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Caucasian War

{{Short description|1817–1864 invasion of the Caucasus by the Russian Empire}}

{{About|the 19th-century Russian invasion|the World War I military campaign|Caucasus Campaign|the World War II military campaign|Battle of the Caucasus|the military conflicts in the 1990s|Wars in the Caucasus}}

{{More citations needed|date=March 2023}}

{{Infobox military conflict

| conflict = Caucasian War

| partof = the Russo-Caucasian conflict and Russian conquest of the Caucasus

| image = Roubaud. Scene from Caucasian war.jpg

| image_size = 300px

| caption = Franz Roubaud's A Scene from the Caucasian War

| date = 1817 – 21 May 1864

| place = North Caucasus

| territory = North Caucasus annexed by Russia

| result = Russian victory

| combatant1 = {{Collapsible list

|title = {{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Russian Empire

|1= Subjects of Russian Empire:

}}

| combatant2 = {{Collapsible list

|title = {{flagicon image|Circassian_flag.svg}} Circassian Confederation

|frame_style=border:none; padding: 0;

|title_style =

|list_style = text-align:left;display:none;

|1= Circassian tribal regions:

}}

{{collapsible list |title={{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Caucasian Imamate

|1=Tribes:

  • Avars
  • Chechens
  • Lezgins
  • Ingush{{efn|{{bulletedlist|{{harvnb|Бушуев|1941}}: "В организации борьбы за независимость ему приходилось по несколько раз принуждать одни и те же «вольные общества» Дагестана, а затем Чечни и Ингушетии, к борьбе против русского царизма."}}{{bulletedlist|{{harvnb|Тезисы докладов и сообщений|1989|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sZ81AAAAMAAJ&q=%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B5%D1%82+%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9 106]}}: "Известно, что оформление военно-теократического государства по праву называемого имаматом Шамиля, и его расцвет пришлись на 1840—1850-е гг. В этот период в состав имамата входили практически весь Нагорный Дагестан, вся Чечня (за исключением междуречья Терека и Сужни), большая часть Карабулака («вилайет Арштхой»), ряд обществ Ингушетии («вилайет Калай»), некоторые аулы цоринцев и галгаевцев."}}{{bulletedlist|{{harvnb|Шамиль: Иллюстрированная энциклопедия|1997|page=211}}: "Известно, что оформление военно-теократического государства по праву называемого имаматом Шамиля, и его расцвет пришлись на 1840—1850-е гг. В этот период в состав имамата входили практически весь Нагорный Дагестан, вся Чечня (за исключением междуречья Терека и Сужни), ряд обществ Ингушетии, некоторые аулы цоринцев и галгаевцев."}}{{bulletedlist|{{harvnb|Дадаев|2006|page=223}}: "Пятый многолюдный съезд был созван 26 сентября 1841 г. в столице Имамата Дарго, где обсуждался вопрос о мерах борьбы с русским царизмом. Это было время, когда началась блистатель­ная эпоха Шамиля, в состав Имамата вошли земли ликвидирован­ного Аварского ханства, множество союзов сельских общин гор­ного и предгорного Дагестана, почти вся Чечня, Ингушетия, от­дельные аулы Хевсуретии и Тушетии."}}}}
  • Dargins
  • Kumyks
  • Karachays
  • Balkars
  • Ossetians
  • Tabasarans
  • Laks

}}

{{Flagicon|Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria|1849}} Polish volunteers

| commander1 = {{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Tsar Alexander I
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Tsar Nicholas I
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Tsar Alexander II
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Michael Nikolaevich
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Grigory Zass{{WIA}}
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Ivan Paskevich
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Aleksey Yermolov
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Mikhail Vorontsov
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Dmitry Milyutin
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Aleksandr Baryatinsky
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Ivan Andronnikov
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Grigory Rosen
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Yevgeny Golovin
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Nikolay Muravyov-Karsky
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} Nikolay Yevdokimov
{{Flagicon|Russian Empire}} {{ill|Robert Segercrantz|ru|Сегеркранц, Роберт Фёдорович}}

| commander2 = {{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Ghazi Mullah{{KIA}}
{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Hamzat Bek
{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Shamil of Gimry{{surrendered}}
{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Tashaw-Hadji
{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Shuaib-Mulla of Tsentara
{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Hadji Murad
{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Isa of Ghendargen
{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Baysangur of Beno
{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Talkhig Shelar
{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Eska of Noiber
{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Umalat-bek of Boynak
{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Irazi-bek of Kazanysh
{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Idris of Endirey
Beibulat Taimiev
{{flagicon image|Flag of Adygea.svg}} Kizbech Tughuzoqo
{{flagicon image|Flag of Adygea.svg}} Qerandiqo Berzeg
{{flagicon image|Flag of Adygea.svg}} Seferbiy Zanuqo
{{flagicon image|Flag of Adygea.svg}}{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Muhammad Amin Asiyalo
{{flagicon image|Flag of Adygea.svg}} Jembulat Boletoqo
{{flagicon image|Flag of Adygea.svg}} Keysin Keytiqo
{{Flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} James Stanislaus Bell
{{Flagicon|Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria|1849}} Teofil Lapinski

| strength1 = 200,000{{sfn|Clodfelter|2017|p=231}}

| strength2 = {{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Caucasian Imamate:
20,000–25,000À la conquête du Caucase: epopée géopolitique et guerres d'influence{{sfn|Krugov|Nechitailov|2016|p=105}}
{{flagicon image|Flag of Adygea.svg}} Circassia:
35,000–40,000

| casualties1 = {{tree list}}

  • 96,275 combat losses{{sfn|Gisetti|1901|p=129}}
  • 24,946 killed
  • 65,322 wounded
  • 6,007 captured

{{tree list/end}}

77,000 to 131,000 total death
(incl. non-combat case and civilians){{sfn|Krivosheev|2001|p=568}}{{sfn|Vedeneev|2000|p=123}}{{sfn|Uralanis|1960|p=362}}

| casualties2 = {{tree list}}

{{flagicon image|Flag of Adygea.svg}} Civilian dead: 700,000{{cite web|title = Victimario Histórico Militar|url = http://remilitari.com/guias/victimario5.htm}}Richmond, Walter. The Circassian Genocide. {{ISBN|9780813560694}}.
{{flagicon image|Flag of Adygea.svg}} Total dead: High
{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} Total dead: High

{{tree list/end}}

| notes =

| casus = Caucasus War

| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Caucasian War}}

{{Campaignbox Chechen–Russian conflict}}

}}

The Caucasian War ({{langx|ru|Кавказская война|translit=Kavkazskaya voyna}}) or the Caucasus War was a 19th-century military conflict between the Russian Empire and various peoples of the North Caucasus who resisted subjugation during the Russian conquest of the Caucasus. It consisted of a series of military actions waged by the Russian Imperial Army and Cossack settlers against the native inhabitants such as the Adyghe, Abazins, Ubykhs, Chechens, and Dagestanis as the Tsars sought to expand.{{cite book |last=King |first=Charles |date=2008 |title=The Ghost of Freedom: A History of the Caucasus |url=https://archive.org/details/ghostoffreedomhi0000king |url-access=registration |location=New York City, NY |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517775-6 }}

Russian control of the Georgian Military Road in the center divided the Caucasian War into the Russo-Circassian War in the west and the conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan in the east. Other territories of the Caucasus (comprising contemporary eastern Georgia, southern Dagestan, Armenia and Azerbaijan) were incorporated into the Russian Empire at various times in the 19th century as a result of Russian wars with Persia.{{cite book |editor-last=Dowling |editor-first=Timothy C. |date=2014 |title=Russia at War |location=Santa Barbara, California |publisher=ABC-CLIO | pages= 728–730 |quote=In 1801, Russia annexed the Georgian Kingdom of Kartli–Kakheti. }} The remaining part, western Georgia, was taken by the Russians from the Ottomans during the same period.

History

{{main|Russian conquest of the Caucasus}}The war took place during the administrations of three successive Russian Tsars: Alexander I (reigned 1801–1825), Nicholas I (1825–1855), and Alexander II (1855–1881). The leading Russian commanders included Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov in 1816–1827, Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov in 1844–1853, and Aleksandr Baryatinskiy in 1853–1856. The famous Russian writer Leo Tolstoy, who gained much of his knowledge and experience of war for his book War and Peace from these encounters, took part in the hostilities. The Russian poet Alexander Pushkin referred to the war in his Byronic poem The Prisoner of the Caucasus ({{Langx|ru|Кавказский пленник|translit=Kavkazskiy plennik|label=none}}), written in 1821. Mikhail Lermontov, often referred to as "the poet of the Caucasus", participated in the battle near the river Valerik which inspired him to write the poem of the same name. In general, the Russian armies that served in the Caucasian wars were very eclectic. They included ethnic Russians from various parts of the empire, as well as Cossacks, Armenians, Georgians, Caucasus Greeks, Ossetians, and even soldiers of Muslim background like Tatars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Uyghurs, Turkmen.{{Source needed|date=March 2025}} Some Caucasian Muslim tribes{{Which?|date=March 2025}} also sided with the Russians against fellow Muslims of the Caucasus. Muslim soldiers of the Imperial Russian Army had played a role in religious discussion and wooing allies for Russia against their Muslim counterparts in the Caucasus.{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}}

The Russian invasion encountered fierce resistance. The first period of the invasion ended coincidentally with the death of Alexander I and the Decembrist Revolt in 1825. It achieved surprisingly little success, especially compared with the then recent Russian victory over the "Grande Armée" of Napoleon in 1812.

Between 1825 and 1833, little military activity took place in the Caucasus against the native North Caucasians as wars with Turkey (1828/1829) and with Persia (1826–1828) demanded the Empire's attention. After considerable successes in both wars, Russia resumed fighting in the Caucasus against the various rebelling native ethnic groups in the North Caucasus. This marked the beginning of what is now referred to as the Circassian genocide.

Russian units again met resistance, notably led by Ghazi Mollah, Hamzat Bek, and Hadji Murad. Imam Shamil followed them. He led the mountaineers from 1834 until his capture by Dmitry Milyutin in 1859. In 1843, Shamil launched a sweeping offensive aimed at the Russian outposts in Avaria. On 28 August 1843, 10,000 men converged from three different directions, on a Russian column in Untsukul, killing 486 men. In the next four weeks, Shamil captured every Russian outpost in Avaria except one, exacting over 2,000 casualties on the Russian defenders. He feigned an invasion north to capture a key chokepoint at the convergence of the Avar and Kazi-Kumukh rivers.

Robert F Baumann and Combat Studies Institute (U.S.), Russian-Soviet Unconventional Wars in the Caucasus, Central Asia, and Afghanistan (Fort Leavenworth, Kan: Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, n.d.)

In 1845, Shamil's forces achieved their most dramatic success when they withstood a major Russian offensive led by Prince Vorontsov.

During the Crimean War of 1853–1856, the Russians brokered a truce with Shamil, but hostilities resumed in 1855. Warfare in the Caucasus finally ended between 1856 and 1859, when a 250,000 strong army under General Baryatinsky broke the mountaineers' resistance.

The war in the Eastern part of the North Caucasus ended in 1859; the Russians captured Shamil, forced him to surrender, to swear allegiance to the Tsar, and then exiled him to Central Russia. However, the war in the Western part of the North Caucasus resumed with the Circassians (i.e. Adyghe, but the term is often used to include their Abaza kin as well) resuming the fight. A manifesto of Tsar Alexander II declared hostilities at an end on June 2 (May 21 OS), 1864. Among post-war events, a tragic page in the history of the indigenous peoples of the North Caucasus (especially the Circassians), was Muhajirism, or population transfer of the Muslim population to the Ottoman Empire.

[http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/papers/11noxchi.pdf Yale University paper] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229135530/http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/papers/11noxchi.pdf |date=December 29, 2009 }}

Aftermath

{{Main article|Circassian genocide}}

{{expand section|Aftermath|date=January 2011}}

Many Circassians were forced to emigrate and leave their home to the Ottoman Empire, and to a lesser degree Persia.

According to one source, the population in Greater and Lesser Kabarda decreased from 350,000, before the war, to 50,000 by 1818.Jaimoukha, A., The Circassians: A Handbook, London: RoutledgeCurzon; New York; Routledge and Palgrave, 2001., page 63 According to another version, in 1790 the population was 200,000 people and in 1830 30,000 people.Richmond, Walter. The Circassian Genocide, Rutgers University Press, 2013., page 56 As a percentage of the total population of the North Caucasus, the number of the remaining Circassians was 40% (1795), 30% (1835) and 25% (1858). Similarly: Chechens 9%, 10% and 8.5%; Avars 11%, 7% and 2%; Dargins 9.5%, 7.3% and 5.8%; Lezghins 4.4%, 3.6% and 3.9%.Кабузан В.М. Население Северного Кавказа в XIX - XX веках. - СПб., 1996. С.145.

Gallery

File:Karte des Kaukasischen Isthmus - Entworfen und gezeichnet von J-Grassl - 1856.jpg|Map of the Caucasus isthmus. Created and drawn by J. Grassl, 1856.

File:Georgianroad.jpg|Construction of the Georgian Military Road through disputed territories was a key factor in the eventual Russian success

File:Sturm aul Gimry 1891.jpg|Assault of Gimry, by Franz Alekseyevich Roubaud

File:Штурм аула Салта.jpg|Caucasian tribesmen fight against the Cossacks, 1847

File:Storm of the fortress of Akhty 1848.jpg|Storm of the fortress of Akhty in 1848

File:Theodor Horschelt Tscherkessen.jpg|Circassians by Theodor Horschelt

File:Battle in the mountains (1890).jpg|Battle in the mountains, by Franz Roubaud, 1890.

File:Pyotr Nikolayevich Gruzinsky - The mountaineers leave the aul.jpg|Mountaineers leave the aul, by Pyotr Gruzinsky

File:Russian medal for subjugation of Western Caucasus 1859-1864.PNG|Russian medal for subjugation of Western Caucasus 1859–1864

File:Мюрид с наибским знаменем.jpg|Murid with the naib banner, by Theodor Horschelt 1858–1861.

File:Feldwebel Vasily Ivanov.jpg|Officer of the Separate Caucasian сorps by A. L. Zisserman

File:Артиллерист фейервейкер Отдельного кавказского корпуса.jpg|Artillery fireworker of the Separate Caucasian сorps

File:Oskar Schmerling. Caucasian Soldier Riding at a Gallop.jpg|Caucasian horseman warrior, by Oskar Schmerling 1893.

File:Бой с Чеченцами под Акбулат-Юртом.jpg|Fight with the сhechens under Akbulat-Urt, by D. Koenig (1849)

File:Наибы Шамиля.jpg|Naibs of Imam Shamil, by Giorgio Corradini 19th century.

File:Черкес стреляет из винтовки с коня на скаку.jpg|Circassian warrior, by Alfred Kowalski, 1895.

File:Caucasian rider in fight with russian soldier (1892).jpg|Caucasian rider in fight with Russian soldier, by Roubaud. F. (1892)

File:Виллевальде, Богдан Павлович. Охотники Ширванского полка на Гунибе.jpg|Soldiers of the Shirvan regiment on Gunib, by Bogdan Willewalde (1870).

File:Pyotr Nikolayevich Gruzinsky. Assault of Gunib.jpg|Assault of Gunib, by Pyotr Gruzinsky 1862.

File:Теодор Горшельт. Штурм укреплений Гуниба. 1867.jpg|Battle of Ghunib, painting by Theodor Horschelt 1867.

File:Horschelt. Surrender of Shamil. 1863.jpg|Capture of Shamil, painting by Theodor Horschelt 1859.

File:The illustrated London News December 24 1859. Schamyl (front page).png|Shamil (front page). Illustrated London News of December 24, 1859.

File:British News on the Russo circassian war.pdf|Article of Illustrated London News about Russo-Circassian War.

See also

Notes

{{notelist}}

References

{{Reflist|30em}}

Bibliography

{{refbegin}}

  • {{cite book |last1=Krugov |first1=Alexei |last2=Nechitailov |first2=Maxim |lang=ru |date=2016 |script-title=ru:Вооруженные силы иммамата горцев Северного Кавказа (1829-1859 гг.) |trans-title=Armed forces of the Immamat of the Highlanders of the North Caucasus, 1829-1859 |place=Moscow |publisher=Русские витязи |series=Ратное дело |isbn=978-5-9906037-3-8 }}
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  • {{Cite book|author=Дагестанский филиал АН СССР|year=1989|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZ81AAAAMAAJ|title=Народно-освободительное движение горцев Дагестана и Чечни в 20-50-х годах XIX в: Всесоюзная научная конференция, 20-22 июня 1989 г.: тезисы докладов и сообщений|trans-title=The people's liberation movement of the highlanders of Dagestan and Chechnya in the 1820s–1850s: All-Union Scientific Conference, June 20–22, 1989: abstracts of reports and messages|location=Makhachkala|publisher=Дагестанский филиал АН СССР|pages=1–190|ref={{harvid|Тезисы докладов и сообщений|1989}}}}
  • {{Cite book|editor-last=Казиев|editor-first=Ш. М.|year=1997|url=http://apsnyteka.org/3875-Shamil_Ill_enciklopediya_1997.html|title=Шамиль: Иллюстрированная энциклопедия|trans-title=Shamil: Illustrated Encyclopedia|language=ru|location=Москва|publisher=Эхо Кавказа|pages=1–220|isbn=5-900054-01-2|ref={{harvid|Шамиль: Иллюстрированная энциклопедия|1997}}}}
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  • {{cite book |last=Krivosheev |first=Grigori |author-link=Grigori F. Krivosheev |lang=ru |script-title=ru:Россия и СССР в войнах 20 столетия |trans-title=Russia and USSR in war of 20 century |date=2001 |publisher=Олма-Пресс |place=Moscow |chapter=Вооруженные конфликты на Северном Кавказе |trans-chapter=Armed conflicts in the North Caucasus |url=https://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939-1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt#w11.htm }}
  • {{Cite book |last=Clodfelter |first=M. |title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 |publisher=McFarland |year=2017 |isbn=978-0786474707 |edition=4th |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |url=https://archive.org/details/warfarearmedconf0000clod/page/230/mode/2up?q=Caucasian }}

{{refend}}

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Category:History of the North Caucasus

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