Demographics of Istanbul

{{Main|Religion in Istanbul}}

File:Greeks in Istanbul 1844 1997.png, the 1942 wealth tax, and the Istanbul pogrom in 1955 contributed to the sharp decrease of the Greek community.]]

Istanbul has been a cosmopolitan city throughout much of its history, but it has become more homogenized since the end of the Ottoman Empire. The vast majority of people across Turkey, and in Istanbul, are Muslim, and more specifically members of the Sunni branch of Islam. Most Sunni Turks follow the Hanafi school of Islamic thought, while Sunni Kurds tend to follow the Shafi'i school. The largest non-Sunni Muslim group, accounting 10-20% of Turkey's population,{{Cite book|title=Turkey's Kurdish Question|last=Barkey|first=Henri J.|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2000|isbn=9780585177731|pages=67}} are the Alevis; a third of all Alevis in the country live in Istanbul. Mystic movements, like Sufism, were officially banned after the establishment of the Turkish Republic, but they still boast numerous followers.{{cite web|author=U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2007/90204.htm|publisher=U.S. Department of State|title=Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report 2007|access-date=27 March 2012}} Istanbul is a migrant city. Since the 1950s, Istanbul's population has increased from 1 million to about 10 million residents. Almost 200,000 new immigrants, many of them from Turkey's own villages, continue to arrive each year. As a result, the city is constantly changing and being reshaped to meet the needs of these new arrivals.{{Cite journal|last=Moceri|first=Toni|date=November 2008|title=Sarigazi, Istanbul: Monuments of the Everyday|journal=Space and Culture|volume=11|issue=4|pages=455–458|doi=10.1177/1206331208314785|s2cid=143818762 |issn=1206-3312}}

The Patriarch of Constantinople has been designated Ecumenical Patriarch since the sixth century, and has come to be regarded as the leader of the world's {{nowrap|300 million}} Orthodox Christians.{{cite web|url=http://www.patriarchate.org/patriarchate/history|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608070522/http://www.patriarchate.org/patriarchate/history|archive-date=8 June 2012 |publisher=The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|title=History of the Ecumenical Patriarch|access-date=20 June 2012}} Since 1601, the Patriarchate has been based in Istanbul's Church of St. George.{{cite web|url=http://www.patriarchate.org/patriarchate/stgeorge|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531040910/http://www.patriarchate.org/patriarchate/stgeorge|archive-date=31 May 2012 |publisher=The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|title=The Patriarchal Church of Saint George|access-date=20 June 2012}} Into the 19th century, the Christians of Istanbul tended to be either Greek Orthodox, members of the Armenian Apostolic Church or Catholic Levantines.{{cite book|last=Çelik|first=Zeynep|title=The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century|year=1993|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|isbn=978-0-520-08239-7|page=38}} Today, most of Turkey's remaining Greek, Armenian and Assyrian minorities live in or near Istanbul.{{cite book |title=The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |year=2005 |isbn=0203004930 |editor-last=Herzig |editor-first=Edmund |location=Abingdon, Oxon, Oxford |pages=133 |editor2=Kurkchiyan, Marina}}

Eldem Edhem, in his entry on "Istanbul" in the Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, wrote that about 50% of the residents of the city were Muslim at the turn of the 20th century.Edhem, Eldem. "Istanbul." In: Ágoston, Gábor and Bruce Alan Masters. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase Publishing, 21 May 2010. {{ISBN|1438110251}}, 9781438110257. Start: p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA286 286] and CITED: [https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA290 290]: "At the turn of the 20th century[...]only half of whom were Muslims."

File:Ethno religious groups Istanbul.png

File:St. Anthony of Padua Church in Istanbul 06.JPG on İstiklal Avenue in Beyoğlu (Pera) is the largest Catholic church in Turkey.]]

File:İstanbul - Kamondo Merdivenleri - Mart 2013.JPG Steps at Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in Galata, constructed by Ottoman-Venetian Jewish banker Abraham Salomon Camondo, {{circa|1870}}–1880]]

{{further|Syrians in Turkey}}

The Arabic newspaper Al Jawaib began in Ottoman Constantinople, established by Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq a.k.a. Ahmed Faris Efendi (1804–1887), after 1860. It published Ottoman laws in Arabic, including the Ottoman Constitution of 1876.Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 25 (PDF p. 27)

Besides the large communities of both foreign and Turkish Arabs in Istanbul and other large cities, most live in the south and southeast.[http://www.haber7.com/haber/20080212/Istanbul8217da-yasayanlar-aslen-nereli.php Die Bevölkerungsgruppen in Istanbul (türkisch)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203022931/http://www.haber7.com/haber/20080212/Istanbul8217da-yasayanlar-aslen-nereli.php |date=February 3, 2012 }} Most Turkish Arabs in Istanbul are Sunni Muslim, while the remaining consists mainly Arab Christians (Antiochian Greek Christians) and Alawites.{{Cite web|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11738545.pdf|title=Fragmented in space: the oral history narrative: of an Arab Christian from Antioch, Turkey}}

Istanbul, the most populous city in Turkey, hosts the highest number of Syrian refugees, with approximately 550,000 registered people.{{Cite web |last=Aydınlık |date=2022-07-27 |title=İstanbul'daki sığınmacı sayısı açıklandı! |url=https://www.aydinlik.com.tr/haber/istanbuldaki-siginmaci-sayisi-aciklandi-istanbulda-kac-multeci-var-328996 |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=www.aydinlik.com.tr |language=tr-TR}}

{{main|Armenians in Istanbul}}

{{see also|Organization of Istanbul Armenians|Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople}}

{{Asof|2015}} there are between 50,000 and {{nowrap|70,000}} Armenians in Istanbul (0.3-0.5%), down from about 164,000 according to the Ottoman Census of 1913 (14.5%).[http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?load=detay&link=161291 Foreign Ministry: 89,000 minorities live in Turkey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520084230/http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?load=detay&link=161291 |date=2011-05-20 }} Today's Zaman In late 1918, Celal Nuri İleri reported that there were around 200,000 Armenians in Istanbul (~17%).{{cite book |title=The Armenians and the Fall of the Ottoman Empire: After Genocide, 1918–1923 |page=52 |first=Ari |last=Şekeryan |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2023 |isbn=9781108921817 |doi=10.1017/9781108921817}}

{{see also|Thracian Bulgarians}}

Bulgarian newspapers in the late Ottoman period published in Constantinople were Makedoniya, Napredŭk or Napredǎk ("Progress"), Pravo,Strauss, Johann. "Twenty Years in the Ottoman capital: the memoirs of Dr. Hristo Tanev Stambolski of Kazanlik (1843-1932) from an Ottoman point of view." In: Herzog, Christoph and Richard Wittmann (editors). Istanbul - Kushta - Constantinople: Narratives of Identity in the Ottoman Capital, 1830-1930. Routledge, 10 October 2018. {{ISBN|1351805223}}, 9781351805223. p. 267. and Turtsiya; Johann Strauss, author of "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," described the last one as "probably a Bulgarian version of [the French-language paper] La Turquie."Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 36. By the end of the 19th century, the Bulgarian population of Istanbul numbered between 40,000 and 50,000 people.{{cite web |url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/the-tsarigrad-bulgarians-meet-the-0003-percent-of-istanbul-12771512 |title=The Tsarigrad Bulgarians: Meet the 0.003 percent of Istanbul |year=2021 |first=Halime |last=Pehlivan |website=TRT World}}

File:Fener_Rum_Lisesi.jpg is a Greek minority school was founded in Ottoman Empire in 1454.]]

{{see also|Greek Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Istanbul|Greeks in Turkey}}

Constantinople had a majority Greek population from the 8th century BCE until the Ottoman conquest in 1453.

After 1453, there remained a group of prominent ethnic Greeks and/or people adopting Greek culture, the Phanariotes, based in the neighbourhood of Phanar, now Fener, in Fatih. About eleven families were a part of the Phanariotes.{{cite book|author=Kaloudis, George|title=Modern Greece and the Diaspora Greeks in the United States|publisher=Lexington Books|date=2018-02-20|isbn=9781498562287|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LdtJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 7]}} - Old {{ISBN|1498562280}}

The city remained a centre of Greek cultural and political life, and Greeks were a visible presence in the city. According to the Ottoman census of 1893, Greeks made up almost 30% of the city's population, while accounting for 43% of the population in the suburbs.{{Cite journal |last=Karpat |first=Kemal H. |author-link=Kemal Karpat |date=1978 |title=Ottoman Population Records and the Census of 1881/82-1893 |url=https://md.teyit.org/file/karpat-ottoman-population-records-and-the-census-of-1881.pdf |journal=Int. J. Middle East Stud. |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=237–274 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800000088 |s2cid=162337621 }} As the city was also home to significant Armenian, Catholic and Jewish minorities, there were more non-Muslims than Muslims in Istanbul, with Muslims making up 44% of the city's population in 1893. The Greek community also dominated the city's economy, owning 50% of the city's total production and distribution capital in 1915.{{Cite book |last=Celine |first=Pierre-Magnani |date=September 2009 |title=Small Geography of the Istanbul Greeks |url=https://www.academia.edu/12597849 |page=29 }} In 1919, of the city's 1,173,670 inhabitants, 364,459 were Greek (31%) and 449,114 were Turk (38%).{{Cite book |last=Venizelos |first=Eleftherios |author-link=Eleftherios Venizelos |date=1919 |title=Greece before the Peace congress of 1919: a memorandum dealing with the rights of Greece |url=https://cudl.colorado.edu/MediaManager/srvr?mediafile=MISC/UCBOULDERCB1-58-NA/1511/i73726886.pdf |publisher=Oxford University Press American Branch |location=New York |page=19}}{{Cite book |last=McCarthy |first=Justin |author-link=Justin McCarthy (American historian) |date=2002 |publisher=Isis Press |title=Population History of the Middle East and the Balkans |pages=128–135 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCIEAQAAIAAJ |isbn=9789754282276}} Because of considerable presence of other non-Muslim ethnic groups like Armenians (17%), Bulgarians (3%) and the Jews (4%) at the time, Muslims were a minority in the city.{{Cite book |last=McCarthy |first=Justin |author-link=Justin McCarthy (American historian) |date=2002 |publisher=Isis Press |title=Population History of the Middle East and the Balkans |page=259 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCIEAQAAIAAJ |isbn=9789754282276}}

Because of events during the 20th century—including the Greek genocide, the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, a 1942 wealth tax, and the 1955 Istanbul riots—the Greek population, originally centered in Fener and Samatya, has decreased substantially.

At the start of the 21st century, Istanbul's Greek population numbered 3,000 (down from 260,000 out of 850,000 according to the Ottoman Census of 1910, and a peak of 350,000 in 1919).{{harvnb|Athanasopulos|2001|p=82}}{{cite web|url=http://www1.mfa.gr/en/issues-of-greek-turkish-relations/relevant-documents/the-greek-minority-and-its-foundations-in-istanbul-gokceada-imvros-and-bozcaada-tenedos.html |publisher=Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=The Greek Minority and its foundations in Istanbul, Gokceada (Imvros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos) |date=21 March 2011 |access-date=21 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120726194222/http://www.mfa.gr/en/issues-of-greek-turkish-relations/relevant-documents/the-greek-minority-and-its-foundations-in-istanbul-gokceada-imvros-and-bozcaada-tenedos.html |archive-date=26 July 2012 }}

Even with these reduced numbers, there remains a Greek-language newspaper, Apoyevmatini, in active circulation.Thumann, M: Die Zeit, 22 Nov 2007, pp. 46–47, "Ein Volk, ein Staat, ein Krieg"

File:Şınayder_Sinagogu_(16231012698).jpg]]

{{see also|History of the Jews in Istanbul|Jews in Turkey}}

The neighbourhood of Balat used to be home to a sizable Sephardi Jewish community, first formed after their expulsion from Spain in 1492.{{harvnb|Rôzen|2002|pp=55–58, 49}} At the start of the World War I, there were 52,153 Jews (4%) in the city, which fell to 47,035 (7%) by 1927. Romaniotes and Ashkenazi Jews resided in Istanbul even before the Sephardim, but their proportion has since dwindled; today, {{nowrap|1 percent}} of Istanbul's Jews are Ashkenazi.{{harvnb|Rôzen|2002|pp=49–50}}{{harvnb|Brink-Danan|2011|p=176}} In large part due to emigration to Israel, the Jewish population nationwide dropped from 100,000 in 1950 to 18,000 in 2005, with the majority living in either Istanbul or İzmir.{{harvnb|ʻAner|2005|p=367}} As of 2022, the Jewish population in Turkey is around 14,500.{{cite web|first =Toi|last =Staff|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/this-rosh-hashanah-there-are-14-7-million-jews-in-the-world/|title=Ahead of Rosh Hashanah, figures show 14.7 million Jews around the globe|date =8 September 2018|publisher=Times of Israel}}

{{see also|Kurds in Istanbul|Kurds in Turkey}}

The largest ethnic minority in Istanbul is the Kurdish community, originating from eastern and southeastern Turkey. Although the Kurdish presence in the city dates back to the early Ottoman period,{{harvnb|Masters|Ágoston|2009|pp=520–21}} the influx of Kurds into the city has accelerated since the beginning of the Kurdish–Turkish conflict with the PKK (i.e. since the late 1970s).{{harvnb|Wedel|2000|p=182}} About two to four million residents of Istanbul are Kurdish, meaning there are more Kurds in Istanbul than in any other city in the world.{{cite book|author1=Bahar Baser|author2=Mari Toivanen|author3=Begum Zorlu|author4=Yasin Duman|title=Methodological Approaches in Kurdish Studies: Theoretical and Practical Insights from the Field|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=spJ5DwAAQBAJ|date=6 November 2018|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-1-4985-7522-5|page=87}}{{cite book|author=Amikam Nachmani|title=Turkey: Facing a New Millenniium : Coping With Intertwined Conflicts|url={{Google books|Xxp61eBvGzMC|page=PA90|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=5 May 2013|year=2003|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-6370-1|pages=90–}}{{cite web |url=http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2006_09_KONDA_Toplumsal_Yapi.pdf |title=Biz Kimiz: Toplumsal Yapı Araştırması |last1=Milliyet Konda Araştırma|year=2006 |access-date=4 May 2013}}{{cite web |url=http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2008_11_KONDA_Kurtler_ve_Kurt_Sorunu.pdf |title=Kürtler ve Kürt Sorunu |last1=Agirdir |first1=Bekir |year=2008 |publisher=KONDA |access-date=4 May 2013}}{{cite news |title=Kürtlerin nüfusu 11 milyonda İstanbul"da 2 milyon Kürt yaşıyor |author=Bekir Agirdir |url=http://www.radikal.com.tr/radikal.aspx?atype=radikaldetayv3&articleid=913650 |access-date=4 May 2013}}{{cite book|author=Christiane Bird|title=A Thousand Sighs, A Thousand Revolts: Journeys in Kurdistan|url={{Google books|DYwFG3e9KIcC|page=PA308|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=4 May 2013|date=18 December 2007|publisher=Random House Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-43050-2|pages=308–}}

The Levantines, Latin Christians who settled in Galata during the Ottoman period, played a seminal role in shaping the culture and architecture of then-Constantinople during the 19th and early 20th centuries; their population in Istanbul has dwindled, but they remain in the city in small numbers.{{harvnb|Schmitt|2005|loc=passim}}

{{further|Romani people in Turkey}}

There is a Roma community Istanbul.{{cite web|url= https://istanbultarihi.ist/472-the-gypsies-of-istanbul#:~:text=The%20Gypsies%20probably%20arrived%20in,the%20Selamsız%20neighborhood%20in%20Üsküdar|title= THE GYPSIES OF ISTANBUL}}

Parallel to the overall demographics of Turkey, Turks are the largest group in Istanbul. Although the presence of Turks in Istanbul goes back to the early Ottoman times, the bulk of this population is composed of recent migrants from the Balkans and Anatolia. {{cite book |last1=Cole |first1=Jeffrey |title=Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia |date=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara |isbn=978-1-59884-302-6 |page=366 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wlth0GRi0N0C&dq=istanbul+ethnic+groups+turks&pg=PA366 |access-date=17 May 2022}}

{{see also|Albanians in Turkey|Assyrians in Turkey|Bosniaks in Turkey|Japanese people in Turkey|Russians in Turkey|Romanians in Turkey}}

There are other significant ethnic minorities as well, the Bosniaks are the main people of an entire district—Bayrampaşa.{{cite news|title=Turkey's Bosniak communities uphold their heritage, traditions |date=5 June 2011 |author=Elma Gabela |newspaper=Today's Zaman |url=https://www.ucuyos.com/Istanbul-Ucuz-Ucak-Bileti-Fiyatlari-6795/Rotalar/ |access-date=20 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823084249/http://www.todayszaman.com/news-246225-turkeys-bosniak-communities-uphold-their-heritage-traditions.html |archive-date=23 August 2011 }}

From the increase in mutual cooperation between Turkey and several African States like Somalia and Djibouti, several young students and workers have been migrating to Istanbul in search of better education and employment opportunities. {{circa|2015}} the major areas of African settlement are Eminönü and Yenikapi in Fatih, and Kurtulus and Osmanbey in Şişli. The largest groups of Africans that year were from Nigeria and Somalia, with the latter often working in business and the manufacturing of clothing. There are also Cameroonian, Congolese, and Senegalese communities present, with the first group directly involved in the vending of clothing and the last involved in the sale of goods streetside.{{Cite web|title = Going cold Turkey: African migrants in Istanbul see hopes turn sour|url = http://www.irinnews.org/report/101259/going-cold-turkey-african-migrants-istanbul-see-hopes-turn-sour|website = IRIN|date=2015-03-20|access-date=23 February 2016}}

As of 2011 about 900 Japanese persons resided in Istanbul; 768 were officially registered with the Japanese Consulate of Istanbul as of October 2010. Of those living in Istanbul, about 450–500 are employees of Japanese companies and their family members, making up around half of the total Japanese population. Others include students of Turkish language and culture, business owners, and Japanese women married to Turkish men. Istanbul has several Japanese restaurants, a Japanese newspaper, and a 32-page Japanese magazine.Tuna, Banu. "[http://webarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/2001/11/11/48984.asp Sakın çin çang çong demeyin]" ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041719/http://webarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/2001/11/11/48984.asp Archive]). Hürriyet. 11 November 2011. Retrieved on 11 August 2015. According to the Istanbul Japanese School, circa 2019 there were about 2,000 Japanese citizens in the Istanbul area, with about 100 of them being children of the ages in which, in Japan, they would be legally required to attend school. At the same period there were about 110 Japanese companies in operation in the city.{{cite web|url=http://ijstr.jp/about/index.html|title=学校紹介|publisher=Istanbul Japanese School|access-date=2019-09-27|quote=イスタンブールには、約110社の日本企業が進出し、約2000名の日本人が住み、そのうち約100 名の義務教育年齢の子どもたちが住んでいます。}} Istanbul also has a weekend Japanese education programme, The Japanese Saturday School in Istanbul."[http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/clarinet/002/006/001/002/006.htm 中近東の補習授業校一覧（平成25年4月15日現在）]" ([https://web.archive.org/web/20140330191623/http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/clarinet/002/006/001/002/006.htm Archive]). Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). Retrieved on May 10, 2014.

After the Romanian revolution, a significant number of Romanian entrepreneurs started investing and establishing business ventures in Turkey, and a certain proportion chose to take up residence there in Istanbul. There are also Romanian migrant workers, as well as students and artists living in the city.{{Cite web|url=https://adevarul.ro/stiri-locale/constanta/romanii-din-turcia-ingrijorati-noi-plecam-de-1779730.html|title=Românii din Turcia, îngrijoraţi: "Noi plecăm de aici. Am mai trăit vremuri de dictatură"|website=adevarul.ro|date=19 April 2017 }}{{Cite web|url=https://www.trt.net.tr/romana/photogallery/cultura-si-arta/artisti-romani-de-succes-in-republica-turcia|title=Artiști români de succes în Republica Turcia | TRT Romanian|website=www.trt.net.tr}} Some sources claim that there are 14,000 Romanians living in Istanbul.{{cite web | url=https://ziare.com/social/biserica/pentru-ce-facem-moschee-la-bucuresti-in-cautarea-romanilor-ortodocsi-din-turcia-1373624 | title=Pentru ce facem moschee la Bucuresti: In cautarea romanilor ortodocsi din Turcia }} There is also a Romanian Orthodox Church in the city.{{Cite web|url=https://basilica.ro/a-fost-prelungit-acordul-de-folosinta-a-bisericii-romanilor-din-istanbul-ctitorie-brancoveneasca/|title=A fost prelungit acordul de folosință a bisericii românilor din Istanbul, ctitorie brâncovenească - Basilica.ro|date=4 November 2021 |accessdate=7 March 2023}}{{Cite web|url=https://basilica.ro/presedintele-romaniei-a-vizitat-biserica-romaneasca-din-istanbul/|title=Preşedintele României a vizitat biserica românească din Istanbul - Basilica.ro|date=23 March 2016 |accessdate=7 March 2023}}

Russians began migrating to Turkey during the first half of the 1990s. Most had fled the economic problems prevalent after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. During this period, many intermarried and assimilated with locals, bringing a rapid increase in mixed marriages. Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, many Russians have fled to Turkey, especially Istanbul, after Vladimir Putin announced a "partial mobilization" of military reservists.{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2022/09/26/1125062711/russian-men-flee-ukraine-draft-to-istanbul-turkey|title=Russian men flee the country. Many are showing up in Istanbul|publisher=NPR|date=26 September 2022|access-date=6 March 2023|author=Fatma Tanıs}}

• Demographics of Turkey

{{notes}}

• {{cite book|last=ʻAner|first=Nadav|year=2005|editor-last=Pergola|editor-first=Sergio Della|editor2-last=Gilboa|editor2-first=Amos|editor3-last=Ṭal|editor3-first=Rami|title=The Jewish People Policy Planning Institute Planning Assessment, 2004–2005: The Jewish People Between Thriving and Decline|publisher=Gefen Publishing House Ltd.|location=Jerusalem|isbn=978-965-229-346-6}}
• {{cite book|last=Athanasopulos|first=Haralambos|title=Greece, Turkey, and the Aegean Sea: A Case Study in International Law|year=2001|publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc.|location=Jefferson, NC|isbn=978-0-7864-0943-3}}
• {{cite book|last=Brink-Danan|first=Marcy|title=Jewish Life in Twenty-First-Century Turkey: The Other Side of Tolerance|year=2011|publisher=Indiana University Press|series=New Anthropologies of Europe|location=Bloomington, IN|isbn=978-0-253-35690-1}}
• {{cite book|last=Çelik|first=Zeynep|title=The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century|year=1993|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|isbn=978-0-520-08239-7}}
• {{cite book|last=Chandler|first=Tertius|title=Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census|year=1987|publisher=St. David's University Press|location=Lewiston, NY|isbn=978-0-88946-207-6}}
• {{cite book|author=Kendall, Elisabeth|chapter=Between Politics and Literature: Journals in Alexandria and Istanbul at the End of the Nineteenth Century|editor=Fawaz, Leila Tarazi|editor2=C. A. Bayly|title=Modernity and Culture: From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2002|isbn=9780231114271|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TOp7a8GtqQoC&pg=PA330 330]-}} - Also credited: Robert Ilbert (collaboration). Old {{ISBN|0231114273}}.
• {{cite book|last1=Masters|first1=Bruce Alan|last2=Ágoston|first2=Gábor|year=2009|title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7}}
• {{cite book|last=Morris|first=Ian|title=Social Development|date=October 2010|publisher=Stanford University|location=Stanford, Calif.|url=http://ianmorris.org/docs/social-development.pdf|access-date=5 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915115325/http://ianmorris.org/docs/social-development.pdf|archive-date=15 September 2012|url-status=dead}}
• {{cite book|last=Rôzen|first=Mînnā|title=A History of the Jewish Community in Istanbul: The Formative Years, 1453–1566|year=2002|publisher=BRILL|location=Leiden, the Neth.|edition=illustrated|isbn=978-90-04-12530-8}}
• {{cite book|last=Schmitt|first=Oliver Jens|title=Levantiner: Lebenswelten und Identitäten einer ethnokonfessionellen Gruppe im osmanischen Reich im "langen 19. Jahrhundert" |year=2005|publisher=Oldenbourg|location=Munich|language=de|isbn=978-3-486-57713-6}}
• {{cite book |last=Strauss |first=Johann|url=https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true |year=2010 |chapter=A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the Kanun-ı Esasi and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages | editor=Herzog, Christoph|editor2=Malek Sharif|title= The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy|publication-place= Wurzburg|pages= 21–51 }} ([http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:5-91645 info page on book] at Martin Luther University)
• {{cite book |last=Turan |first=Neyran |editor1-last=Sorensen |editor1-first=André |editor2-last=Okata |editor2-first=Junichiro |title=Megacities: Urban Form, Governance, and Sustainability |url=https://archive.org/details/megacitiesurbanf00sore |url-access=limited |series=Library for Sustainable Urban Regeneration |publisher=Springer |location=London & New York |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/megacitiesurbanf00sore/page/n236 223]–42 |chapter=Towards an Ecological Urbanism for Istanbul |isbn=978-4-431-99266-0}}
• {{cite book|last=Wedel|first=Heidi|year=2000|editor1-last=Ibrahim|editor1-first=Ferhad|editor2-last=Gürbey|editor2-first=Gülistan|title=The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-8258-4744-9|pages=181–93}}

{{reflist}}

• {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GZ2SuQr-ZEM|title=The Rum (Greek) community of Istanbul|publisher=TRT World|date=2018-01-22}}

Istanbul

Istanbul

Category:Istanbul