest in the Jewish mystic tradition of Kabbalah.{{Cite journal |last=Hoeller |first=Stephan A. |date=April 2012 |title=Jung, Kabbalah, and Gnosis |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00332925.2012.677606 |journal=Psychological Perspectives |language=en |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=163–181 |doi=10.1080/00332925.2012.677606 |issn=0033-2925}}

Jung addressed homosexuality in his published writings, in one comment specifying that homosexuality should not be a concern of legal authorities nor be considered a crime. He also stated that homosexuality does not reduce the value of a person as a member of society. Jung also said that homosexuality is a result of psychological immaturity ("nurture"), but only if one's sexuality is not an aspect of their constitutional characteristics ("nature").{{cite journal |last1=Hopcke |first1=R. |title=Jung and Homosexuality: A Clearer Vision |journal=Journal of Analytical Psychology |date=1988 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=65–80 |doi=10.1111/j.1465-5922.1988.00065.x|pmid=3350769 }}

Jung's theories are considered to be a useful therapeutic framework for the analysis of unconscious phenomena that become manifest in the acute psychedelic state.Hill, S.J. 2013. Confrontation with the Unconscious: Jungian Depth Psychology and Psychedelic Experience: Muswell Hill Press{{cite journal| author1-first=R|author1-last=Carhart-Harris|author1-link=Robin Carhart-Harris|author2-first= K.J.|author2-last=Friston| title=The default-mode, ego-functions and free-energy: a neurobiological account of Freudian ideas. | journal=Brain | year= 2010 | volume= 133 | issue= Pt 4 | pages= 1265–83 | pmid=20194141 | doi=10.1093/brain/awq010 | pmc=2850580 }}Clark, Gary. 'Integrating the Archaic and the Modern: The Red Book, Visual Cognitive Modalities and the Neuroscience of Altered States of Consciousness'. In Jung's Red Book for Our Time: Searching for Soul Under Postmodern Conditions Volume 4. Ed. Murray Stein and Thomas Arzt. Chiron Publications. This view is based on correspondence Jung had with researchers involved in psychedelic research in the 1950s, as well as more recent neuroimaging research where subjects who are administered psychedelic compounds seem to have archetypal religious experiences of "unity" and "ego dissolution" associated with reduced activity in the default mode network.{{Cite journal|title=The entropic brain: a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs|first1=Robin|last1=Carhart-Harris|first2=Robert|last2=Leech|first3=Peter|last3=Hellyer|first4=Murray|last4=Shanahan|first5=Amanda|last5=Feilding|first6=Enzo|last6=Tagliazucchi|first7=Dante|last7=Chialvo|first8=David|last8=Nutt|date=8 August 2014|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|page=20 |doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00020|pmid=24550805|pmc=3909994 |doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ijjs/14/2/article-p97_1.xml|title=Carl Jung and the Psychedelic Brain: An Evolutionary Model of Analytical Psychology Informed by Psychedelic Neuroscience|first=Gary|last=Clark|date=9 September 2021|journal=International Journal of Jungian Studies|volume=14|issue=2|pages=97–126|via=brill.com|doi=10.1163/19409060-bja10017|s2cid=240246004 }}

This research has led to a re-evaluation of Jung's work, particularly the visions detailed in The Red Book, in the context of contemporary psychedelic, evolutionary, and developmental neuroscience. For example, in a chapter entitled "Integrating the Archaic and the Modern: The Red Book, Visual Cognitive Modalities and the Neuroscience of Altered States of Consciousness", in the 2020 volume Jung's Red Book for Our Time: Searching for Soul Under Postmodern Conditions, Volume 4, it is argued Jung was a pioneer who explored uncharted "cognitive domains" that are alien to Western modes of thought. While such domains of experience are not part of mainstream Western culture and thought, they are central to various Indigenous cultures that use psychedelics such as Iboga and Ayahuasca during rituals to alter consciousness. The author writes: "Jung seems to have been dealing with modes of consciousness alien to mainstream Western thought, exploring the terrain of uncharted cognitive domains. I argue that science is beginning to catch up with Jung who was a pioneer whose insights contribute a great deal to our emerging understanding of human consciousness."Clark, Gary. Integrating the Archaic and the Modern: The Red Book, Visual Cognitive Modalities and the Neuroscience of Altered States of Consciousness. In Jung's Red Book for Our Time: Searching for Soul Under Postmodern Conditions Volume 4. Ed. Murray Stein and Thomas Arzt. Chiron Publications, p. 147. In this analysis, Jung's paintings of his visions in The Red Book were compared to the paintings of Ayahuasca visions by the Peruvian shaman Pablo Amaringo.Clark, Gary. Integrating the Archaic and the Modern: The Red Book, Visual Cognitive Modalities and the Neuroscience of Altered States of Consciousness. In Jung's Red Book for Our Time: Searching for Soul Under Postmodern Conditions Volume 4. Ed. Murray Stein and Thomas Arzt. Chiron Publications, p. 158.

Commenting on research that was being undertaken during the 1950s, Jung wrote the following in a letter to Betty Eisner, a psychologist who was involved in LSD research at the University of California: "Experiments along the line of mescaline and related drugs are certainly most interesting since such drugs lay bare a level of the unconscious that is otherwise accessible only under peculiar psychic conditions. It is a fact that you get certain perceptions and experiences of things appearing either in mystical states or in the analysis of unconscious phenomena."Jung, C.G., G. Adler, and A. Jaffé. 1976. Letters: Routledge, p. 382.

An account of Jung and psychedelics, as well as the importance of Jungian psychology to psychedelic-assisted therapies, is outlined in Scott Hill's 2013 book Confrontation with the Unconscious: Jungian Depth Psychology and Psychedelic Experience.Hill, S.J. 2013. Confrontation with the Unconscious: Jungian Depth Psychology and Psychedelic Experience: Muswell Hill Press. A 2021 article discusses Jung's attitude towards psychedelics, as well as the applicability of his ideas to current research. As the author writes, Jung's "...legitimate reservations about the clinical use of psychedelics are no longer relevant as the field has progressed significantly, devising robust clinical and experimental protocols for psychedelic-assisted therapies. That said Jung's concept of individuation—that is the integration of the archaic unconscious with consciousness—seems extremely pertinent to modern psychedelic research." The author also uses work in evolutionary and psychedelic neuroscience, and specifically the latter's ability to make manifest ancient subcortical brain systems, to illuminate Jung's concept of an archaic collective unconscious that evolved before the ego complex and the uniquely human default mode network.

The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), a psychometric instrument mostly popular with non-psychologists, as well as the concepts of socionics, were developed from Jung's model of psychological types. The MBTI is considered pseudoscienceThyer, Bruce A.; Pignotti, Monica (2015). Science and Pseudoscience in Social Work Practice. Springer Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8261-7768-1 and is not widely accepted by researchers in the field of psychology.Bailey, Richard P.; Madigan, Daniel J.; Cope, Ed; Nicholls, Adam R. (2018). "The Prevalence of Pseudoscientific Ideas and Neuromyths Among Sports Coaches". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 641. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00641. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 5941987. PMID 29770115.

Jung is considered a "godparent" of the altruistic, mutual self-help movement, Alcoholics Anonymous.{{Cite book |last=Sikorsky (Jr.) |first=Igor I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1tiXAAAACAAJ |title=AA's Godparents: Three Early Influences on Alcoholics Anonymous and Its Foundation, Carl Jung, Emmet Fox, Jack Alexander |date=1990 |publisher=CompCare Publishers |isbn=978-0-89638-199-5 |language=en}} Jung told Rhode Island businessman and politician Rowland Hazard III, who had come under his care for the first time in 1926, that the only chance he might have to recover was through a "spiritual or religious experience" or "genuine conversion," which Hazard later had, through the Oxford Group and the Emmanuel Movement, and, according to some sources, never drank again.Dubiel, R. M. (2004) The Road to Fellowship: The Role of the Emmanuel Movement and the Jacoby Club in the Development of Alcoholics Anonymous. New York: iUniverse. {{ISBN|0-595-30740-X}}, 191 pp.Bluhm AC. Verification of C. G. Jung's analysis of Rowland Hazard and the history of Alcoholics Anonymous. Hist Psychol. 2006 Nov;9(4):313-24. doi: 10.1037/1093-4510.9.4.313. PMID 17333633.

Hazard, in turn, helped Ebby Thatcher, another alcoholic, get sober, with help from the Oxford Group. Thatcher brought Jung's ideas to a third alcoholic, Bill W., who consequently co-founded Alcoholics Anonymous with Dr. Bob. Years later, Bill W. corresponded with Jung, in 1961, thanking him for helping to inspire the organization. Of Hazard, the alcoholic who came under his care, Jung wrote: "His craving for alcohol was the equivalent, on a low level, of the spiritual thirst of our being for wholeness, expressed in medieval language: the union with God."

Jung concludes his letter to Bill W.:

"You see, "alcohol" in Latin is spiritus, and you use the same word for the highest religious experience as well as for the most depraving poison. The helpful formula therefore is: spiritus contra spiritum."{{Cite web |date=2015-11-14 |title=Speaking of Jung – The Bill W. – Carl Jung Letters |url=https://speakingofjung.com/blog/2015/11/13/the-bill-w-carl-jung-letters |access-date=2024-06-28 |website=Speaking of Jung |language=en-US}}

Jung saw the human psyche as "by nature religious" and made this idea a principal focus of his explorations. Jung is one of the best-known contemporary contributors to dream analysis and symbolization. His influence on popular psychology, the "psychologization of religion", spirituality, and the New Age movement has been immense. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Jung as the 23rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century. The list however focused on U.S. journals and was made by the psychology department of Arkansas State University.{{cite journal |last1=Haggbloom |first1=Steven J. |last2=Warnick |first2=Renee |last3=Warnick |first3=Jason E. |last4=Jones |first4=Vinessa K. |last5=Yarbrough |first5=Gary L. |last6=Russell |first6=Tenea M. |last7=Borecky |first7=Chris M. |last8=McGahhey |first8=Reagan |last9=Powell |first9=John L. III |last10=Beavers |first10=Jamie |last11=Monte |first11=Emmanuelle |title=The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. |journal=Review of General Psychology |year=2002 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=139–152 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139|url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent.aspx| display-authors= 8 |citeseerx=10.1.1.586.1913|s2cid=145668721 }}

Although psychoanalysis is still studied in the humanities, a 2008 study in The Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association found that psychology departments and textbooks treat it as "desiccated and dead".{{cite web | last=Cohen | first=Patricia | title=Freud Is Widely Taught at Universities, Except in the Psychology Department | website=The New York Times Web Archive | date=26 November 2007 | url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/teachers/featured_articles/20071126monday.html | access-date=17 May 2025}} Similarly, Alan Stone noted, "As academic psychology becomes more 'scientific' and psychiatry more biological, psychoanalysis is being brushed aside."{{cite web | title=Original Address "Where Will Psychoanalysis Survive?" | last=Alan A. Stone, M.D. | date=9 December 1995 | url=https://www.harvardmagazine.com/sites/default/files/html/1997/jf97/original.html | access-date=17 May 2025 | website=Harvard Magazine}}

In a 2024 book-length reappraisal of Jung’s theories entitled [https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781032624549/carl-jung-evolutionary-sciences-gary-clark?refId=3029bbda-1429-4657-b560-47b1291c1fa9&context=ubx Carl Jung and the Evolutionary Sciences: A New Vision for Analytical Psychology], it has been suggested that Jung was far ahead of his time in his evolutionary conception of the human mind. This thesis asserts that recent work in developmental biology, as well as experimental and psychedelic neuroscience, have provided empirical evidence that supports some of Jung’s central claims about the nature and evolution of consciousness. More specifically, trance states or altered states of consciousness (what Jung often referred to as the numinous) have become a central concern in contemporary neuroscientific investigation of the nature and origins of consciousness. In this sense, as an evolutionary theorist of the mind, Jung was far ahead of his own time. It was only during the first decades of the 21st Century, as scientists began investigating altered, trance, and psychedelic states, that Jung’s far-seeing and wide-ranging theories found increasing support from the empirically based mind sciences. In this sense, the authors suggest audiences can appreciate how revolutionary and prescient Jung’s evolutionary conception of human psychology really was.

• Laurens van der Post was an Afrikaner author who claimed to have had a 16-year friendship with Jung, from which a number of books and a film were created about Jung.{{cite web|url=http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/LvdP/|title=Laurens van der Post|access-date=2 December 2007}} The accuracy of van der Post's claims about his relationship to Jung has been questioned.{{cite book|last=Jones|first=J.D.F.|title=Storyteller: The Many Lives of Laurens van der Post|year=2001|publisher=Da Capo Press |isbn=978-0-7867-1031-7}}
• In his novel The World is Made of Glass (1983), Morris West gives a fictional account of one of Jung's cases, placing the events in 1913.{{Cite web|url=https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/a/morris-west-5/the-world-is-made-of-glass/|title=Book Reviews, Sites, Romance, Fantasy, Fiction|website=Kirkus Reviews}} According to the author's note, the novel is "based upon a case recorded, very briefly, by Carl Gustav Jung in his autobiographical work Memories, Dreams, Reflections".
• Pilgrim, a supernatural novel in which Jung is a character.
• Possessing the Secret of Joy, a novel in which Jung is a therapist character.
• The Interpretation of Murder, a novel focused on Sigmund Freud in which he solves a murder in New York City.

• Hermann Hesse, author of works such as Siddhartha and Steppenwolf, was treated by Joseph Lang, a student of Jung. For Hesse this began a long preoccupation with psychoanalysis, through which he came to know Jung personally.{{cite web |url=http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/hhesse.htm |title=Hermann Hesse |website=Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi) |first=Petri |last=Liukkonen |publisher=Kuusankoski Public Library |location=Finland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204213850/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/hhesse.htm |archive-date=4 December 2007 }}
• The Canadian novelist Robertson Davies made Jungian analysis a central part of his 1970 novel The Manticore. He stated in a letter, "There have been other books which describe Freudian analyses, but I know of no other that describes a Jungian analysis" adding "I was deeply afraid that I would put my foot in it, for I have never undergone one of those barnacle-scraping experiences, and knew of it only through reading. So, I was greatly pleased when some of my Jungian friends in Zurich liked it very much."For Your Eye Alone: The Letters of Robertson Davies edited by Judith Skelton Grant (New York: Viking, 2001) p. 72.
• The psychological novel E.E. written by Olga Tokarczuk draws from Jung's doctoral dissertation On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena.{{Cite journal |last=Kantner |first=Katarzyna |date=2015 |title=Podmiotowość "mediumiczna". "E.E." Olgi Tokarczuk jako powieść psychologiczna |journal=Ruch Literacki |publisher=PAN, Uniwersytet Jagielloński |volume=XVI |issue=1 |page=48 |issn=0035-9602}} Jung is not a character in this story, but Jung's views on the occult are extensively cited.

File:CarlJungStatueLiverpool.jpg, Liverpool, a half-body on a plinth captioned "Liverpool is the pool of life"]]

• The visionary Swiss painter Peter Birkhäuser was treated by a student of Jung, Marie-Louise von Franz, and corresponded with Jung about the translation of dream symbolism into works of art.{{cite book|last=Birkhäuser|first=Peter|author2=Marie-Louise von Franz, Eva Wertanschlag and Kaspar Birkhäuser|title=Light from the Darkness: The Paintings of Peter Birkhäuser|year=1980–1991|publisher=Birkhäuser Verlag|location=Boston, MA|isbn=978-3-7643-1190-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/literaturundpsyc0000reha}}
• American abstract expressionist Jackson Pollock underwent Jungian psychotherapy in 1939 with Joseph Henderson. Henderson engaged Pollock through his art, having him make drawings, which led to the appearance of many Jungian concepts in his paintings.[http://serdar-hizli-art.com/abstract_art/jackson_pollock_psychoanalytic_drawings.htm Abstract Expressionism, Jackson Pollock's "Psychoanalytic Drawings" Paintings"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615044835/http://serdar-hizli-art.com/abstract_art/jackson_pollock_psychoanalytic_drawings.htm |date=15 June 2010 }}. Retrieved 24 July 2010{{cite book|last=Stockstad|first=Marilyn|title= Art History|year= 2005|publisher=Pearson Education, Inc.|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-13-145527-6}}
• Contrary to some sources,{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2003/jun/05/artsfeatures.europeancapitalofculture2008|title=History broke Liverpool, and it broke my heart|work= The Guardian|access-date=24 February 2010| location=London| first=Linda| last=Grant| date=5 June 2003}} Jung did not visit Liverpool but recorded a dream in which he did, and of which he wrote, "Liverpool is the pool of life, it makes to live." A plaster statue of Jung was erected in Mathew Street in 1987 that was vandalised and replaced by a more durable version in 1993.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05hJrW5yuakC&pg=PA111|title=Public sculpture of Liverpool|publisher=Liverpool University Press|access-date=23 May 2012| first1=Terry| last1=Cavanagh| isbn=978-0-85323-711-2|year=1997}}

• Musician David Bowie described himself as Jungian in his relationship to dreams and the unconscious. Bowie sang of Jung on his album Aladdin Sane (a pun on "a lad insane") and attended the exhibition of The Red Book in New York with artist Tony Oursler, who described Bowie as "reading and speaking of the psychoanalyst with passion". Bowie's 1967 song "Shadow Man" encapsulates a key Jungian concept, while in 1987 Bowie described the Glass Spiders of Never Let Me Down as Jungian mother figures around which he not only anchored a worldwide tour but also created an enormous onstage effigy.{{cite web| url = https://tanjastark.com/2015/06/22/crashing-out-with-sylvian-david-bowie-carl-jung-and-the-unconscious/| title = Stark, Tanja, (2015) "Crashing Out with Sylvian: David Bowie, Carl Jung and the Unconscious" in Deveroux, E., M.Power and A. Dillane (eds.) David Bowie: Critical Perspectives: Routledge Press Contemporary Music Series. (chapter 5)| date = 22 June 2015}}
• British rock band the Police released an album titled Synchronicity in 1983.
• The American rock band Tool was influenced by Jungian concepts in its album Ænima, the title a play on the concepts of anima and animus. In the song "Forty Six & 2", the singer seeks to become a more evolved self by exploring and overcoming his Shadow.{{Cite web|url=http://toolshed.down.net/faq/faq.html|title=The Tool FAQ|website=toolshed.down.net|access-date=13 December 2019}}
• Argentinian musician Luis Alberto Spinetta was influenced by Jung's texts in his 1975 conceptual album Durazno sangrando, specifically the songs "Encadenado al ánima" and "En una lejana playa del ánimus", which deal with anima and animus.{{cite web| url = https://www.revistaarcadia.com/musica/articulo/luis-alberto-spinetta-luego-de-su-muerte/61636/| title = Gualdrón, Andrés, (January 23, 2017). "Spinetta y las criaturas imposibles"| publisher = Revista Arcadia| date = 8 February 2022| access-date = 8 November 2018| archive-date = 24 February 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180224120506/http://www.revistaarcadia.com/musica/articulo/luis-alberto-spinetta-luego-de-su-muerte/61636| url-status = dead}}
• Jung appeared on the front cover of The Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.{{Cite web | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0530n0b | title=BBC Music – Sgt. Pepper – Meet the Band: Carl Gustav Jung}}
• Jung is referenced in The Streets song the "Irony of it All" from the album Original Pirate Material.{{Citation |title=The Streets – The Irony of It All |url=https://genius.com/The-streets-the-irony-of-it-all-lyrics |access-date=2025-03-23}}{{Cite web |last=Dazed |date=2022-03-25 |title=The ‘raw, exposed’ power of The Streets’ Original Pirate Material |url=https://www.dazeddigital.com/music/article/55773/1/the-streets-original-pirate-material-album-20-years-on-mike-skinner |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=Dazed |language=en}}
• The South Korean band BTS's 2019 album Map of the Soul: Persona is based on Jung's Map of the Soul, which gives the basic principles of Jung's analytical psychology.{{cite news |last1=Bell |first1=Crystal |title=A Map of the Soul: Persona Syllabus To Help Wrap Your Brain Around BTS' New Album |url=http://www.mtv.com/news/3120049/bts-map-of-the-soul-persona-guide-theories/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411205901/http://www.mtv.com/news/3120049/bts-map-of-the-soul-persona-guide-theories/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 April 2019 |access-date=13 April 2019 |publisher=MTV |date=11 April 2019}} It includes an intro song titled "Persona" rapped by group leader RM, who asks, "who am I?", and is confronted with various versions of himself with the words "persona", "shadow", and "ego", referring to Jung's theories.{{cite web |last1=Kim |first1=Namjoon |title=BTS (방탄소년단) Map of the Soul: 'Persona' Comeback Trailer |date=27 March 2019 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M9Uy0opVF3s | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211028/M9Uy0opVF3s| archive-date=28 October 2021|via=YouTube |publisher=Big Hit Entertainment}}{{cbignore}} On 21 February 2020, the band released Map of the Soul: 7, which specifically focuses on Jung's "shadow" and "ego" theories. As part of the first phase of the band's comeback, "Interlude: Shadow", rapped by Suga and released on 10 January,{{Citation|title=BTS (방탄소년단) MAP OF THE SOUL: 7 'Interlude: Shadow' Comeback Trailer| date=9 January 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV1gCvzpSy0| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211028/PV1gCvzpSy0| archive-date=28 October 2021|language=en|access-date=11 January 2020}}{{cbignore}} addresses the shadows and the darkness that go hand-in-hand with the light and attention shone on celebrities.{{Cite web|url=https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2020/01/9172985/bts-suga-map-of-the-soul-7-shadow-comeback-trailer|title=Breaking Down BTS Rapper Suga's Message In Powerful Interlude: Shadow Album Trailer|website=Refinery29|access-date=11 January 2020}} The next comeback trailer, "Outro: Ego", performed by J-Hope,{{Citation|title=BTS (방탄소년단) MAP OF THE SOUL: 7 'Outro: Ego' Comeback Trailer| date=2 February 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LmApDbvNCXg| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211028/LmApDbvNCXg| archive-date=28 October 2021|language=en|access-date=2 February 2020}}{{cbignore}} ends with his declaration of self and ego as he appears within a colourful city "in which the artist's current image is projected".{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/bts/8549929/bts-j-hope-map-of-the-soul-7-comeback-trailer-outro-ego|title=BTS' J-Hope Fronts 'Map of the Soul: 7' Comeback Trailer 'Outro: Ego'|magazine=Billboard|access-date=2 February 2020}}
• In 2019, Italian rapper Marracash released the album Persona, which features many Jungian themes.
• Jung appeared on the cover art of the 2008 single "Metanoia" by American psychedelic rock band MGMT.

• 2002 saw the release of an Italian film about Jung and Spielrein The Soul Keeper (Prendimi l'Anima) directed by Roberto Faenza. It used English dialogue and English actors, but was never formally released in the United States. Emilia Fox played Sabina Spielrein and Iain Glen was Carl Gustav Jung.
• A Dangerous Method, a 2011 film directed by David Cronenberg, is a fictional dramatisation of the lives of Freud, Jung, and Sabina Spielrein between 1904 and 1913. Spielrein is the Russian woman who became Jung's lover and student and, later, an analyst herself.{{cite book | last=Cronenberg | first=David | title=A dangerous method | publisher=Sony Pictures Home Entertainment | location=Culver City, Calif | year=2012 | oclc=776921046 | language=fr }} Michael Fassbender plays Carl Jung. The film is based on the stage play The Talking Cure by Christopher Hampton which was in turn based on the 1993 non-fiction book by John Kerr, A Most Dangerous Method: The Story of Jung, Freud, and Sabina Spielrein.
• In the online animated series, Super Science Friends, Jung, voiced by Tom Park, is featured as one of the recurrent antagonists against Sigmund Freud.{{cite web |title=Super Science Friends – Full Cast & Crew |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5202616/fullcredits/ |website=IMDb}}
• Soul, a 2020 Pixar film written by Pete Docter, Mike Jones and Kemp Powers, includes brief appearances of Jung as an ethereal cartoon character, "Soul Carl Jung".{{cite web|title='Soul' review: Pixar's excellent jazz movie goes deeper than ever|date=8 December 2020|last=Oleksinski|first=Johnny|work=NYPost|url=https://nypost.com/2020/12/08/soul-review-pixars-jazz-movie-goes-deeper-than-ever/}}
• Jeff Lillico portrays Jung in episode 13 of season 15 "Murdoch on the Couch" (January 10, 2022) of the Canadian television period detective series Murdoch Mysteries.{{Cite web |title=Jeff Lillico |url=https://ggagency.ca/lillico/ |website=Gary Goddard Agency |date=2025 |access-date=April 5, 2025}}

• The BBC interviewed Jung for Face to Face with John Freeman at Jung's home in Zurich in 1959.
• Stephen Segaller produced a documentary on Jung as part of his "World of Dreams", Wisdom of the Dream in 1985. It was re-issued in 2018.Wisdom of the Dream (Carl Jung) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ci9nfJbvBjY It was followed by a book of the same title.{{cite book |author=Segaller, Stephen |author2=Berger, Merrill |title=Wisdom of the Dream |date=1990 |publisher=Shambhala Publications |isbn=978-0-87773-587-8}}
• Matter of Heart (1986) is a documentary about Jung featuring interviews with those who knew him and archival footage.{{cite web |title=Matter of Heart – Full Cast & Crew |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0084313/fullcredits/?ref_=tt_cl_sm/ |website=IMDb}}
• On 2 December 2004, BBC Radio 4's In Our Time broadcast a program on "the mind and theories" of Jung.{{Cite web|title=BBC Radio 4 – In Our Time, Jung|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y2bf|access-date=22 June 2021|website=BBC|language=en-GB}}

• Federico Fellini brought to the screen exuberant imagery shaped by his encounter with Jung's ideas, especially Jungian dream interpretation. Fellini preferred Jung to Freud because Jungian analysis defined the dream not as a symptom of a disease that required a cure but rather as a link to archetypal images shared by all of humanity.{{cite book|last=Bondanella|first=Peter E.|title=The Films of Federico Fellini|url=https://archive.org/details/filmsfedericofel00bond|url-access=limited|page=[https://archive.org/details/filmsfedericofel00bond/page/n109 94]|isbn=978-0-521-57573-7|date=17 January 2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
• Stanley Kubrick's 1987 film Full Metal Jacket has an underlying theme about the duality of man. In one scene, a colonel asks a soldier, "You write 'Born to Kill' on your helmet and you wear a peace button. What's that supposed to be, some kind of sick joke?" The soldier replies, "I think I was trying to suggest something about the duality of man, sir...the Jungian thing, sir."{{Cite web|url=http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0065.html|title=The Kubrick Site: The Full Metal Jacket Screenplay|website=www.visual-memory.co.uk}}
• In the 1994 Frasier episode, "Frasier Crane's Day Off", Niles fills in for his brother, declaring: "Although I feel perfectly qualified to fill Frasier's radio shoes, I should warn you that while Frasier is a Freudian, I am a Jungian. So there'll be no blaming Mother today."
• Robert Eggers's 2019 psychological thriller The Lighthouse has elements strongly influenced by Jung's work, with Eggers hoping that "it's a movie where both Jung and Freud would be furiously eating their popcorn".{{cite web|title='He Sort Of Wants A Daddy': Decoding The Homoeroticism In 'The Lighthouse'|date=20 October 2019|last=Jacobs|first=Matthew|work=HuffPost|url=https://m.huffingtonpost.ca/entry/the-lighthouse-homoeroticism-robert-pattinson-willem-dafoe_n_5da9c888e4b0e71d65b801ae}}

• The Persona series of games is heavily based on Jung's theories, representing the shadow, the persona, and archetype.{{cite book |title=Megami Ibunroku Persona Digital Collection: Persona World |publisher=ASCII Media Works|isbn=978-4-7572-0014-2|pages=6–11|date=1998|language=ja}} [http://www.dualshockers.com/2015/02/22/persona-1-roundtable-interview-translated-into-english-for-first-time-featuring-creator-scenario-writer-and-art-director/ Translated scans] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150606000640/http://www.dualshockers.com/2015/02/22/persona-1-roundtable-interview-translated-into-english-for-first-time-featuring-creator-scenario-writer-and-art-director/ |date=6 June 2015 }}
• The Nights into Dreams series of games is heavily based on Jung's theories.{{cite web|last1=Valentine|first1=Digi|title=A Yuji Naka Interview|url=http://www.nightsintodreams.com/?p=1343|website=Nights into Dreams|publisher=Sonic Retro|access-date=29 November 2015|date=13 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324211137/http://www.nightsintodreams.com/?p=1343|archive-date=24 March 2016}}
• Jungian concepts are present in the Xeno series, including Xenogears; its reimagination as the Xenosaga trilogy; and a graphic novel, Perfect Works, published by the game's creator.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}
• The game Control is heavily influenced by Carl Jung's ideas, particularly synchronicity and shadow selves.{{Cite web|date=29 September 2019|title=Other Dimensions in Control|url=https://philosophyandvideogamesblog.wordpress.com/2019/09/29/other-dimensions-in-control/|access-date=26 July 2021|website=Philosophy and Video Games|language=en}}{{better source needed|date=April 2024}}{{Cite web|date=26 August 2019|title=Control game review: Remedy's finest creation since Max Payne|url=https://www.videogameschronicle.com/review/control/|access-date=26 July 2021|website=VGC|language=en-GB}}
• Alan Wake takes inspiration from Carl Jung's ideas of archetype and individuation.{{Cite journal |last=Garcia |first=Andry |title=Archetype and Individuation Process in Alan Wake (2010) Video Game |url=https://www.academia.edu/105031081 |journal=Journal of Games, Game Art, and Gamification}}

{{main|Carl Jung publications}}

• 1910 Conflicts in the Child's Soul{{Efn|This work is also cited by Jung himself as "Psychic Conflicts in a Child". See, for example, Symbols of Transformation pg. 23 and 249.}}
• 1912 Psychology of the Unconscious
• 1916 Seven Sermons to the Dead (a part of the Red Book, published privately)
• 1921 Psychological Types
• 1933 Modern Man in Search of a Soul (essays)
• 1944 Psychology and Alchemy
• 1951 Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self
• 1952 Symbols of Transformation (revised edition of Psychology of the Unconscious)
• 1954 Answer to Job
• 1956 Mysterium Coniunctionis: An Inquiry into the Separation and Synthesis of Psychic Opposites in Alchemy
• 1959 Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies (Translated by R. F. C. Hull)
• 1960 Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle
• 1962 Memories, Dreams, Reflections (autobiography, co-written with Aniela Jaffé)
• 1964 Man and His Symbols (Jung contributed one part, his last writing before his death in 1961; the other four parts are by Marie-Louise von Franz, Joseph L. Henderson, Jaffé, and Jolande Jacobi)
• 2009 The Red Book: Liber Novus (manuscript produced {{Circa|1915–1932}})
• 2020 Black Books (private journals produced {{Circa|1913–1932}}, on which the Red Book is based)

{{main|The Collected Works of C. G. Jung}}

Editors: Herbert Read, Michael Fordham, Gerhard Adler. Executive ed.: W. McGuire. Trans.: R.F.C. Hull. London: Routledge Kegan Paul (1953–1980).

:1. Psychiatric Studies (1902–1906)

:2. Experimental Researches (1904–1910) (trans L. Stein and D. Riviere)

:3. Psychogenesis of Mental Disease (1907–1914; 1919–1958)

:4. Freud and Psychoanalysis (1906–1914; 1916–1930)

:5. Symbols of Transformation (1911–12; 1952)

:6. Psychological Types (1921)

:7. Two Essays on Analytical Psychology (1912–1928)

:8. Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche (1916–1952)

:9.1 Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious (1934–1955)

:9.2 Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self (1951)

:10. Civilization in Transition (1918–1959)

:11. Psychology and Religion: West and East (1932–1952)

:12. Psychology and Alchemy (1936–1944)

:13. Alchemical Studies (1919–1945):

:14. Mysterium Coniunctionis (1955–56):

:15. Spirit in Man, Art, and Literature (1929–1941)

:16. The Practice of Psychotherapy (1921–1925)

:17. The Development of Personality (1910; 1925–1943)

:18. The Symbolic Life: Miscellaneous Writings

:19. General Bibliography

:20. General Index

Supplementary volumes

:A. The Zofingia Lectures

:B. Psychology of the Unconscious (trans. Beatrice M. Hinckle)

Seminars

:Analytical Psychology (1925)

:Dream Analysis (1928–1930){{Cite book|title=Dream Analysis: Notes of the Seminar Given in 1928–1930|last=Jung|first=Carl Gustav|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1984|isbn=978-0-691-09896-8}}

:Visions (1930-34)

:The Kundalini Yoga (1932)

:Nietzsche's Zarathustra (1934–1939)

:Children's Dreams (1936–1940)

Houses and institutions

• C. G. Jung House Museum
• Bollingen Tower
• Psychology Club Zürich
• C. G. Jung Institute, Zürich
• Society of Analytical Psychology

Organizations

• International Association for Analytical Psychology
• International Association for Jungian Studies

{{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

{{Reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite book | editor1-last = Hoerni | editor1-first = Ulrich | editor2-last = Fischer | editor2-first = Thomas | editor3-last = Kaufmann | editor3-first = Bettina | title = The Art of C.G. Jung | year = 2019 | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | isbn = 978-0-393-25487-7 }}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin|30em}}

Introductory texts

• Carl Gustav Jung, Analytical Psychology: Its Theory and Practice (The Tavistock Lectures) (Ark Paperbacks), 1990, {{ISBN|978-0-7448-0056-2}}
• {{Cite book|author=Fordham, Frieda|year=1966|title=An Introduction to Jung's Psychology|place=Harmondsworth|publisher=Penguin Books Ltd.|isbn=978-0-14-020273-1|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoju00ford_1}}
• The Basic Writings of C. G. Jung, edited by V. S. de Laszlo (The Modern Library, 1959), {{ISBN|978-0-679-60071-8}}
• Edward F Edinger, Ego and Archetype, (Shambhala Publications), {{ISBN|978-0-87773-576-2}}
• Robert Hopcke, A Guided Tour of the Collected Works of C. G. Jung, {{ISBN|978-1-57062-405-6}}
• Edward C. Whitmont, The Symbolic Quest: Basic Concepts of Analytical Psychology, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1969, 1979, {{ISBN|978-0-691-02454-7}}
• {{Cite book |author=O'Connor, Peter A. |title=Understanding Jung, understanding yourself |publisher=Paulist Press |location=New York, NY |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8091-2799-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/understandingjun00ocon }}
• {{Cite book|last=Stein|first=Murray|title=Jung's map of the soul: An introduction|date=1998 |publisher=Open Court|isbn=0-8126-9376-0 |location=Chicago|oclc=38106161}}

Texts in various areas of Jungian thought

• Robert Aziz, C. G. Jung's Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity (1990), currently in its 10th printing, is a refereed publication of State University of New York Press. {{ISBN|978-0-7914-0166-8}}
• Robert Aziz, Synchronicity and the Transformation of the Ethical in Jungian Psychology in Carl B. Becker, ed., Asian and Jungian Views of Ethics. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999. {{ISBN|978-0-313-30452-1}}
• Robert Aziz, The Syndetic Paradigm: The Untrodden Path Beyond Freud and Jung (2007), a refereed publication of The State University of New York Press. {{ISBN|978-0-7914-6982-8}}
• Robert Aziz, Foreword in Lance Storm, ed., Synchronicity: Multiple Perspectives on Meaningful Coincidence. Pari, Italy: Pari Publishing, 2008. {{ISBN|978-88-95604-02-2}}
• Wallace Clift, Jung and Christianity: The Challenge of Reconciliation. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1982. {{ISBN|978-0-8245-0409-0}}
• Edward F. Edinger, The Mystery of The Coniunctio, {{ISBN|978-0-919123-67-0}}
• Wolfgang Giegerich, The Soul's Logical Life, {{ISBN|978-3-631-38225-7}}
• James A Hall M.D., Jungian Dream Interpretation, {{ISBN|978-0-919123-12-0}}
• James Hillman, "Healing Fiction", {{ISBN|978-0-88214-363-7}}
• Stanton Marlan, [https://www.routledge.com/Jungs-Alchemical-Philosophy-Psyche-and-the-Mercurial-Play-of-Image-and/Marlan/p/book/9781032105444 Jung's Alchemical Philosophy. Psyche and the Mercurial Play of Image and Idea], Routledge, 2022, ISBN 9781032105444
• Montiel, Luis, "El rizoma oculto de la psicología profunda. Gustav Meyrink y Carl Gustav Jung", Frenia, 2012, {{ISBN|978-84-695-3540-0}}
• Catherine M Nutting, Concrete Insight: Art, the Unconscious, and Transformative Spontaneity, UVic Thesis 2007 214
• Andrew Samuels, Critical Dictionary of Jungian Analysis, {{ISBN|978-0-415-05910-7}}
• Vladimir Simosko. Jung, Music, and Music Therapy: Prepared for the Occasion of the C.G. "Jung and the Humanities" Colloquium, 1987. Winnipeg, Man., The Author, 1987
• June Singer, Boundaries of the Soul, {{ISBN|978-0-385-47529-7}}. On psychotherapy
• Anthony Storr, Jung (1973) {{ISBN|978-0-00-633166-7}}
• — The Essential Jung (1983) {{ISBN|978-0-691-08615-6}}
• — The Essential Jung: Selected Writings (1999) {{ISBN|978-0-00-653065-7}}
• John R. White, (2023) Adaptation and Psychotherapy. Langs and Analytical Psychology. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. discusses Jung's two concepts of "adaptation" and relates these ideas to the work of psychoanalyst Robert Langs. {{ISBN|978-1-5381-1794-1}}
• Marion Woodman, The Pregnant Virgin: A Process of Psychological Transformation, {{ISBN|978-1-5381-1794-1}}

Academic texts

• Andrew Samuels, The Political Psyche (Routledge), {{ISBN|978-0-415-08102-3}}
• Lucy Huskinson, Nietzsche and Jung: The Whole Self in the Union of Opposites (Routledge), {{ISBN|978-1-58391-833-3}}
• Davydov, Andrey. From Carl Gustav Jung's Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious to Individual Archetypal Pattern. HPA Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-1-311-82008-2}}
• Remo, F. Roth: Return of the World Soul, Wolfgang Pauli, C.G. Jung and the Challenge of Psychophysical Reality [unus mundus], Part 1: The Battle of the Giants. Pari Publishing, 2011, {{ISBN|978-88-95604-12-1}}
• Remo, F. Roth: Return of the World Soul, Wolfgang Pauli, C.G. Jung and the Challenge of Psychophysical Reality [unus mundus], Part 2: A Psychophysical Theory. Pari Publishing, 2012, {{ISBN|978-88-95604-16-9}}

Journals

• [https://thejap.org/ The Journal of Analytical Psychology] ([https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14685922 JAP at John Wiley & Sons])
• [https://jungstudies.net/ijjs-journal/ International Journal for Jungian Studies] ([https://brill.com/view/journals/ijjs/ijjs-overview.xml?language=en IJJS at Brill])

Jung-Freud relationship

• Kerr, John. A Most Dangerous Method: The Story of Jung, Freud, and Sabina Spielrein. Knopf, 1993. {{ISBN|978-0-679-40412-5}}.
• {{cite book|editor=McGuire, William |title=The Freud/Jung Letters|year=1979|publisher=Picador|isbn=978-0-330-25891-3}}
• Balakirsky Katz, Maya. Freud, Jung and Jonah: Religion and the Birth of the Psychoanalytic Periodical. Cambridge University Press, 2023.

Others recollections of Jung

• van der Post, Laurens, Jung and the Story of Our Time, New York: Pantheon Books, 1975. {{ISBN|978-0-394-49207-0}}
• Hannah, Barbara, Jung, his life and work: a biographical memoir, New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1976. SBN: 399-50383-8
• David Bailey's biography of his Great Aunt, Ruth Bailey, 'The English Woman and C.G.Jung' drawing extensively on her diaries and correspondence, explores the deep and long-lasting friendship between Ruth, Jung, and Jung's wife and family.

Critical scholarship

• Maidenbaum, Aryeh (ed), Jung and the Shadow of Anti-Semitism, Berwick ME: Nicolas-Hays Inc, 2002.
• Dohe, Carrie B. Jung's Wandering Archetype: Race and Religion in Analytical Psychology. London: Routledge, 2016. {{ISBN|978-1-138-88840-1}}
• {{cite book |last=Grossman|first=Stanley|year=1979|chapter=C.G. Jung and National Socialism|title=Jung in Contexts: A Reader|publisher=Psychology Press |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQxozVpaXF8C&pg=PA92|isbn=978-0-415-20558-0}}
• {{cite book |last=Hanegraaff|first=Wouter J. |year=1997 |title=New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought |place=Leiden/New York/Koln |publisher=E.J. Brill |isbn=978-1-4384-0565-0}}
• {{cite book |first=Paul |last=Bishop |title=Carl Jung (Critical Lives) |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2014 }}
• Richard Noll, The Aryan Christ: The Secret Life of Carl Jung (Random House, 1997)
• {{cite book | last=Shamdasani | first=Sonu | author-link=Sonu Shamdasani | title=Cult Fictions: C.G. Jung and the Founding of Analytical Psychology | publisher=Routledge | publication-place=London/New York | year=1998 | isbn=978-0-415-18614-8 | oclc=560455823 }}
• {{cite book | last=Shamdasani | first=Sonu | title=Jung and the Making of Modern Psychology: The Dream of a Science | publisher=Cambridge University Press | publication-place=Cambridge, UK New York | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-521-53909-8 | oclc=57509166 }}
• {{cite book | last=Shamdasani | first=Sonu | title=Jung Stripped Bare: By His Biographers, Even | publisher=Karnac | publication-place=London New York | year=2005 | isbn=978-1-85575-317-4 | oclc=759160070 }}
• {{cite book | last=Sherry | first=Jay | title= Carl Gustav Jung, Avant-garde Conservative | publisher= Palgrave Macmillan | publication-place=London New York | year=2010 | isbn= 978-1-34928-753-6}}

{{refend}}

{{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=Carl Jung}}

{{sister project links|d=Q41532|s=Author:Carl Gustav Jung|c=Carl Gustav Jung|n=no|voy=no|wikt=Jungian|m=no|mw=no|species=no}}

• {{Internet Archive author |sname=Carl Gustav Jung |sopt=t}}
• {{Librivox author |id=3213}}
• {{Helveticat}}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20190707171458/https://www.junginstitut.ch/english/about/ C.G. Jung Institute, Zurich]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20191204164335/https://www.cgjunghaus.ch/en/ Museum House of C.G. Jung] Küsnacht, Zurich (Switzerland)
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20100429222044/http://carl-jung.net/ Carl Jung Resources]
• [http://www.cgjungpage.org/ The Jung Page]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20190922184715/https://philemonfoundation.org/ Philemon Foundation]
• [http://www.iging.com/intro/foreword.htm Carl Jung: Foreword to the I Ching]
• [http://www.all-about-psychology.com/association-method.html The Association Method] Full-text article from 1916. Originally Published in the Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology.
• [http://www.gnosis.org/library/7Sermons.htm The Seven Sermons to the Dead, 1916] Carl Gustav Jung
• [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044020083374;view=1up;seq=7 The Theory of Psychoanalysis] Full-text article from 1915. Originally published in The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20191005044937/http://www.philosopher.eu/others-writings/essay-on-wotan-w-nietzsche-c-g-jung/ Jung's "Essay on Wotan"]
• [https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/031.html Bollingen Foundation Collection] From the [https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/ Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress]
• [https://thejap.org/ The Journal of Analytical Psychology]
• [https://jungstudies.net/ijjs-journal/ International Journal for Jungian Studies]

{{Carl Jung|state=expanded}}

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