Domestic violence #External links

{{Redirect2|Battered woman|battered wife|the diagnosis stemming from domestic violence|battered woman syndrome}}

The first known use of the term domestic violence in a modern context, meaning violence in the home, was in an address to the Parliament of the United Kingdom by Jack Ashley in 1973.[http://www.womensaid.org.uk/landing_page.asp?section=00010001001900040004 National Women's Aid Federation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113070656/http://www.womensaid.org.uk/landing_page.asp?section=00010001001900040004 |date=2012-01-13 }}.[https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1973/jul/16/battered-wives House of Commons Sitting (1973)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024231056/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1973/jul/16/battered-wives |date=2012-10-24 }} Battered Women. The term previously referred primarily to civil unrest, domestic violence from within a country as opposed to international violence perpetrated by a foreign power.{{cite news | title = Domestic violence in the Times: From civil unrest to spouse abuse | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/11/upshot/domestic-violence-in-the-times-from-civil-unrest-to-spouse-abuse.html | website = The New York Times | date = September 10, 2014 | access-date = March 26, 2016 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160722131054/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/11/upshot/domestic-violence-in-the-times-from-civil-unrest-to-spouse-abuse.html | archive-date = July 22, 2016 }}{{cite web | title = The federalist papers: no. 43 The same subject continued (The powers conferred by the constitution further considered) | url = http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed43.asp | website = Yale Law School, Avalon Project, Documents in History, Law and Diplomacy | access-date = March 26, 2016 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160326005948/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed43.asp | archive-date = March 26, 2016 }}{{refn|Compare the July 18, 1877 request for help sent to President Rutherford B. Hayes by West Virginia governor Henry M. Mathews following the outbreak of strikes and riots: "Owing to unlawful combinations and domestic violence now existing at Martinsburg and other points along the line of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, it is impossible with any force at my command to execute the laws of the State."{{cite book|author1=McCabe, James Dabney|author2=Edward Winslow Martin|title=The History of the Great Riots: The Strikes and Riots on the Various Railroads of the United States and in the Mining Regions Together with a Full History of the Molly Maguires|publisher=National Publishing Company|url=https://archive.org/details/historygreatrio00mccagoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/historygreatrio00mccagoog/page/n27 15]|quote=The History of the Great Riots and Full History of the Molly Maguires.|year=1877}}{{rp|24–5}}|group="nb"}}

Traditionally, domestic violence (DV) was mostly associated with physical violence. Terms such as wife abuse, wife beating, wife battering, and battered woman were used, but have declined in popularity due to efforts to include unmarried partners, abuse other than physical, female perpetrators, and same-sex relationships.{{refn|Terms such wife abuse, wife beating, and battering are descriptive terms that have lost popularity recently for several reasons:

• There is acknowledgment that many victims are not actually married to the abuser, but rather cohabiting or in other arrangements.{{cite journal | last = Waits | first = Kathleen | title = The criminal justice system's response to battering: understanding the problem, forging the solutions | journal = Washington Law Review | volume = 60 | issue = 2 | pages = 267–329 | date = April 1985 | url = https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/washlr60&div=23&id=&page= | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205035504/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals%2Fwashlr60&div=23&id=&page= | archive-date = 2016-02-05 }} [https://litigation-essentials.lexisnexis.com/webcd/app?action=DocumentDisplay&crawlid=1&doctype=cite&docid=60+Wash.+L.+Rev.+267&srctype=smi&srcid=3B15&key=b42239d426fc994ff87dd370470e8874 Lexis Nexis.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123082447/https://litigation-essentials.lexisnexis.com/webcd/app?action=DocumentDisplay&crawlid=1&doctype=cite&docid=60+Wash.+L.+Rev.+267&srctype=smi&srcid=3B15&key=b42239d426fc994ff87dd370470e8874 |date=2015-11-23 }} {{NCJ|108130}}
• Abuse can take other forms than physical abuse. Other forms of abuse may be constantly occurring, while physical abuse happens occasionally. These other forms of abuse, that are not physical, also have the potential to lead to mental illness, self-harm, and even attempts at suicide.{{citation | last = Shipway | first = Lyn | contribution = Domestic violence – a healthcare issue | editor-last = Shipway | editor-first = Lyn | title = Domestic violence: a handbook for health professionals | page = 3 | publisher = Routledge | location = London New York | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-415-28220-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jMV89zMsHwMC | access-date = May 27, 2020 | archive-date = February 7, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240207062445/https://books.google.com/books?id=jMV89zMsHwMC | url-status = live }}{{cite journal | last1 = Mirlees-Black | first1 = Catriona | last2 = Mayhew | first2 = Pat | last3 = Percy | first3 = Andrew | title = The 1996 British Crime Survey England & Wales | journal = Home Office Statistical Bulletin | id = 19/96 | date = 24 September 1996 | url = http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/hosb1996.pdf | archive-url = http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20101208203416/http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/hosb1996.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 8 December 2010 }}

|group="nb"}} Domestic violence is now commonly defined broadly to include "all acts of physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence" that may be committed by a family member or intimate partner.{{cite web |url= https://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm |title= Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (CETS No. 210) |website= conventions.coe.int |publisher= Council of Europe |access-date= 8 September 2013 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130906075205/http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm |archive-date= 6 September 2013 }}{{cite act | url = http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32012L0029&from=EN | title = Establishing minimum standards on the rights, support and protection of victims of crime, and replacing Council Framework Decision 2001/220/JHA | date = 25 October 2012 | access-date = 7 December 2015 | number = 2012/29/EU | type = Directive | publisher = EUR-Lex }} {{Cite web |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32012L0029&from=EN |title=Directive 2012/29/EU of the European parliament and of the council |access-date=February 7, 2024 |archive-date=April 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426063620/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32012L0029&from=EN |url-status=live }}{{cite web | last = Ramos | first = George H. Jr. | title = San Diego Domestic Violence Attorney | url = https://www.ramoscriminallawyer.com/domesticviolence-restrainingorders.html | website = ramoscriminallawyer.com | publisher = George H. Ramos Jr. | access-date = 24 January 2014 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140613053510/http://www.ramoscriminallawyer.com/domesticviolence-restrainingorders.html | archive-date = 13 June 2014 }}

The term intimate partner violence is often used synonymously with domestic abuse{{Cite web|title=Domestic Abuse & Violence Support in UK|url=https://www.ncdv.org.uk/|access-date=May 22, 2020|archive-date=June 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601021635/https://www.ncdv.org.uk/|url-status=live}} or domestic violence,{{citation | last = Wallace | first = Harvey | contribution = Characteristics of family violence | editor-last = Wallace | editor-first = Harvey | title = Family violence: legal, medical, and social perspectives | page = 2 | publisher = Pearson | location = Boston, Massachusetts | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-205-41822-0}} but it specifically refers to violence occurring within a couple's relationship (i.e. marriage, cohabitation, or non-cohabiting intimate partners).{{cite book | last1 = Krug | first1 = Etienne G. | last2 = Dahlberg | first2 = Linda L. | last3 = Mercy | first3 = James A. | last4 = Zwi | first4 = Anthony B. | last5 = Lozano | first5 = Rafael | title = World report on violence and health | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva, Switzerland | year = 2002 | url = https://archive.org/details/worldreportonvio2002unse | isbn = 978-92-4-068180-4 | url-access = registration }} To these, the World Health Organization (WHO) adds controlling behaviors as a form of abuse.{{cite book | last = WHO | author-link = World Health Organization | title = Understanding and addressing intimate partner violence | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva, Switzerland | url = https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/77432/1/WHO_RHR_12.36_eng.pdf | id = WHO/RHR/12.36 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160307192918/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/77432/1/WHO_RHR_12.36_eng.pdf | archive-date = 2016-03-07 }} Intimate partner violence has been observed in opposite and same-sex relationships,{{cite book | editor-last1 = Renzetti | editor-first1 = Claire M. | editor-first2 = Charles Harvey | editor-last2 = Miley | title = Violence in gay and lesbian domestic partnerships | publisher = Harrington Park Press | location = New York | year = 1996 | isbn = 978-1-56023-074-8 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781560230748 }} and in the former instance by both men against women and women against men.{{Cite journal | last1 = Johnson | first1 = Michael P. | last2 = Ferraro | first2 = Kathleen J. | s2cid = 12584806 | author-link = Michael P. Johnson | title = Research on domestic violence in the 1990s: making distinctions | journal = Journal of Marriage and Family | volume = 62 | issue = 4 | pages = 948–963 | doi = 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00948.x | jstor = 1566718 | date = November 2000 | url = https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/sosder/issue/77744/1285308 | access-date = July 9, 2023 | archive-date = August 25, 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230825123846/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/sosder/issue/77744/1285308 | url-status = live }} Family violence is a broader term, often used to include child abuse, elder abuse, and other violent acts between family members.{{cite web | last = WHO | author-link = World Health Organization | title = Child maltreatment | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva, Switzerland | url = https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/full_en.pdf | date = 2015 | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150501075026/http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/full_en.pdf | archive-date = 1 May 2015 }}{{cite web | last = WHO | author-link = World Health Organization | title = Elder abuse | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva, Switzerland | url = https://www.who.int/ageing/projects/elder_abuse/en/ | date = 2015 | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150908195535/http://www.who.int/ageing/projects/elder_abuse/en/ | archive-date = 8 September 2015 }}

In 1993, the UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women defined domestic violence as:

{{blockquote|Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including battering, sexual abuse of female children in the household, dowry-related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation.{{cite book | last = General Assembly | author-link = United Nations General Assembly | title = 85th plenary session: declaration on the elimination of violence against women | url = https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm | id = A/RES/48/104 | publisher = United Nations General Assembly | date = 20 December 1993 | access-date = 8 September 2013 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130924000147/http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm | archive-date = 24 September 2013 }}}}

The Encyclopædia Britannica states that "in the early 1800s, most legal systems implicitly accepted wife-beating as a husband's right" over his wife.{{cite encyclopedia |title=Domestic violence |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | url = https://www.britannica.com/topic/domestic-violence | access-date = October 31, 2011 | quote = In the early 1800s most legal systems implicitly accepted wife-beating as a husband's right, part of his entitlement to control over the resources and services of his wife. | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150627061019/https://www.britannica.com/topic/domestic-violence | archive-date = June 27, 2015 }}{{citation | last = Felter | first = Elizabeth | contribution = A history of the state's response to domestic violence | editor-last = Daniels | editor-first = Cynthia R. | title = Feminists negotiate the state: the politics of domestic violence | pages = 5–10 | publisher = University Press of America | location = Lanham, Maryland | year = 1997 | isbn = 978-0-7618-0884-8 | postscript =.}} English common law, dating back to the 16th century, treated domestic violence as a crime against the community rather than against the individual woman by charging wife beating as a breach of the peace. Wives had the right to seek redress in the form of a peace bond from a local justice of the peace. Procedures were informal and off the record, and no legal guidance specified the standard of proof or degree of violence which would suffice for a conviction. The two typical sentences were forcing a husband to post bond, or forcing him to stake pledges from his associates to guarantee good behavior in the future. Beatings could also be formally charged as assault, although such prosecutions were rare and save for cases of severe injury or death, sentences were typically small fines.{{cite journal|last=Bloch|first=Ruth H.|year=2007|title=The American Revolution, Wife Beating, and the Emergent Value of Privacy|journal=Early American Studies|volume=5|issue=2|pages=223–251|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|doi=10.1353/eam.2007.0008|jstor=23546609|s2cid=144371791}}

By extension, this framework held in the American colonies. The 1641 Body of Liberties of the Massachusetts Bay colonists declared that a married woman should be "free from bodily correction or stripes by her husband."{{cite web | last = Ward | first = Nathaniel | title = The Massachusetts Body of Liberties (1641) | url = https://history.hanover.edu/texts/masslib.html | website = history.hanover.edu | publisher = Hanover Historical Texts Project, History Department, Hanover College | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151228105505/http://history.hanover.edu/texts/masslib.html | archive-date = 2015-12-28 }} New Hampshire and Rhode Island also explicitly banned wife-beating in their criminal codes.

Following the American Revolution, changes in the legal system placed greater power in the hands of precedent-setting state courts rather than local justices. Many states transferred jurisdiction in divorce cases from their legislatures to their judicial system, and the legal recourse available to battered women increasingly became divorce on grounds of cruelty and suing for assault. This placed a greater burden of proof on the woman, as she needed to demonstrate to a court that her life was at risk. In 1824, the Mississippi Supreme Court, citing the rule of thumb, established a positive right to wife-beating in State v. Bradley, a precedent which would hold sway in common law for decades to come.

Political agitation and the first-wave feminist movement, during the 19th century, led to changes in both popular opinion and legislation regarding domestic violence within the UK, the US, and other countries.{{cite encyclopedia | title = Domestic violence | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica Online | url = https://www.britannica.com/topic/domestic-violence | access-date = October 31, 2011 | quote = Feminist agitation in the 1800s produced a sea change in public opinion... | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150627061019/https://www.britannica.com/topic/domestic-violence | archive-date = June 27, 2015 }}{{citation | last = Gordon | first = Linda | contribution = "The powers of the weak": wife-beating and battered women's resistance | editor-last = Gordon | editor-first = Linda | title = Heroes of their own lives: the politics and history of family violence (Boston, 1880–1960) | pages = 253–255 | publisher = University of Illinois Press | location = Urbana, Illinois | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-252-07079-2}} In 1850, Tennessee became the first state in the US to explicitly outlaw wife beating.{{citation | last = Kleinberg | first = S. J. | contribution = The industrial era | editor-last = Kleinberg | editor-first = S. J. | title = Women in the United States, 1830–1945 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/womeninunitedsta0000klei/page/143 143-157] | publisher = Rutgers University Press | location = New Brunswick, New Jersey | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-0-8135-2729-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/womeninunitedsta0000klei/page/143 }}{{Cite journal | last = Pleck | first = Elizabeth | title = Criminal approaches to family violence, 1640-1980 | journal = Crime and Justice | volume = 11 | pages = 19–57 | doi = 10.1086/449151 | jstor = 1147525 | date = 1989 | s2cid = 144726825 }}{{cite web |last1=Ortiz |first1=Alexandra Michelle |title=Invisible Bars: Adapting the Crime of False Imprisonment to Better Address Coercive Control and Domestic Violence in Tennessee |url=https://vanderbiltlawreview.org/lawreview/2018/03/invisible-bars-adapting-the-crime-of-false-imprisonment-to-better-address-coercive-control-and-domestic-violence-in-tennessee/ |website=Vanderbilt Law Review |date=March 14, 2018 |access-date=5 July 2019 |archive-date=July 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705004535/https://vanderbiltlawreview.org/lawreview/2018/03/invisible-bars-adapting-the-crime-of-false-imprisonment-to-better-address-coercive-control-and-domestic-violence-in-tennessee/ |url-status=live }} Other states soon followed.{{Cite journal | last = Pleck | first = Elizabeth | title = Wife beating in nineteenth-century America | journal = Victimology | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 64–65 | date = 1979}} In 1871, the tide of legal opinion began to turn against the idea of a right to wife-beating, as courts in Massachusetts and Alabama reversed the precedent set in Bradley. In 1878, the UK Matrimonial Causes Act made it possible for women in the UK to seek legal separation from an abusive husband.{{cite book | last = Abrams | first = Lynn | chapter = Crime against marriage? Wife-beating, the law and divorce in nineteenth-century Hamburg | chapter-url = https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781135361082/chapters/10.4324/9780203016992-9 | editor-last1 = Arnot | editor-first1 = Margaret L. | editor-last2 = Usborne | editor-first2 = Cornelie | title = Gender and crime in modern Europe | page = 123 | publisher = Routledge | location = London | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-1-85728-745-5 | doi = 10.4324/9780203016992-9 | access-date = March 19, 2019 | archive-date = March 22, 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190322195430/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781135361082/chapters/10.4324/9780203016992-9 | url-status = live }} By the end of the 1870s, most courts in the US had rejected a claimed right of husbands to physically discipline their wives.{{citation | last = St. John Green | first = Nicholas | author-link = Nicholas St. John Green | contribution = Commonwealth v. Certain Intoxicating Liquors, Boston Beer Company, claimant | editor-last = St. John Green | editor-first = Nicholas | editor-link = Nicholas St. John Green | title = Criminal Law Reports: Being Reports of Cases Determined in the Federal and State Courts of the United States, and in the Courts of England, Ireland, Canada, Etc. with Notes, Volume 2 |publisher=Hurd and Houghton, 1874–1875 | location = New York | year = 1879 | oclc = 22125148 | quote = The cases in the American courts are uniform against the right of the husband to use any [physical] chastisement, moderate or otherwise, toward the wife, for any purpose.}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=GRBFAAAAIAAJ Details.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828020354/https://books.google.com/books?id=GRBFAAAAIAAJ |date=August 28, 2023 }} In the early 20th century, paternalistic judges regularly protected perpetrators of domestic violence in order to reinforce gender norms within the family.{{Cite journal|last=Katz|first=Elizabeth D.|date=2015|title=Judicial Patriarchy and Domestic Violence: A Challenge to the Conventional Family Privacy Narrative|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2589941|language=en|location=Rochester, NY|journal=William & Mary Journal of Women and the Law|ssrn=2589941|access-date=February 7, 2024|archive-date=May 20, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520171147/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2589941|url-status=live}} In divorce and criminal domestic violence cases, judges would levy harsh punishments against male perpetrators, but when the gender roles were reversed they would often give little to no punishment to female perpetrators. By the early 20th century, it was common for police to intervene in cases of domestic violence in the US, but arrests remained rare.{{cite journal |doi=10.1300/J012v10n02_02 |title=Revisiting the rule of thumb: an overview of the history of wife abuse |journal=Women & Criminal Justice |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=9–27 |year=1999 |last1=Lentz |first1=Susan A. }}

In most legal systems around the world, domestic violence has been addressed only from the 1990s onward; indeed, before the late 20th century, in most countries there was very little protection, in law or in practice, against domestic violence.{{citation | last = Smith | first = Bonnie G. | contribution = Domestic violence: overview | editor-last = Smith | editor-first = Bonnie G. | title = The Oxford encyclopedia of women in world history | page = [https://archive.org/details/oxfordencycloped0000unse_k2h2/page/94 94] | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford England New York | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-19-514890-9 | url = https://archive.org/details/oxfordencycloped0000unse_k2h2/page/94 }} In 1993, the UN published Strategies for Confronting Domestic Violence: A Resource Manual.{{cite book | last = UNODC | author-link = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | title = Strategies for confronting domestic violence: a resource manual | url = https://www.unodc.org/pdf/youthnet/tools_strategy_english_domestic_violence.pdf | publisher = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) | location = New York | isbn = 978-92-1-130158-8 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205040711/https://www.unodc.org/pdf/youthnet/tools_strategy_english_domestic_violence.pdf | archive-date = 2016-02-05 | year = 1953 }} This publication urged countries around the world to treat domestic violence as a criminal act, stated that the right to a private family life does not include the right to abuse family members, and acknowledged that, at the time of its writing, most legal systems considered domestic violence to be largely outside the scope of the law, describing the situation at that time as follows: "Physical discipline of children is allowed and, indeed, encouraged in many legal systems and a large number of countries allow moderate physical chastisement of a wife or, if they do not do so now, have done so within the last 100 years. Again, most legal systems fail to criminalize circumstances where a wife is forced to have sexual relations with her husband against her will. ... Indeed, in the case of violence against wives, there is a widespread belief that women provoke, can tolerate or even enjoy a certain level of violence from their spouses."

File:Grandville Cent Proverbes page69.png's Cent Proverbes (1845) captioned "Qui aime bien châtie bien" (Who loves well, punishes well)]]

In recent decades, there has been a call for the end of legal impunity for domestic violence, an impunity often based on the idea that such acts are private. The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, better known as the Istanbul Convention, is the first legally binding instrument in Europe dealing with domestic violence and violence against women. The convention seeks to put an end to the toleration, in law or in practice, of violence against women and domestic violence. In its explanatory report, it acknowledges the long tradition of European countries of ignoring, de jure or de facto, these forms of violence.{{cite web | last = Council of Europe | author-link = Council of Europe | title = Explanatory Report to the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (CETS No. 210) | url = http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/210.htm | website = conventions.coe.int | publisher = Council of Europe | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150720234156/http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/210.htm | archive-date = 20 July 2015 }} At para 219, it states: "There are many examples from past practice in Council of Europe member states that show that exceptions to the prosecution of such cases were made, either in law or in practice, if victim and perpetrator were, for example, married to each other or had been in a relationship. The most prominent example is rape within marriage, which for a long time had not been recognised as rape because of the relationship between victim and perpetrator."

There has been increased attention given to specific forms of domestic violence, such as honor killings, dowry deaths, and forced marriages. India has, in recent decades, made efforts to curtail dowry violence: the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act was enacted in 2005, following years of advocacy and activism by the women's organizations.{{cite news | author = | date = 24 December 2012 | title = Confronting dowry-related violence in India: women at the center of justice | url = https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2012/12/confronting-dowry-related-violence-in-india-women-at-the-center-of-justice | url-status = live | work = UN Women | language = en | publisher = UN Women | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141107103046/http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2012/12/confronting-dowry-related-violence-in-india-women-at-the-center-of-justice | archive-date = 7 November 2014 }} Crimes of passion in Latin America, a region which has a history of treating such killings with extreme leniency, have also come to international attention. In 2002, Widney Brown, advocacy director for Human Rights Watch, argued that there are similarities between the dynamics of crimes of passion and honor killings, stating that: "crimes of passion have a similar dynamic [to honor killings] in that the women are killed by male family members and the crimes are perceived as excusable or understandable".{{cite news | last = Staff writer | title = Thousands of women killed for family "honor" | url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/02/0212_020212_honorkilling_2.html | work = National Geographic News | publisher = National Geographic Society | date = 28 October 2010 | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151019011522/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/02/0212_020212_honorkilling_2.html | archive-date = 19 October 2015 }}

Historically, children had few protections from violence by their parents, and in many parts of the world, this is still the case. For example, in Ancient Rome, a father could legally kill his children. Many cultures have allowed fathers to sell their children into slavery. Child sacrifice was also a common practice.{{cite book | last = Szasz | first = Thomas | title = Cruel compassion: psychiatric control of society's unwanted | publisher = Syracuse University Press | location = Syracuse, New York | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-8156-0510-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2pduB22E43oC | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151018130406/https://books.google.com/books?id=2pduB22E43oC | archive-date = 2015-10-18 }} Child maltreatment began to garner mainstream attention with the publication of "The Battered Child Syndrome" by pediatric psychiatrist C. Henry Kempe in 1962. Prior to this, injuries to children – even repeated bone fractures – were not commonly recognized as the results of intentional trauma. Instead, physicians often looked for undiagnosed bone diseases or accepted parents' accounts of accidental mishaps, such as falls or assaults by neighborhood bullies.{{cite book |author=Young-Bruehl, Elisabeth |date=2012 |title=Childism: Confronting Prejudice Against Children |location=New Haven, Connecticut |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-17311-6}}{{rp|100–103}}

{{See also|Outline of domestic violence#Forms}}

Not all domestic violence is equivalent. Differences in frequency, severity, purpose, and outcome are all significant. Domestic violence can take many forms, including physical aggression or assault (hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, restraining, slapping, throwing objects, beating up, etc.), or threats thereof; sexual abuse; controlling or domineering; intimidation; stalking; passive/covert abuse (e.g. neglect); and economic deprivation.{{cite book | last = Shipway | first = Lyn | title = Domestic violence: a handbook for health professionals | publisher = Routledge | location = London New York | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-415-28220-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jMV89zMsHwMC | access-date = May 27, 2020 | archive-date = February 7, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240207062445/https://books.google.com/books?id=jMV89zMsHwMC | url-status = live }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Siemieniuk | first1 = Reed A. C. | last2 = Krentz | first2 = Hartmut B. | last3 = Gish | first3 = Jessica A. | last4 = Gill | first4 = M. John | s2cid = 34147315 | title = Domestic violence screening: prevalence and outcomes in a Canadian HIV population | journal = AIDS Patient Care and STDs | volume = 24 | issue = 12 | pages = 763–770 | doi = 10.1089/apc.2010.0235 | pmid = 21138382 | date = December 2010 }} It can also mean endangerment, criminal coercion, kidnapping, unlawful imprisonment, trespassing, and harassment.{{cite web|title=Crimes|url=https://womenslaw.org/laws_state_type.php?statelaw_name=Crimes&state_code=GE|publisher=National Network to End Domestic Violence, Inc.|website=womenslaw.org|access-date=2 December 2011|year=2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121162106/http://www.womenslaw.org/laws_state_type.php?statelaw_name=Crimes&state_code=GE|archive-date=21 November 2011}}

{{Further|Physical abuse}}

Physical abuse is that involving contact intended to cause fear, pain, injury, other physical suffering or bodily harm.{{cite web | last = US Department of Justice | author-link = US Department of Justice | title = About domestic violence | year = 2007 | url = https://www.usdoj.gov/ovw/domviolence.htm | website = usdoj.gov | publisher = US Department of Justice | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071011035558/http://www.usdoj.gov/ovw/domviolence.htm | archive-date = 11 October 2007 | access-date = 16 December 2015 }}{{cite web | last = Department of Justice (Canada) | author-link = Department of Justice (Canada) | url = https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/cj-jp/fv-vf/about-apropos.html | title = About family violence | website = justice.gc.ca | publisher = Canadian Department of Justice | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150912101207/http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/cj-jp/fv-vf/about-apropos.html | archive-date = 12 September 2015 | date = 2001-10-15 }} In the context of coercive control, physical abuse is used to control the victim.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rm8CPqTiDWMC&q=lundy+bancroft+scholarly|title=Coercive Control:How Men Entrap Women in Personal Life|last=Stark|first=Evan|date=2007-04-16|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=978-0-19-534833-0|access-date=October 31, 2020|archive-date=February 7, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207062446/https://books.google.com/books?id=rm8CPqTiDWMC&q=lundy+bancroft+scholarly#v=snippet&q=lundy%20bancroft%20scholarly&f=false|url-status=live}} The dynamics of physical abuse in a relationship are often complex. Physical violence can be the culmination of other abusive behavior, such as threats, intimidation, and restriction of victim self-determination through isolation, manipulation and other limitations of personal freedom.{{cite web | last = Council of Europe | author-link = Council of Europe | title = Council of Europe Domestic Violence Campaign | url = https://www.coe.int/t/dg2/equality/domesticviolencecampaign/Aboutdomesticvio_en.asp | website = coe.int | publisher = Council of Europe | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923230122/http://www.coe.int/t/dg2/equality/domesticviolencecampaign/Aboutdomesticvio_en.asp | archive-date = 23 September 2015 }} Denying medical care, sleep deprivation, and forced drug or alcohol use, are also forms of physical abuse. It can also include inflicting physical injury onto other targets, such as children or pets, in order to cause emotional harm to the victim.{{cite web | title = Home page | year = 2010 | url = https://www.azcadv.org | website = azcadv.org | publisher = Arizona Coalition Against Domestic Violence | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151222152954/https://www.azcadv.org/ | archive-date = 22 December 2015 | access-date = 6 November 2017 }}

Strangulation in the context of domestic violence has received significant attention.{{cite journal | last1 = Sorenson | first1 = Susan B.|author1-link=Susan Sorenson | last2 = Joshi | first2 = Manisha | last3 = Sivitz | first3 = Elizabeth | title = A systematic review of the epidemiology of nonfatal strangulation, a human rights and health concern | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 104 | issue = 11 | pages = e54–e61 | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2014.302191 | pmid = 25211747 | pmc = 4202982 | date = November 2014 }} It is now recognized as one of the most lethal forms of domestic violence; yet, because of the lack of external injuries, and the lack of social awareness and medical training in regard to it, strangulation has often been a hidden problem.{{cite web | title = The impact of strangulation crimes | url = https://www.strangulationtraininginstitute.com/impact-of-strangulation-crimes.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150423131739/https://www.strangulationtraininginstitute.com/impact-of-strangulation-crimes.html | archive-date = 23 April 2015 | website = strangulationtraininginstitute.com | publisher = Training institute on strangulation prevention }} As a result, in recent years, many US states have enacted specific laws against strangulation.{{cite news | agency = Associated Press | title = States cracking down on strangulation attempts | url = https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/story/2012-05-13/strangulation-crackdown-law/54935268/1 | work = USA Today | publisher = Gannett Company | date = 13 May 2012 | access-date = December 16, 2015 | archive-date = July 30, 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190730191828/https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/story/2012-05-13/strangulation-crackdown-law/54935268/1 | url-status = dead }}

Homicide as a result of domestic violence makes up a greater proportion of female homicides than it does male homicides. More than 50% of female homicides are committed by former or current intimate partners in the US. In the UK, 37% of murdered women were killed by an intimate partner compared to 6% for men. Between 40 and 70 percent of women murdered in Canada, Australia, South Africa, Israel and the US were killed by an intimate partner.{{citation | last1 = van Wormer | first1 = Katherine | last2 = Shim | first2 = Woochan S. | contribution = Domestic homicide worldwide | editor-last1 = van Wormer | editor-first1 = Katherine | editor-last2 = Roberts | editor-first2 = Albert R. | title = Death by domestic violence: preventing the murders and murder-suicides | pages = 103–104 | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | location = Westport, Connecticut London | year = 2009 | isbn = 978-0-313-35489-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KQM9EvLLP5YC&pg=PA103 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151019045127/https://books.google.com/books?id=KQM9EvLLP5YC&pg=PA103 | archive-date = 2015-10-19 }} The WHO states that globally, about 38% of female homicides are committed by an intimate partner.{{cite book | last = WHO | author-link = World Health Organization | title = Violence against women: fact sheet no. 239 | url = https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs239/en/ | publisher = World Health Organization | date = October 2013 | access-date = 10 April 2014 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140414100345/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs239/en/ | archive-date = 14 April 2014 }}

During pregnancy, a woman is at higher risk to be abused or long-standing abuse may change in severity, causing negative health effects to the mother and fetus.{{Cite journal | last1 = Johnson | first1 = J. K. | last2 = Haider | first2 = F. | last3 = Ellis | first3 = K. | last4 = Hay | first4 = D. M. | last5 = Lindow | first5 = S. W. | s2cid = 23728401 | title = The prevalence of domestic violence in pregnant women | journal = BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology | volume = 110 | issue = 3 | pages = 272–275 | doi = 10.1046/j.1471-0528.2003.02216.x | pmid = 12628266 | date = March 2003 | doi-access = free }} Pregnancy can also lead to a hiatus of domestic violence when the abuser does not want to harm the unborn child. The risk of domestic violence for women who have been pregnant is greatest immediately after childbirth.{{Cite journal | last1 = Mezey | first1 = Gillian C. | last2 = Bewley | first2 = Susan | title = Domestic violence and pregnancy | journal = The BMJ | volume = 314 | issue = 7090 | page = 1295 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.314.7090.1295 | pmid = 9158458 | pmc = 2126542 | date = 3 May 1997 }}

An acid attack victim in [[Cambodia|thumb]]

Acid attacks, are an extreme form of violence in which acid is thrown at the victims, usually their faces, resulting in extensive damage including long-term blindness and permanent scarring.{{cite book | last = Herring | first = Jonathan | contribution = Marriage, civil partnership, and cohabitation | editor-last = Herring | editor-first = Jonathan | title = Family law: a very short introduction | page = 5 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford, UK | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-0-19-966852-6}}{{cite journal | last = Swanson | first = Jordan | title = Acid attacks: Bangladesh's efforts to stop the violence | journal = Harvard Health Policy Review | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 82–88 | date = Spring 2002 | url = https://hhpronline.org/publication/previous-issues/spring-2002/ | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208152718/http://hhpronline.org/publication/previous-issues/spring-2002/ | archive-date = 2015-12-08 }}{{citation | last1 = Bandyopadhyay | first1 = Mridula | last2 = Khan | first2 = Mahmuda Rahman | contribution = Loss of face: violence against women in South Asia | editor-last1 = Manderson | editor-first1 = Lenore | editor-last2 = Bennett | editor-first2 = Linda Rae | title = Violence against women in Asian societies | publisher = Routledge Curzon | location = London New York | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-0-7007-1741-5}}{{cite news | agency = Associated Press | title = Bangladesh combats an acid onslaught against women | work = CNN | url =https://archives.cnn.com/2000/ASIANOW/south/11/11/bangladesh.acid.ap/index.html | date = 11 November 2000 | access-date = 13 March 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070922210725/https://archives.cnn.com/2000/ASIANOW/south/11/11/bangladesh.acid.ap/index.html |archive-date = 22 September 2007}}{{cite book | last1 = Bahl | first1 = Taru | last2 = Syed | first2 = M. H. | title = Encyclopaedia of Muslim world | publisher = Anmol Publications | location = New Delhi | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-81-261-1419-1 }} These are commonly a form of revenge against a woman for rejecting a marriage proposal or sexual advance.{{cite journal|last=Mannan|first=A.|author2=S. Ghani|author3=A. Clarke|author4=P. White|author5=S. Salmanta|author6= P.E.M. Butler|title=Psychosocial outcomes derived from an acid burned population in Bangladesh, and comparison with Western norms|journal=Burns|date=August 2005|volume=32|issue=2|pages=235–241|doi=10.1016/j.burns.2005.08.027|pmid=16448773}}[http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/cedaw_crc_contributions/AvonGlobalCenterforWomenandJustice.pdf Combating Acid Violence in Bangladesh, India and Cambodia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224143417/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/cedaw_crc_contributions/AvonGlobalCenterforWomenandJustice.pdf |date=2012-12-24 }}. Avon Global Center for Women and Justice at Cornell Law School and the New York City Bar Association, 2011.

In the Middle East and other parts of the world, planned domestic homicides, or honor killings, are carried out due to the belief of the perpetrators that the victim has brought dishonor upon the family or community.{{cite book | last1 = WHO | last2 = Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) | author-link1 = World Health Organization | title = Understanding and addressing violence against women: femicide | url = https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/77421/1/WHO_RHR_12.38_eng.pdf | publisher = World Health Organization | date = 2012 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160308202603/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/77421/1/WHO_RHR_12.38_eng.pdf | archive-date = 2016-03-08 }}{{cite web | last = Sanctuary for Families | author-link = Sanctuary for Families | title = International domestic violence issues | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141016194204/https://www.sanctuaryforfamilies.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=252&Itemid=259 |url=https://www.sanctuaryforfamilies.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=252&Itemid=259 | website = sanctuaryforfamilies.org | publisher = Sanctuary for Families |date= 15 October 2008 | archive-date = 16 October 2014 | access-date = 8 September 2013 }} According to Human Rights Watch, honor killings are generally performed against women for "refusing to enter into an arranged marriage, being the victim of a sexual assault, seeking a divorce" or being accused of committing adultery.{{cite web | title = Item 12 – Integration of the human rights of women and the gender perspective: violence against women and "honor" crimes | url = https://www.hrw.org/press/2001/04/un_oral12_0405.htm | website = hrw.org | publisher = Human Rights Watch | date = 6 April 2001 | access-date = 6 April 2001 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20041028023841/https://www.hrw.org/press/2001/04/un_oral12_0405.htm | archive-date = 28 October 2004 }} In some parts of the world, where there is a strong social expectation for a woman to be a virgin prior to marriage, a bride may be subjected to extreme violence, including an honor killing, if she is deemed not to be a virgin on her wedding night due to the absence of blood.{{citation | last = Pope | first = Nicole | contribution = Born unequal · Old Traditions, modern context | editor-last = Pope | editor-first = Nicole | title = Honor killings in the twenty-first century | pages = 41–43, 140 | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | location = New York | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-1-137-01266-1 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gRLHAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160501083044/https://books.google.com/books?id=gRLHAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 | archive-date = 2016-05-01 }}{{refn| It is possible for a woman to not bleed the first time she has sex.{{cite web | last = NHS Choices | author-link = National Health Service (England) | title = Health questions: does a woman always bleed when she has sex for the first time? | url = https://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/2372.aspx?CategoryID=118&SubCategoryID=119 | website = nhs.uk | publisher = NHS | access-date = 1 January 2014 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140102193238/http://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/2372.aspx?CategoryID=118&SubCategoryID=119 | archive-date = 2 January 2014 }} Sex outside marriage is illegal in many countries, including Saudi Arabia, Pakistan,{{cite news | last = Jordan | first = Mary | title = Searching for freedom, chained by the law | url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/20/AR2008082003754.html | newspaper = The Washington Post | publisher = Nash Holdings | date = 20 August 2008 | access-date = 3 August 2013 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121114180828/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/20/AR2008082003754.html | archive-date = 14 November 2012 }} Afghanistan,{{cite news | last = Londoño | first = Ernesto | title = Afghanistan sees rise in 'dancing boys' exploitation | url = https://www.e-ariana.com/ariana/eariana.nsf/allArticles/807B10B75C9F425487257A740056F9CD?OpenDocument | newspaper = The Washington Post | publisher = Nash Holdings | date = 9 September 2012 | location = Dehrazi, Afghanistan | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151229091723/http://www.e-ariana.com/ariana/eariana.nsf/allArticles/807B10B75C9F425487257A740056F9CD?OpenDocument | archive-date = 29 December 2015 }}{{cite web | title = Afghanistan | url = https://www.aidsportal.org/web/guest/afghanistan;jsessionid=08BEAA66DB394CA661CFDFCBEECE6E52.node1 | website = aidsportal.org | publisher = AIDSPortal | access-date = 2 August 2013 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130917162501/http://www.aidsportal.org/web/guest/afghanistan | archive-date = 17 September 2013 }}{{cite web | title = Iran: country specific information | url = https://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1142.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131206150606/https://www.travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1142.html | website = travel.state.gov |publisher= United States Department of State | archive-date = 6 December 2013 | access-date = 3 August 2013}} Iran, Kuwait,{{cite book | author= Convention on the Rights of the Child | author-link = Convention on the Rights of the Child | title = United Nations Human Rights Website – Treaty Bodies Database – Document – Summary Record – Kuwait | url = https://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/2f5665ae20b956cb8025675a0033cafb?Opendocument | publisher = United Nations | date = 14 April 1999 | access-date = 2 August 2013 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131001160443/http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/2f5665ae20b956cb8025675a0033cafb?Opendocument | archive-date = 1 October 2013 }} Maldives,{{cite web | title = Culture of Maldives | url = https://www.everyculture.com/Ja-Ma/Maldives.html | website = everyculture.com | publisher = Every Culture | access-date = 3 August 2013 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130728112917/http://www.everyculture.com/Ja-Ma/Maldives.html | archive-date = 28 July 2013 }} Morocco,{{cite news | last = Nakim | first = Nora | title = Morocco: Should pre-marital sex be legal? | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19049000 | work = BBC News | publisher = BBC | date = 9 August 2012 | access-date = 3 August 2013 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131005111909/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19049000 | archive-date = 5 October 2013 }} Oman,{{cite web | title = Legislation of Interpol member states on sexual offences against children: Oman, Muscat | url = https://www.interpol.com/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/csaOman.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071215043802/https://www.interpol.com/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/csaOman.pdf | publisher = Interpol | date = Spring 2006 | archive-date = 15 December 2007 }} Mauritania,{{cite web | title = 2010 Human Rights Report: Mauritania | url = https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/af/154358.htm | website = state.gov | publisher = United States Department of State | date = 8 April 2011 | access-date = 2 August 2013 | archive-date = June 4, 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190604135015/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/af/154358.htm | url-status = live }} United Arab Emirates,{{cite web |url=https://www.dubaifaqs.com/education-dubai.php |title=Education in Dubai |publisher=Dubaifaqs.com |access-date=2 August 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806144910/http://www.dubaifaqs.com/education-dubai.php |archive-date=6 August 2013 }}{{cite news | last1 = Judd | first1 = Terri | last2 = Sajn | first2 = Nikolina | title = Briton faces jail for sex on Dubai beach | url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/briton-faces-jail-for-sex-on-dubai-beach-863918.html | newspaper = The Independent | publisher = Independent Print Limited | date = 10 July 2008 | access-date = 3 August 2013 | location = London | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131002133147/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/briton-faces-jail-for-sex-on-dubai-beach-863918.html | archive-date = 2 October 2013 }} Qatar,{{cite news|last=Staff writer|title="Sex outside of marriage is a criminal offense here," PH ambassador to Qatar warns Pinoys|url=https://www.spot.ph/the-feed/49282/ph-ambassador-to-qatar-warns-pinoys-sex-outside-of-marriage-is-a-criminal-offense-here/|access-date=3 August 2013|newspaper=SPOT.ph|date=12 September 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927080428/http://www.spot.ph/the-feed/49282/ph-ambassador-to-qatar-warns-pinoys-sex-outside-of-marriage-is-a-criminal-offense-here/|archive-date=27 September 2013}} Sudan,{{cite news | last = Staff writer | url = https://www.reuters.com/article/2007/06/28/idUSL28849488._CH_.2400 | title = Sudan must rewrite rape laws to protect victims | work = Reuters | date = 28 June 2007 | access-date = 2 August 2013 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615115805/http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/06/28/idUSL28849488._CH_.2400 | archive-date = 15 June 2013 }} Yemen.{{cite web | last1 = Basha | first1 = Amal | last2 = Ghanem | first2 = Rana | last3 = Abdulhafid | first3 = Nabil | title = Women's rights in the Middle East and North Africa – Yemen | url = https://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47387b712f.html/ | website = refworld.org | publisher = Freedom House | date = 14 October 2005 | access-date = 2 August 2013 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160622121418/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47387b712f.html/ | archive-date = 22 June 2016 }}|group="nb"}}

Bride burning or dowry killing is a form of domestic violence in which a newly married woman is killed at home by her husband or husband's family due to their dissatisfaction over the dowry provided by her family. The act is often a result of demands for more or prolonged dowry after the marriage.{{cite journal | last = Lakhani | first = Avnita | title = Bride-burning: the "elephant in the room" is out of control | journal = Pepperdine Dispute Resolution Law Journal | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 249–298 | date = 2005 | url = https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/pepds5&div=14&id=&page= | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205035812/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals%2Fpepds5&div=14&id=&page= | archive-date = 2016-02-05 }} Dowry violence is most common in South Asia, especially in India. In 2011, the National Crime Records Bureau reported 8,618 dowry deaths in India, but unofficial figures estimate at least three times this amount.

{{Main|Marital rape|Intimate partner sexual violence}}

{{Further|Sexual abuse}}

File:2020 Global Response report FGM world map.svg

The WHO defines sexual abuse as any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed, against a person's sexuality using coercion. It also includes obligatory inspections for virginity and female genital mutilation.{{citation | last1 = WHO | author-link1 = World Health Organization | contribution = The forms and contexts of violence | editor-last1 = WHO | editor-link1 = World Health Organization | title = World report on violence and health: summary | url =https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/ | pages = 17–18 | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva, Switzerland | date = 2002 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150822172354/http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/ | archive-date = 2015-08-22 }} Aside from initiation of the sexual act through physical force, sexual abuse occurs if a person is verbally pressured into consenting,{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/sexualviolence/definitions.html|title=Sexual Violence: Definitions|website=www.cdc.gov|access-date=February 16, 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221160356/https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/sexualviolence/definitions.html|archive-date=February 21, 2018}} unable to understand the nature or condition of the act, unable to decline participation, or unable to communicate unwillingness to engage in the sexual act. This could be because of underage immaturity, illness, disability, or the influence of alcohol or other drugs, or due to intimidation or pressure.{{citation | last = Kappler | first = Karolin Eva | contribution = Theoreteical framework: sexual violence in the frame of everyday life | editor-last = Kappler | editor-first = Karolin Eva | title = Living with paradoxes victims of sexual violence and their conduct of everyday life | pages = 37–38 | publisher = VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften / Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH | location = Wiesbaden | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-3-531-94003-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9OceTzJIjjAC&pg=PA38 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151022142132/https://books.google.com/books?id=9OceTzJIjjAC&pg=PA38 | archive-date = 2015-10-22 }}

In many cultures, victims of rape are considered to have brought dishonor or disgrace to their families and face severe familial violence, including honor killings.{{cite news | title = Ethics guide: honour crimes | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/honourcrimes/crimesofhonour_1.shtml | work = BBC Religion and ethics | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2013 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053506/http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/honourcrimes/crimesofhonour_1.shtml | archive-date = 21 September 2013 }} This is especially the case if the victim becomes pregnant.{{cite news | last = Harter | first = Pascale | title = Libya rape victims 'face honour killings' | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13760895 | work = BBC News | publisher = BBC | date = 14 June 2011 | access-date = 8 September 2013 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130921101600/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13760895 | archive-date = 21 September 2013 }}

Female genital mutilation is defined by WHO as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons." This procedure has been performed on more than 125 million females alive today, and it is concentrated in 29 countries in Africa, Middle East and also in Indonesia.{{cite web | title = Female genital mutilation | url = https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/ | publisher = World Health Organization | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150821210120/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/ | archive-date = 21 August 2015 }}

Incest, or sexual contact between a related adult and a child, is one form of familial sexual violence.{{Cite journal | last = Fridell | first = Lorie A. | title = Decision-making of the District Attorney: diverting or prosecuting intrafamilial child sexual abuse offenders | journal = Criminal Justice Policy Review | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 249–267 | doi = 10.1177/088740349000400304 | date = October 1990 | s2cid = 145654768 }} In some cultures, there are ritualized forms of child sexual abuse taking place with the knowledge and consent of the family, where the child is induced to engage in sexual acts with adults, possibly in exchange for money or goods. For instance, in Malawi some parents arrange for an older man, often called a hyena, to have sex with their daughters as a form of initiation.{{cite news |title=Malawians take steps to end sexual initiation of girls |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2014/01/20/malawians_take_steps_to_end_sexual_initiation_of_girls.html |date=20 January 2014 |work=Toronto Star |publisher=Star Media Group |access-date=22 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711080751/http://www.thestar.com/news/world/2014/01/20/malawians_take_steps_to_end_sexual_initiation_of_girls.html |archive-date=11 July 2015 }}{{cite book | title = ECPAT International: Confronting the commercial sexual exploitation of children in Africa | url = http://www.ecpat.net/sites/default/files/confronting_csec_eng_0.pdf | publisher = End child prostitution, child pornography & trafficking of children for sexual purposes (ECPAT) | date = September 2007 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205035501/http://www.ecpat.net/sites/default/files/confronting_csec_eng_0.pdf | archive-date = 2016-02-05 }} The Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children Against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse{{cite web | title = Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse (CETS No. 201) | url = http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/treaties/Html/201.htm | website = conventions.coe.int | publisher = Council of Europe | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150816220353/http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/201.htm | archive-date = 16 August 2015 }} was the first international treaty to address child sexual abuse occurring within the home or family.{{cite web | title = Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic | url = http://www.mzv.cz/coe.strasbourg/en/news/ceska_republika_podepsala_lanzarotskou.html | publisher = Permanent representation of the Czech Republic to the Council of Europe in Strasbourg | date = 17 July 2014 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141019101433/http://www.mzv.cz/coe.strasbourg/en/news/ceska_republika_podepsala_lanzarotskou.html | archive-date = 19 October 2014 }}

Reproductive coercion (also called coerced reproduction) are threats or acts of violence against a partner's reproductive rights, health and decision-making; and includes a collection of behaviors intended to pressure or coerce a partner into becoming pregnant or ending a pregnancy.{{cite news | last = HotlineAdvocate_SA | title = 1 in 4 callers to the National Domestic Violence Hotline report birth control sabotage and pregnancy coercion | url = https://www.thehotline.org/2011/02/1-in-4-callers-to-the-national-domestic-violence-hotline-report-birth-control-sabotage-and-pregnancy-coercion/ | publisher = National Domestic Violence Hotline | date = 15 February 2011 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208160347/http://www.thehotline.org/2011/02/1-in-4-callers-to-the-national-domestic-violence-hotline-report-birth-control-sabotage-and-pregnancy-coercion/ | archive-date = 8 December 2015 }} Reproductive coercion is associated with forced sex, fear of or inability to make a contraceptive decision, fear of violence after refusing sex, and abusive partner interference with access to healthcare.{{cite web|url=https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/729786|title=Medscape: Medscape Access|website=Medscape|access-date=22 August 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170624175327/https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/729786|archive-date=24 June 2017}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Miller | first1 = Elizabeth | last2 = Jordan | first2 = Beth | last3 = Levenson | first3 = Rebecca | last4 = Silverman | first4 = Jay G. | title = Reproductive coercion: connecting the dots between partner violence and unintended pregnancy | journal = Contraception | volume = 81 | issue = 6 | pages = 457–459 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2010.02.023 | pmc = 2872678 | date = June 2010 | pmid=20472110}}

In some cultures, marriage imposes a social obligation for women to reproduce. In northern Ghana, for example, payment of bride price signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women who use birth control face threats of violence and reprisals.{{cite journal | last1 = Bawah | first1 = Ayaga Agula | last2 = Akweongo | first2 = Patricia | last3 = Simmons | first3 = Ruth | last4 = Phillips | first4 = James F. | title = Women's fears and men's anxieties: the impact of family planning on gender relations in northern Ghana | journal = Studies in Family Planning | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 54–66 | doi = 10.1111/j.1728-4465.1999.00054.x | pmid = 10216896 | date = March 1999 | hdl = 2027.42/73927 | hdl-access = free }}

WHO includes forced marriage, cohabitation, and pregnancy including wife inheritance within its definition of sexual violence.{{citation | last1 = WHO | author-link1 = World Health Organization | contribution = Sexual violence: prevalence, dynamics and consequences | editor-last1 = WHO | editor-link1 = World Health Organization | title = Guidelines for medico-legal care for victims of sexual violence | url =https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/resources/publications/med_leg_guidelines/en/print.html | pages = 6–16 | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva, Switzerland | isbn = 978-92-4-154628-7 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151128012802/http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/resources/publications/med_leg_guidelines/en/print.html | archive-date = 2015-11-28 | year = 2003 }}{{cite book | last1 = Garcia-Moreno | first1 = Claudia | last2 = Guedes | first2 = Alessandra | last3 = Knerr | first3 = Wendy | title = Sexual violence | hdl = 10665/77434 | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva, Switzerland | series = Understanding and Addressing Violence Against Women Series | year = 2012 }} Wife inheritance, or levirate marriage, is a type of marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obliged to marry his widow, and the widow is obliged to marry her deceased husband's brother.

Marital rape is non-consensual penetration perpetrated against a spouse. It is under-reported, under-prosecuted, and legal in many countries, due in part to the belief that through marriage, a woman gives irrevocable consent for her husband to have sex with her when he wishes.{{cite journal |url=http://www.bioline.org.br/abstract?rh04047 |title=An Empirical Investigation of Attitudes towards Wife-Beating among Men and Women in Seven Sub-Saharan African Countries |journal=African Journal of Reproductive Health |volume=8 |issue=3 |year=2004 |pages=116–36 |first1=Manju |last1=Rani |first2=Sekhar |last2=Bonu |first3=Nafissatou |last3=Diop-Sidibé |doi=10.2307/3583398 |pmid=17348330 |citeseerx=10.1.1.544.246 |jstor=3583398 |access-date=March 19, 2019 |archive-date=June 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613081653/http://www.bioline.org.br/abstract?rh04047 |url-status=live }}{{cite web | title = Forced sexual relations among married young women in developing countries | url = https://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/popsyn/PopulationSynthesis1.pdf | publisher = Population Council | date = June 2004 | access-date = 11 April 2014 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130718111324/http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/popsyn/PopulationSynthesis1.pdf | archive-date = 18 July 2013 }}{{Citation | last = Rafferty | first = Yvonne | contribution = Ending child trafficking as a human rights priority: applying the spectrum of prevention as a conceptual framework | editor-last1 = Sigal | editor-first1 = Janet A. | editor-last2 = Denmark | editor-first2 = Florence L. | editor-link2 = Florence Denmark | title = Violence against girls and women: international perspectives | pages = 137–143 | publisher = Praeger, An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC | location = Santa Barbara, California | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-1-4408-0335-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lWejAQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA137 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151101043347/https://books.google.com/books?id=lWejAQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA137 | archive-date = 2015-11-01 }}{{Citation | last = Rafferty | first = Yvonne | contribution = Ending child trafficking as a human rights priority: applying the spectrum of prevention as a conceptual framework | editor-last1 = Sigal | editor-first1 = Janet A. | editor-last2 = Denmark | editor-first2 = Florence L. | editor-link2 = Florence Denmark | title = Violence against girls and women: international perspectives | page = 136 | publisher = Praeger, An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC | location = Santa Barbara, California | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-1-4408-0335-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lWejAQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA136 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151128212735/https://books.google.com/books?id=lWejAQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA136 | archive-date = 2015-11-28 }}{{citation | last = Herring | first = Jonathan | contribution = Domestic violence | editor-last = Herring | editor-first = Jonathan | title = Family law: a very short introduction | page = 35 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford, UK | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-0-19-966852-6}} In Lebanon, for instance, while discussing a proposed law that would criminalize marital rape, Sheik Ahmad Al-Kurdi, a judge in the Sunni religious court, said that the law "could lead to the imprisonment of the man where in reality he is exercising the least of his marital rights."{{cite news |title=Lebanese women take on Muslim judges who call rape a 'marital right' |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2013/02/17/world/meast/lebanon-womens-rights-law |work=CNN |access-date=8 September 2013 |date=18 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717140637/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/02/17/world/meast/lebanon-womens-rights-law |archive-date=17 July 2013 }} Feminists have worked systematically since the 1960s to criminalize marital rape internationally.{{Cite journal | last = Hasday | first = Jill Elaine | title = Contest and consent: a legal history of marital rape | journal = California Law Review | volume = 88 | issue = 5 | pages = 1482–1505 | doi = 10.2307/3481263 | date = October 2000 | jstor = 3481263 | url = https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/occasional_papers/9 | type = Submitted manuscript | access-date = November 7, 2018 | archive-date = July 12, 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210712120253/https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/occasional_papers/9/ | url-status = live }} In 2006, a study by the UN found that marital rape was a prosecutable offense in at least 104 countries.{{citation | contribution = Promising practices and challenges for implementation | title = Ending violence against women: from words to action: study of the Secretary-General | page = 113 | publisher = United Nations | isbn = 978-92-1-112703-4 | url = https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/vaw/publications/English%20Study.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205034858/https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/vaw/publications/English%20Study.pdf | archive-date = 2016-02-05 | year = 2006 }} Once widely condoned or ignored by law and society, marital rape is now repudiated by international conventions and increasingly criminalized. The countries which ratified the Istanbul Convention, the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the field of violence against women,{{cite book | title = The Convention of Belém do Pará and the Istanbul convention: a response to violence against women worldwide | url = https://www.oas.org/es/mesecvi/docs/CSW-SideEvent2014-Flyer-EN.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093634/https://www.oas.org/es/mesecvi/docs/CSW-SideEvent2014-Flyer-EN.pdf | archive-date = 2016-03-04 }} (Flyer for side-event at the 58th session of the Commission on the Status of Women.) are bound by its provisions to ensure that non-consensual sexual acts committed against a spouse or partner are illegal.See [https://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm Article 36 – Sexual violence, including rape para 3; and Article 43 – Application of criminal offences] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906075205/http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm |date=2013-09-06 }} Also see the [https://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/210.htm Explanatory Report, para 194, para 219 and para 220.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720234156/http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Reports/Html/210.htm |date=2015-07-20 }} The convention came into force in August 2014.{{cite web | title = Chart of signatures and ratifications of Treaty 210 | url = https://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=210&CM=&DF=&CL=ENG | publisher = Council of Europe | access-date = 27 October 2015 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923210427/http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=210&CM=&DF=&CL=ENG | archive-date = 23 September 2015 }}

{{Further|Psychological abuse}}

Emotional or psychological abuse is a pattern of behavior that threatens, intimidates, dehumanizes or systematically undermines self-worth.{{Cite journal | last1 = Follingstad | first1 = Diane R. | last2 = DeHart | first2 = Dana D. | title = Defining psychological abuse of husbands toward wives: contexts, behaviors, and typologies | journal = Journal of Interpersonal Violence | volume = 15 | issue = 9 | pages = 891–920 | doi= 10.1177/088626000015009001 | date = September 2000 | s2cid = 143830855 }} According to the Istanbul Convention, psychological violence is "the intentional conduct of seriously impairing a person's psychological integrity through coercion or threats".{{cite web|url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm|title=Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (CETS No. 210)|website=conventions.coe.int|publisher=Council of Europe|access-date=22 August 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923210455/http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm|archive-date=23 September 2015}}

Emotional abuse includes minimizing, threats, isolation, public humiliation, unrelenting criticism, constant personal devaluation, coercive control, repeated stonewalling and gaslighting.{{cite web |last1=Ni |first1=Preston |title=7 Stages of Gaslighting in a Relationship |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/communication-success/201704/7-stages-gaslighting-in-relationship |website=Psychology Today |access-date=5 July 2019 |archive-date=June 10, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610122540/https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/communication-success/201704/7-stages-gaslighting-in-relationship |url-status=live }}{{Cite web|title=Coercive control|url=https://www.womensaid.org.uk/information-support/what-is-domestic-abuse/coercive-control/|access-date=2021-03-09|website=Women's Aid|archive-date=March 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308160235/https://www.womensaid.org.uk/information-support/what-is-domestic-abuse/coercive-control/|url-status=live}} Stalking is a common form of psychological intimidation, and is most often perpetrated by former or current intimate partners.{{citation | last = NHS Barking and Dagenham | contribution = Stalking | editor-last = NHS Barking and Dagenham | title = What is domestic violence? | url = http://www.domesticviolencelondon.nhs.uk/1-what-is-domestic-violence-/26-stalking.html | publisher = National Health Service | location = England | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150530020937/http://www.domesticviolencelondon.nhs.uk/1-what-is-domestic-violence-/26-stalking.html | archive-date = 30 May 2015 }}{{cite journal |last1=Harris |first1=Maxine |title=Stalking the Soul: Emotional Abuse and the Erosion of Identity |journal=Psychiatric Services |volume=52 |issue=7 |pages=979–a–980 |doi=10.1176/appi.ps.52.7.979-a |year=2001 }} Victims tend to feel their partner has nearly total control over them, greatly affecting the power dynamic in a relationship, empowering the perpetrator, and disempowering the victim. Victims often experience depression, putting them at increased risk of eating disorders,{{cite journal | last = Chamberlain | first = Linda | title = Domestic violence: a primary care issue for rural women | volume = 27 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–4 | id = Article 113 | journal = The Network News | date = January–February 2002 | url = http://vawnet.org/domestic-violence/summary.php?doc_id=1485&find_type=web_desc_GC| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150921233754/http://vawnet.org/domestic-violence/summary.php?doc_id=1485&find_type=web_desc_GC| url-status = dead| archive-date = 2015-09-21}} suicide, and drug and alcohol abuse.{{cite web | last = Buttery | first = Vicki W. (biology instructor) | title = The physical and psychological effects of domestic violence on women | url = http://faculty.inverhills.edu/vbutter/domesticviolenceweb.htm | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060907132522/http://faculty.inverhills.edu/vbutter/domesticviolenceweb.htm | archive-date = 7 September 2006 | access-date = 25 June 2012 | website = faculty.inverhills.edu | publisher = Inver Hills Community College }}{{self-published inline|date=March 2019}}{{cite book | last = Jones | first = Ann | title = Next time, she'll be dead: battering & how to stop it | publisher = Beacon Press | location = Boston, Massachusetts | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-8070-6789-5 | url = https://archive.org/details/nexttimeshellbed00annj_0 }}{{Cite journal | last = Hilberman | first = Elaine | title = Overview: the "wife-beater's wife" reconsidered | journal = American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 137 | issue = 11 | pages = 1336–1347 | doi= 10.1176/ajp.137.11.1336 | pmid = 7435666 | date = November 1980 }}{{citation | last = Hilberman | first = Elaine | contribution = Overview: the "wife-beater's wife" reconsidered | editor-last1 = Rieker | editor-first1 = Patricia P | editor-last2 = Carmen | editor-first2 = Elaine | title = The gender gap in psychotherapy social realities and psychological processes | publisher = Springer | pages = 213–236 | location = Boston, Massachusetts | year = 1984 | isbn = 978-1-4684-4754-5}}

Coercive control involves a controlling behavior designed to make a person dependent by isolating them from support, exploiting them of independence and regulating their everyday activities. It involves the acts of verbal assault, punish, humiliation, threats or intimidation. Coercive control can occur physically, for example through physical abuse, harming or frightening the victims.{{Cite news|date=28 February 2019|title=How can you tell whether you are a victim of coercive control? Here are the signs|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/life/coercive-control-how-can-you-tell-whether-your-partner-is-emotio/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/life/coercive-control-how-can-you-tell-whether-your-partner-is-emotio/ |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=9 March 2021|website=The Telegraph|last1=Sanghani|first1=Radhika}}{{cbignore}} The victim's human rights might be infringed through being deprived of their right to liberty and reduced ability to act freely. Abusers tend to dehumanize, make threats, deprive basic needs and personal access, isolate, and track the victim's daily schedule via spyware.{{Cite web|date=10 August 2017|title=Sentences for coercive control must reflect the severity of the crime|url=https://www.womensaid.org.uk/sentences-must-reflect-severity/|website=Women's Aid|access-date=March 9, 2021|archive-date=May 27, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527060635/https://www.womensaid.org.uk/sentences-must-reflect-severity/|url-status=dead}} Victims usually feel a sense of anxiety and fear that seriously affects their personal life, financially, physically and psychologically.

{{main|Economic abuse}}

Economic abuse (or financial abuse) is a form of abuse when one intimate partner has control over the other partner's access to economic resources.{{Cite journal | last1 = Adams | first1 = Adrienne E. | last2 = Sullivan | first2 = Cris M. | last3 = Bybee | first3 = Deborah | last4 = Greeson | first4 = Megan R. | title = Development of the scale of economic abuse | journal = Violence Against Women | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 563–588| doi = 10.1177/1077801208315529 | pmid = 18408173 | date = May 2008 | s2cid = 36997173 }} Marital assets are used as a means of control. Economic abuse may involve preventing a spouse from resource acquisition, limiting what the victim may use, or by otherwise exploiting economic resources of the victim.{{Cite journal | last = Brewster | first = Mary P. | title = Power and control dynamics in prestalking and stalking situations | journal = Journal of Family Violence | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 207–217 | doi = 10.1023/A:1024064214054 | date = August 2003 | s2cid = 38354784 }} {{NCJ|201979}} Economic abuse diminishes the victim's capacity to support themselves, increasing dependence on the perpetrator, including reduced access to education, employment, career advancement, and asset acquisition.{{Cite journal | last1 = Sanders | first1 = Cynthia K. | last2 = Schnabel | first2 = Meg | title = Organizing for economic empowerment of battered women: women's savings accounts | journal = Journal of Community Practice | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 47–68 | doi = 10.1023/A:1024064214054 | date = June 2006 | s2cid = 38354784 }} Forcing or pressuring a family member to sign documents, to sell things, or to change a will are forms of economic abuse.

A victim may be put on an allowance, allowing close monitoring of how much money is spent, preventing spending without the perpetrator's consent, leading to the accumulation of debt or depletion of the victim's savings. Disagreements about money spent can result in retaliation with additional physical, sexual or emotional abuse.{{cite web | last = National Coalition Against Domestic Violence | author-link = National Coalition Against Domestic Violence | title = Economic abuse|url=http://www.ncadv.org/files/EconomicAbuse.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130228065620/http://www.ncadv.org/files/EconomicAbuse.pdf | archive-date = 28 February 2013 | website = ncadv.org | publisher = National Coalition Against Domestic Violence | access-date=24 November 2014}} In parts of the world where women depend on husbands' income in order to survive (due to lack of opportunities for female employment and lack of state welfare) economic abuse can have very severe consequences. Abusive relations have been associated with malnutrition among both mothers and children. In India, for example, the withholding of food is a documented form of family abuse.{{Cite journal | last1 = Ackerson | first1 = Leland K. | last2 = Subramanian | first2 = S.V. | title = Domestic violence and chronic malnutrition among women and children in India | journal = American Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 167 | issue = 10 | pages = 1188–1196 | doi = 10.1093/aje/kwn049 | pmid = 18367471 | date = May 2008 | pmc = 2789268 }}

File:DV-SCALE-5-2017.jpg

{{Anchor|Causes}}

One of the most important factors in domestic violence is a belief that abuse, whether physical or verbal, is acceptable. Other risk factors include substance abuse, lack of education, mental health problems, lack of coping skills, childhood abuse, and excessive dependence on the abuser.{{citation | last1 = Newman | first1 = Willis C. | last2 = Newman | first2 = Esmeralda | contribution = What is domestic violence? (What causes domestic violence?) | editor-last1 = Newman | editor-first1 = Willis C. | editor-last2 = Newman | editor-first2 = Esmeralda | title = Domestic violence: causes and cures and anger management | page = 11 | publisher = Newman International LLC | location = Tacoma, Washington | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-1-4528-4323-0 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=c1_9nzCi4W0C&pg=PA11 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151022142356/https://books.google.com/books?id=c1_9nzCi4W0C&pg=PA11 | archive-date = 2015-10-22 }}{{Citation |last1=Huecker |first1=Martin R. |title=Domestic Violence |date=2023 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499891/ |work=StatPearls |access-date=2023-12-30 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=29763066 |last2=King |first2=Kevin C. |last3=Jordan |first3=Gary A. |last4=Smock |first4=William |archive-date=January 2, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102234459/https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499891/ |url-status=live }}

An overriding motive for committing acts of domestic and interpersonal violence in a relationship is to establish and maintain relationships based on power and control over victims.Curt Bartol and Anne Bartol, An introduction to Forensic Psychology: Research and Application, (SAGE Publications, 2012) 369Pozzullo, Joanna; Craig Bennell and Adrielle Forth (2018). Forensic Psychology. Pearson, 5th edition.Bancroft, Lundy (2003). Why does he do that? Inside the minds of angry and controlling men. Berkley Books, xiii.Ray, Larry (2012). Violence and Society. SAGE Publications, p. 88.

Batterers morality is out of step with the law and society's standards.Ray, Larry (2012). Violence and Society. SAGE Publications, p. 89. Research shows the key issue for perpetrators of abuse is their conscious and deliberate decision to offend in the pursuit of self-gratification.Day, Andrew and Erica Bowen (2015). "Offending Competency and coercive control in intimate partner violence". Aggression and Violent behaviour, 20 (2015)62.

Men who perpetrate violence have specific characteristics: they are narcissistic, they willfully lack empathy, and they choose to treat their needs as more important than others. Perpetrators psychologically manipulate their victim to believe their abuse and violence is caused by the victim's inadequacy (as a wife, a lover, or as a human being) rather than the perpetrators' selfish desire for power and control over them.

{{Main|Cycle of abuse}}

Lenore E. Walker presented the model of a cycle of abuse which consists of four phases. First, there is a buildup to abuse when tension rises until a domestic violence incident ensues. During the reconciliation stage, the abuser may be kind and loving and then there is a period of calm. When the situation is calm, the abused person may be hopeful that the situation will change. Then, tensions begin to build, and the cycle starts again.Hutchison, Phoebe (2014). [https://books.google.com/books?id=VrYPAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA138 Are You Listening? Life Is Talking to You!] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125230853/https://books.google.com/books?id=VrYPAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA138 |date=2015-11-25 }}. Balboa Press, pp. 138–139. {{ISBN|978-1-4525-1311-9}}.

{{Main|Cycle of violence}}

A common aspect among abusers is that they witnessed abuse in their childhood. They were participants in a chain of intergenerational cycles of domestic violence.{{citation | last1 = Simons | first1 = Ronald L. | last2 = Johnson | first2 = Christine | contribution = An examination of competing explanations for the intergenerational transmission of domestic violence | editor-last = Danieli | editor-first = Yael | title = International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma | pages = 553–570 | publisher = Plenum Press | location = New York London | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-306-45738-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=thoNwuDmHEQC&pg=PA553 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140704165827/http://books.google.com/books?id=thoNwuDmHEQC&pg=PA553 | archive-date = 2014-07-04 }} That does not mean, conversely, that if a child witnesses or is subject to violence that they will become abusers. Understanding and breaking the intergenerational abuse patterns may do more to reduce domestic violence than other remedies for managing the abuse.

Responses that focus on children suggest that experiences throughout life influence an individual's propensity to engage in family violence (either as a victim or as a perpetrator). Researchers supporting this theory suggest it is useful to think of three sources of domestic violence: childhood socialization, previous experiences in couple relationships during adolescence, and levels of strain in a person's current life. People who observe their parents abusing each other, or who were themselves abused may incorporate abuse into their behaviour within relationships that they establish as adults.{{cite book | last1 = Kalmuss | first1 = Debra | last2 = Seltzer | first2 = Judith A. | title = The effect of family structure on family violence: the case of remarriage | year = 1984 }} Paper presented at the Second National Conference for Family Violence Researchers.{{Cite journal | last = Kalmuss | first = Debra | title = The intergenerational transmission of marital aggression | journal = Journal of Marriage and Family | volume = 46 | issue = 1 | pages = 11–19 | doi = 10.2307/351858 | jstor = 351858 | date = February 1984 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Kalmuss | first1 = Debra | last2 = Seltzer | first2 = Judith A. | title = Continuity of marital behavior in remarriage: the case of spouse abuse | journal = Journal of Marriage and Family | volume = 48 | issue = 1 | pages = 113–120 | doi = 10.2307/352234 | jstor = 352234 | date = February 1986 }}

Research indicates that the more children are physically punished, the more likely they will be as adults to act violently towards family members, including intimate partners.{{cite book |author=Gershoff, E. T. |date=2008 |title=Report on Physical Punishment in the United States: What Research Tells Us About Its Effects on Children |location=Columbus, OH |publisher=Center for Effective Discipline |page=16 |url=http://www.phoenixchildrens.org/sites/default/files/PDFs/principles_and_practices-of_effective_discipline.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127213730/http://www.phoenixchildrens.org/sites/default/files/PDFs/principles_and_practices-of_effective_discipline.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-27 |access-date=2015-12-14 }} People who are spanked more as children are more likely as adults to approve of hitting a partner, and also experience more marital conflict and feelings of anger in general.{{Cite journal|author=Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health|title=Guidance for effective discipline |journal=Pediatrics |volume=101 |issue=4 Pt 1 |pages=723–8 |date=April 1998 |pmid=9521967|doi=10.1542/peds.101.4.723 |doi-access=free }} A number of studies have found physical punishment to be associated with "higher levels of aggression against parents, siblings, peers and spouses", even when controlling for other factors.{{cite journal |last1=Durrant |first1=Joan |last2=Ensom |first2=Ron |date=4 September 2012 |title=Physical punishment of children: lessons from 20 years of research |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |volume=184 |issue=12 |pages=1373–1377 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.101314 |pmid=22311946 |pmc=3447048}} While these associations do not prove a causal relationship, a number of longitudinal studies suggest that the experience of physical punishment does have a direct causal effect on later aggressive behaviors. Such research has shown that corporal punishment of children (e.g. smacking, slapping, or spanking) predicts weaker internalisation of values such as empathy, altruism, and resistance to temptation, along with more antisocial behavior, including dating violence.{{cite journal |author=Durrant, Joan |title=Physical Punishment, Culture, and Rights: Current Issues for Professionals |date=March 2008 |journal=Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=55–66 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5551171 |pmid=18300726 |doi=10.1097/DBP.0b013e318135448a |s2cid=20693162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205034542/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5551171_Physical_Punishment_Culture_and_Rights_Current_Issues_for_Professionals |archive-date=2016-02-05 }}

In some patrilineal societies around the world, a young bride moves with the family of her husband. As a new girl in the home, she starts as having the lowest (or among the lowest) position in the family, is often subjected to violence and abuse, and is, in particular, strongly controlled by the parents-in-law: with the arrival of the daughter-in-law in the family, the mother-in-law's status is elevated and she now has (often for the first time in her life) substantial power over someone else, and "this family system itself tends to produce a cycle of violence in which the formerly abused bride becomes the abusing mother-in-law to her new daughter-in-law".{{citation | last = Ruether | first = Rosemary Radford | contribution = The greening of world religions | editor-last = Ruether | editor-first = Rosemary Radford | title = Integrating ecofeminism, globalization, and world religions | page = 50 | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | location = Lanham, Maryland | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-7425-3530-5}} Amnesty International writes that, in Tajikistan, "it is almost an initiation ritual for the mother-in-law to put her daughter-in-law through the same torments she went through herself as a young wife."{{cite book | last = Amnesty International | author-link = Amnesty International | title = Violence is not just a family affair: women face abuse in Tajikistan | publisher = Amnesty International | id = Paper no. EUR 60/001/2009 | date = 24 November 2009 | url = https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/48000/eur600012009en.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150707164902/https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/48000/eur600012009en.pdf | archive-date = 7 July 2015 }}

These factors include genetics and brain dysfunction and are studied by neuroscience.{{Cite journal | last1 = Patrick | first1 = Christopher J. | title = Psychophysiological correlates of aggression and violence: an integrative review | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 363 | issue = 1503 | pages = 2543–2555 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2008.0028 | pmid = 18434285 | pmc = 2606710 | date = August 2008 }} Psychological theories focus on personality traits and mental characteristics of the offender. Personality traits include sudden bursts of anger, poor impulse control, and poor self-esteem. Various theories suggest that psychopathology is a factor, and that abuse experienced as a child leads some people to be more violent as adults. Correlation has been found between juvenile delinquency and domestic violence in adulthood.{{cite thesis|degree=M.A.|first=Michelle|last=Kalra|title=Juvenile delinquency and adult aggression against women|url=http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/570/|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University|date=1996|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502151157/http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/570/|archive-date=2012-05-02}}

Studies have found a high incidence of psychopathology among domestic abusers.{{Cite journal | last1 = Hamberger | first1 = L. Kevin | last2 = Hastings | first2 = James E. | title = Personality correlates of men who abuse their partners: a cross-validation study | journal = Journal of Family Violence | volume = 1 | issue = 4 | pages = 323–341 | doi = 10.1007/BF00978276 | date = December 1986 | s2cid = 28519101 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Hamberger | first1 = L. Kevin | last2 = Hastings | first2 = James E. | title = Personality correlates of men who batter and nonviolent men: some continuities and discontinuities | journal = Journal of Family Violence | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 131–147 | doi = 10.1007/BF00978715 | date = June 1991 | s2cid = 34418453 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Hart | first1 = Stephen D. | last2 = Dutton | first2 = Donald G. | last3 = Newlove | first3 = Theresa | title = The prevalence of personality disorder among wife assaulters | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 7 | issue = 4 | pages = 329–341 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.1993.7.4.329 | date = December 1993 }} For instance, some research suggests that about 80% of both court-referred and self-referred men in these domestic violence studies exhibited diagnosable psychopathology, typically personality disorders. "The estimate of personality disorders in the general population would be more in the 15–20% range ... As violence becomes more severe and chronic in the relationship, the likelihood of psychopathology in these men approaches 100%."{{Cite journal|last=Dutton |first=Donald G. |s2cid=35155731 |title=Patriarchy and wife assault: the ecological fallacy |journal=Violence & Victims |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=167–182|pmid=7696196 |date=Summer 1994 |doi=10.1891/0886-6708.9.2.167 }}

Dutton has suggested a psychological profile of men who abuse their wives, arguing that they have borderline personalities that are developed early in life.{{cite book | author1 = Dutton, Donald G. | author2 = Golant, Susan | title = The batterer: a psychological profile | publisher = Basic Books | location = Princeton, New Jersey | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-465-03388-1 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/battererpsycholo0000dutt }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Dutton | first1 = Donald G. | last2 = Starzomski | first2 = Andrew J. | title = Borderline personality in perpetrators of psychological and physical abuse | journal = Violence & Victims | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = 326–337 | pmid = 8060906 | date = Winter 1993 | doi = 10.1891/0886-6708.8.4.327 | s2cid = 9044635 }} However, these psychological theories are disputed: Gelles suggests that psychological theories are limited, and points out that other researchers have found that only 10% (or less) fit this psychological profile. He argues that social factors are important, while personality traits, mental illness, or psychopathy are lesser factors.{{cite book | last = Gelles | first = Richard J. | author-link = Richard J. Gelles | contribution = Theories that explain intimate violence | editor-last = Gelles | editor-first = Richard J. | editor-link = Richard J. Gelles | title = Intimate violence in families | pages = 126–127 | publisher = Sage | location = Thousand Oaks, California | year = 1997 | edition = 3rd | isbn = 978-0-7619-0123-5}}{{citation | last = Steele | first = Brandt F. | contribution = A psychiatric study of parents who abuse infants and small children | editor-last1 = Helfer | editor-first1 = Ray E. | editor-last2 = Kempe | editor-first2 = C. Henry | title = The battered child | pages = [https://archive.org/details/batteredchild00helf/page/89 89–134] | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | year = 1974 | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-0-226-32629-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/batteredchild00helf/page/89 }}{{cite book | last1 = Straus | first1 = Murray A. | last2 = Gelles | first2 = Richard J. | last3 = Steinmetz | first3 = Suzanne K. | author-link1 = Murray A. Straus | author-link2 = Richard J. Gelles | title = Behind closed doors: violence in the American family | publisher = Anchor Press/Doubleday | location = Garden City, New York | year = 1980 | isbn = 978-0-385-14259-5}}

An evolutionary psychological explanation of domestic violence is that it represents male attempts to control female reproduction and ensure sexual exclusivity.{{Cite journal | last = Goetz | first = Aaron T. | title = The evolutionary psychology of violence | journal = Psicothema | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 15–21 | pmid = 20100422 | date = 2010 | url = http://www.psicothema.com/english/psicothema.asp?id=3690 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151222130253/http://www.psicothema.com/english/psicothema.asp?id=3690 | archive-date = 2015-12-22 }} Violence related to extramarital relations is seen as justified in certain parts of the world. For instance, a survey in Diyarbakir, Turkey, found that, when asked the appropriate punishment for a woman who has committed adultery, 37% of respondents said she should be killed, while 21% said her nose or ears should be cut off.{{cite news | last = Rainsford | first = Sarah | title = 'Honour' crime defiance in Turkey | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4357158.stm | work = BBC News | publisher = BBC | date = 19 October 2005 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150115054818/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4357158.stm | archive-date = 15 January 2015 }}

A 1997 report suggested that domestic abusers display higher than average mate retention behaviors, which are attempts to maintain the relationship with the partner. The report had stated that men, more than women, were using "resource display, submission and debasement, and intrasexual threats to retain their mates".Buss, D. M., & Shackelford, T. K. (1997). "From vigilance to violence: Mate retention tactics in married couples". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(2), 346–361.

Social theories look at external factors in the offender's environment, such as family structure, stress, social learning, and includes rational choice theories.{{cite web | last1 = Haugan | first1 = Grethemor Skagseth | last2 = Nøttestad | first2 = Jim Aage | title = Norway: treatment program for men who batters | url = http://www.europrofem.org/contri/2_04_en/en-viol/81en_vio.htm | publisher = Violence in intimate relationships Norway: EuroPROFEM – The European Men Profeminist Network, Norwegian University of Science and Technology | location = Trondheim, Norway | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110726042139/http://www.europrofem.org/contri/2_04_en/en-viol/81en_vio.htm | archive-date = 2011-07-26 }}

Social learning theory suggests that people learn from observing and modeling after others' behavior. With positive reinforcement, the behavior continues. If one observes violent behavior, one is more likely to imitate it. If there are no negative consequences (e.g. the victim accepts the violence, with submission), then the behavior will likely continue.{{Cite journal | last1 = Hotaling | first1 = Gerald T. | last2 = Sugarman | first2 = David B. | s2cid = 24617261 | title = An analysis of risk markers in husband to wife violence: the current state of knowledge | journal = Violence & Victims | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 101–124 | pmid = 3154143 | date = 1986 | doi = 10.1891/0886-6708.1.2.101 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Murphy | first1 = Christopher M. | last2 = Meyer | first2 = Shannon-Lee | last3 = O'Leary | first3 = K. Daniel | s2cid = 27734753 | title = Family of origin violence and MCMI-II psychopathology, among partner assaultive men | journal = Violence & Victims | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 165–176 | pmid = 8193057 | date = 1993 | doi = 10.1891/0886-6708.8.2.165 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Doumas | first1 = Diana | last2 = Margolin | first2 = Gayla | author-link2=Gayla Margolin|last3 = John | first3 = Richard S. | title = The intergenerational transmission of aggression across three generations | journal = Journal of Family Violence | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 157–175 | date = June 1994 | doi=10.1007/bf01531961| s2cid = 22469076 }}

Resource theory was suggested by William Goode in 1971.{{Cite journal | last = Goode | first = William J. | title = Force and violence in the family | journal = Journal of Marriage and Family | volume = 33 | issue = 4 | pages = 624–636 | doi = 10.2307/349435 | jstor = 349435 | date = November 1971 }} Women who are most dependent on their spouse for economic well-being (e.g. homemakers/housewives, women with disability, women who are unemployed), and are the primary caregiver to their children, fear the increased financial burden if they leave their marriage. Dependency means that they have fewer options and few resources to help them cope with or change their spouse's behavior.{{citation | last1 = Kalmuss | first1 = Debra S. | last2 = Straus | first2 = Murray A. | author-link2 = Murray A. Straus | contribution = Wife's marital dependency and wife abuse | editor-last1 = Straus | editor-first1 = Murray A. | editor-last2 = Gelles | editor-first2 = Richard J. | editor-link1 = Murray A. Straus | editor-link2 = Richard J. Gelles | title = Physical violence in American families: risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families | publisher = Transaction Publishers | location = New Brunswick, New Jersey | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-0-88738-263-5 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/physicalviolence0000stra }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=4_3nLMBoiTwC Details.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828020344/https://books.google.com/books?id=4_3nLMBoiTwC |date=August 28, 2023 }}

Couples that share power equally experience a lower incidence of conflict, and when conflict does arise, are less likely to resort to violence. If one spouse desires control and power in the relationship, the spouse may resort to abuse.{{citation | last = Kurz | first = Demie | contribution = Battering and the criminal justice system: a feminist view | editor-last1 = Buzawa | editor-first1 = Eva Schlesinger | editor-last2 = Buzawa | editor-first2 = Carl G. | title = Domestic violence: the changing criminal justice response | pages = [https://archive.org/details/domesticviolence0000unse_c2j9/page/21 21–40] | publisher = Auburn House | location = Westport, Connecticut | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-0-86569-001-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/domesticviolence0000unse_c2j9/page/21 }} This may include coercion and threats, intimidation, emotional abuse, economic abuse, isolation, making light of the situation and blaming the spouse, using children (threatening to take them away), and behaving as "master of the castle".{{citation | last = Wallace | first = Harvey | contribution = Spousal abuse | editor-last = Wallace | editor-first = Harvey | title = Family violence: legal, medical, and social perspectives | pages = 184–185 | publisher = Pearson | location = Boston, Massachusetts | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-205-41822-0}}{{cite web | title = Power and control wheel | url = http://www.theduluthmodel.org/documents/PhyVio.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100601232757/http://www.theduluthmodel.org/documents/PhyVio.pdf | archive-date = 1 June 2010 | publisher = Domestic Abuse Intervention Project | access-date= 27 November 2007 }}

Another report has stated that domestic abusers may be blinded by rage and therefore see themselves as the victim when it comes to domestically abusing their partner. Due to mainly negative emotions and difficulties in communications between partners, the abusers believe they have been wronged and therefore psychologically they make themselves be seen as the victim.Elmquistm, JoAnna and others (2014). "Motivations for Intimate Partner Violence in Men and Women Arrested for Domestic Violence and Court Referred to Batterer Intervention Programs" 5 Partner Abuse, p. 359.

Stress may be increased when a person is living in a family situation, with increased pressures. Social stresses, due to inadequate finances or other such problems in a family may further increase tensions. Violence is not always caused by stress, but may be one way that some people respond to stress.{{Cite journal | last1 = Kalmuss | first1 = Debra | last2 = Seltzer | first2 = Judith A. | title = Socialization and stress explanations for spouse abuse | journal = Social Forces | volume = 67 | issue = 2 | pages = 473–491 | doi = 10.2307/2579191 | jstor = 2579191 | date = December 1988 }}{{cite journal | last = Aneshensel | first = Carol S. | title = Social stress: theory and research | journal = Annual Review of Sociology | volume = 18 | pages = 15–38 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.so.18.080192.000311 | date = August 1992 }} Families and couples in poverty may be more likely to experience domestic violence, due to increased stress and conflicts about finances and other aspects.{{cite journal | last = Jewkes | first = Rachel | title = Intimate partner violence: causes and prevention | journal = The Lancet | volume = 359 | issue = 9315 | pages = 1423–1429 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08357-5 | jstor = 11978358 | date = 20 April 2002 | pmid=11978358| s2cid = 18574662 }} Some speculate that poverty may hinder a man's ability to live up to his idea of successful manhood, thus he fears losing honor and respect. A theory suggests that when he is unable to economically support his wife, and maintain control, he may turn to misogyny, substance abuse, and crime as ways to express masculinity.

Same-sex relationships may experience similar social stressors. Additionally, violence in same-sex relationships has been linked to internalized homophobia, which contributed to low self-esteem and anger in both the perpetrator and victim.{{cite journal | last1 = Murray | first1 = Christine E. | last2 = Mobley | first2 = A. Keith | last3 = Buford | first3 = Anne P. | last4 = Seaman-DeJohn | first4 = Megan M. | title = Same-sex Intimate partner violence: dynamics, social context, and counseling implications | journal = Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling | volume = 1 | issue = 4 | pages = 7–30 | doi = 10.1300/J462v01n04_03 | date = January 2007 | s2cid = 15571958 | url = https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/AK_Mobley_Same_2007.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205035411/https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/AK_Mobley_Same_2007.pdf | archive-date = 2016-02-05 }} Internalized homophobia also appears to be a barrier in victims seeking help. Similarly, heterosexism can play a key role in domestic violence in the LGBT community. As a social ideology that implies "heterosexuality is normative, morally superior, and better than [homosexuality]," heterosexism can hinder services and lead to an unhealthy self-image in sexual minorities. Heterosexism in legal and medical institutions can be seen in instances of discrimination, biases, and insensitivity toward sexual orientation. For example, as of 2006, seven states explicitly denied LGBT individuals the ability to apply for protective orders,https://www.1900law.com/emergency-protective-orders-should-they-be-served-in-public/ proliferating ideas of LGBT subjugation, which is tied to feelings of anger and powerlessness.

{{Main|Abusive power and control}}

File:(2) Cycle of abuse, power & control issues in domestic abuse situations.gif

Power and control in abusive relationships is the way that abusers exert physical, sexual and other forms of abuse to gain control within relationships.{{cite web | last = Staff writer | title = Violence wheel | url = http://www.domesticviolence.org/violence-wheel/ | publisher = Domestic Abuse Violence Project (aka Duluth Model) | access-date = 18 April 2014 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140223092347/http://www.domesticviolence.org/violence-wheel | archive-date = 23 February 2014 }}

A causalist view of domestic violence is that it is a strategy to gain or maintain power and control over the victim. This view is in alignment with Bancroft's cost-benefit theory that abuse rewards the perpetrator in ways other than, or in addition to, simply exercising power over his or her target(s). He cites evidence in support of his argument that, in most cases, abusers are quite capable of exercising control over themselves, but choose not to do so for various reasons.{{cite book | last = Bancroft | first = Lundy | title = Why does he do that?: Inside the minds of angry and controlling men | publisher = Berkley Books | location = New York, New York | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-0-425-19165-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/whydoeshedothati00banc_0 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=xEZIpu3SVvcC Details.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151101115109/https://books.google.com/books?id=xEZIpu3SVvcC |date=2015-11-01 }}

Sometimes, one person seeks complete power and control over their partner and uses different ways to achieve this, including resorting to physical violence. The perpetrator attempts to control all aspects of the victim's life, such as their social, personal, professional and financial decisions.

Questions of power and control are integral to the widely utilized but non-scientific Duluth model. Ellen Pence et al developed the Power and Control Wheel but, the methods used to come to this were non-scientific and contradicted by their own data as admitted by the author herself.

{{cite book|last=Pence|first=Ellen|chapter=Some Thoughts on Philosophy|title=Coordinating Community Responses to Domestic Violence: Lessons from Duluth and Beyond|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/coordinatingcomm00mela|chapter-url-access=registration|location=Thousand Oaks, CA.|publisher=Sage|date=1999|editor1-first=Melanie|editor1-last=Shepherd|editor2-last=Pence|editor2-first=Ellen}}

The Power and Control Wheel has power and control at the center, surrounded by spokes which represent techniques used. The titles of the spokes include coercion and threats, intimidation, emotional abuse, isolation, minimizing, denying and blaming, using children, economic abuse, and privilege.{{cite book | title = Power and control wheel | url = http://www.ncdsv.org/images/Power_and_Control_wheel_NCDSV.pdf | publisher = National Center on Domestic and Sexual Violence | access-date = 18 November 2011 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150314062136/http://www.ncdsv.org/images/Power_and_Control_wheel_NCDSV.pdf | archive-date = 14 March 2015 }}

Critical academics argue that this model is inadequate because it ignores research linking domestic violence to substance abuse and psychological problems.{{cite news | last = Twohey | first = Megan | title = How can domestic abuse be stopped? | url = http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/chi-abusers-02-jan02,0,1147422.story?page=1 | work = Chicago Tribune | publisher = Tribune Publishing | date = 2 January 2009 | access-date = 16 April 2011 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110216030642/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/chi-abusers-02-jan02,0,1147422.story?page=1 | archive-date = 16 February 2011 }} It also fails to explain women's violence, violence within same-sex relationships and bidirectional abuse.{{cite journal |last1=Bates |first1=Elizabeth |title=Current Controversies within Intimate Partner Violence: Overlooking Bidirectional Violence |journal=Journal of Family Violence |date=2016 |volume=31 |issue=8 |pages=937–940|doi=10.1007/s10896-016-9862-7 |url=https://insight.cumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/2421/1/Bates%202016%20JFV%20Special%20Issue.pdf }}{{cite journal |last1=Rizza |first1=Johnna |title=Beyond Duluth: A Broad Spectrum of Treatmentfor a Broad Spectrum Domestic Violence |journal=Montana Law Review |volume=70 |issue=1}} Modern research into the patterns in domestic violence has found that women are more likely to be physically abusive towards their partner in relationships in which only one partner is violent,{{cite journal | last1 = Whitaker | first1 = Daniel J. | last2 = Haileyesus | first2 = Tadesse | last3 = Swahn | first3 = Monica | last4 = Saltzman | first4 = Linda S. | author-link4=Linda Saltzman|title = Differences in frequency of violence and reported injury between relationships with reciprocal and nonreciprocal intimate partner violence | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 97 | issue = 5 | pages = 941–947 | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2005.079020 | pmid = 17395835 | pmc = 1854883 | date = May 2007 }}{{cite conference | last = Straus | first = Murray A. | author-link = Murray A. Straus | url = http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2/ID41E2.pdf | title = Dominance and symmetry in partner violence by male and female university students in 32 nations | publisher = New York University | date = 23 May 2006 | access-date = 30 April 2012 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120417051006/http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2/ID41E2.pdf | archive-date = 17 April 2012 }} Conference on trends in intimate violence intervention. which draws the factuality of using concepts like male privilege to treat domestic violence into question. Some modern research into predictors of injury from domestic violence suggests that the strongest predictor of injury by domestic violence is participation in reciprocal domestic violence. When all things are considered, academics conclude that it is an "extreme, negative, and polarized model".{{cite journal |last1=Donald |first1=Dutton |title=The Duluth model: A data-impervious paradigm and a failed strategy |journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior |date=2007 |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=658–667 |doi=10.1016/j.avb.2007.03.002}}

{{Undue weight|section|date=March 2025}}

Non-subordination theory, sometimes called dominance theory, is an area of feminist legal theory that focuses on the power differential between men and women.Bartlett et al., p. 327. Non-subordination theory takes the position that society, and particularly men in society, use sex differences between men and women to perpetuate this power imbalance. Unlike other topics within feminist legal theory, non-subordination theory focuses specifically on certain sexual behaviors, including control of women's sexuality, sexual harassment, pornography, and violence against women generally.Bartlett et al., p. 328. Catharine MacKinnon argues that non-subordination theory best addresses these particular issues because they affect almost exclusively women.Bartlett et al., p. 332 citing MacKinnon, Catharine A. (1987) Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law. Harvard University Press. pp. 40–41. {{ISBN|0674298748}}. MacKinnon advocates for non-subordination theory over other theories, like formal equality, substantive equality, and difference theory, because sexual violence and other forms of violence against women are not a question of "sameness and difference", but rather are best viewed as more central inequalities for women. Though non-subordination theory has been discussed at great length in evaluating various forms of sexual violence against women, it also serves as a basis for understanding domestic violence and why it occurs. Non-subordination theory tackles the issue of domestic violence as a subset of the broader problem of violence against women because victims are overwhelmingly female.Bartlett et al., p. 387 citing Rennison, Callie Marie and Welchans, Sarah (May 2000) [https://web.archive.org/web/20090901024747/http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov//bjs//pub/pdf/ipv.pdf Special Report: Intimate Partner Violence], Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Proponents of non-subordination theory propose several reasons why it works best to explain domestic violence. First, there are certain recurring patterns in domestic violence that indicate it is not the result of intense anger or arguments, but rather is a form of subordination.Bartlett et al., pp. 389–92 citing Fischer, Karla et al. (1993) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37810125_The_Culture_of_Battering_and_the_Role_of_Mediation_in_Domestic_Violence_Cases The Culture of Battering and the Role of Mediation in Domestic Violence Cases] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706162122/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37810125_The_Culture_of_Battering_and_the_Role_of_Mediation_in_Domestic_Violence_Cases |date=July 6, 2018 }}, 46 SMU L. Rev. pp. 2117, 2121–2130, 2133, 2136–2138, 2141. This is evidenced in part by the fact that domestic violence victims are typically abused in a variety of situations and by a variety of means. For example, victims are sometimes beaten after they have been sleeping or have been separated from the batterer, and often the abuse takes on a financial or emotional form in addition to physical abuse. Supporters of non-subordination theory use these examples to dispel the notion that battering is always the result of heat of the moment anger or intense arguments occur. Also, batterers often employ manipulative and deliberate tactics when abusing their victims, which can "range from searching for and destroying a treasured object of hers to striking her in areas of her body that do not show bruises (e.g. her scalp) or in areas where she would be embarrassed to show others her bruises." These behaviors can be even more useful to a batterer when the batterer and the victim share children, because the batterer often controls the family's financial assets, making the victim less likely to leave if it would put her children at risk.Bartlett et al., p. 413.

Professor Martha Mahoney, of the University of Miami School of Law, also points to separation assault – a phenomenon where a batterer further assaults a victim who is attempting or has attempted to leave an abusive relationship – as additional evidence that DV is used to subordinate victims to their batterers.Bartlett et al., pp. 392–93 citing {{cite journal |doi=10.2307/1289533 |jstor=1289533 |title=Legal Images of Battered Women: Redefining the Issue of Separation |journal=Michigan Law Review |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=1–94 |year=1991 |last1=Mahoney |first1=Martha R. |url=https://repository.law.miami.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1388&context=fac_articles |access-date=September 4, 2019 |archive-date=April 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430180311/https://repository.law.miami.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1388&context=fac_articles |url-status=live }} A batterer's unwillingness to allow the victim to leave the relationship substantiates the idea that violence is being used to force the victim to continue to fulfill the batterer's wishes that she obey him. Non-subordination theorists argue that all of these actions – the variety of abusive behaviors and settings, exploiting the victim's children, and assault upon separation – suggest a larger problem than merely an inability to properly manage anger, though anger may be a byproduct of these behaviors. The purpose of these actions is to keep the victim, and sometimes the entire family, subordinate to the batterer, according to non-subordination theory.

A second rationale for using non-subordination theory to explain domestic violence is that the frequency with which it occurs overpowers the idea that it is merely the result of a batterer's anger. Professor Mahoney explains that because of the sensationalism generated in media coverage of particularly horrific domestic violence cases, it is difficult for people to conceptualize how frequently domestic violence happens in society. However, domestic violence is a regular occurrence experienced by up to one half of people in the US, and an overwhelming number of victims are female. The sheer number of domestic violence victims in the US suggests that it is not merely the result of intimate partners who cannot control their anger. Non-subordination theory contends that it is the batterer's desire to subordinate the victim, not his uncountainable anger, which explains the frequency of domestic violence. Non-subordination theorists argue that other forms of feminist legal theory do not offer any explanation for the phenomenon of domestic violence generally or the frequency with which it occurs.{{Cite web |title=Untitled Document |url=https://cyber.harvard.edu/bridge/CriticalTheory/critical3.txt.htm |access-date=2022-05-05 |website=cyber.harvard.edu |archive-date=July 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709123558/https://cyber.harvard.edu/bridge/CriticalTheory/critical3.txt.htm |url-status=live }}

Critics of non-subordination theory complain that it offers no solutions to the problems it points out. For example, proponents of non-subordination theory criticize certain approaches that have been taken to address domestic violence in the legal system, such as mandatory arrest or prosecution policies.Bartlett et al., p. 405. These policies take discretion away from law enforcement by forcing police officers to arrest suspected domestic violence offenders and prosecutors to prosecute those cases. There is a lot of discourse surrounding mandatory arrest. Opponents argue that it undermines a victim's autonomy, discourages the empowerment of women by discounting other resources available and puts victims at more risk for domestic abuse. States that have implemented mandatory arrest laws have 60% higher homicide rates which have been shown to be consistent with the decline in reporting rates.{{Cite journal|last=Pavlidakis|first=Alexandra|date=January 1, 2009|title=Mandatory Arrest: Past Its Prime|url=http://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1076&context=lawreview|journal=Santa Clara Law Review|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604135236/http://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1076&context=lawreview|archive-date=June 4, 2016}} Advocates of these policies contend that the criminal justice system is sometimes the only way to reach victims of domestic violence, and that if an offender knows he will be arrested, it will deter future domestic violence conduct. People who endorse non-subordination theory argue that these policies only serve to further subordinate women by forcing them to take a certain course of action, thus compounding the trauma they experienced during the abuse. However, non-subordination theory itself offers no better or more appropriate solutions, which is why some scholars argue that other forms of feminist legal theory are more appropriate to address issues of domestic and sexual violence.{{Cite web |title=Feminist Jurisprudence |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/feminist_jurisprudence |access-date=2022-05-05 |website=LII / Legal Information Institute |language=en |archive-date=May 23, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523092811/https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/feminist_jurisprudence |url-status=live }}

File:Kills His Son in Law.jpg

Domestic violence typically co-occurs with alcohol abuse. Alcohol use has been reported as a factor by two-thirds of domestic abuse victims. Moderate drinkers are more frequently engaged in intimate violence than are light drinkers and abstainers; however, generally it is heavy or binge drinkers who are involved in the most chronic and serious forms of aggression. The odds, frequency, and severity of physical attacks are all positively correlated with alcohol use. In turn, violence decreases after behavioral marital alcoholism treatment.{{Citation|last=Sung|first=Hung-En|chapter=Alcohol and Crime|date=2016|encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology|pages=1–2|publisher=American Cancer Society|doi=10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosa039.pub2|isbn=978-1-4051-6551-8}}

There are studies providing evidence of a link between domestic violence and cruelty to animals. A large national survey by the Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies found a "substantial overlap between companion animal abuse and child abuse" and that cruelty to animals "most frequently co-occurred with psychological abuse and less severe forms of physical child abuse," which "resonates with conceptualizations of domestic abuse as an ongoing pattern of psychological abuse and coercive control."{{Cite journal|last1 = Muri | first1 =K.|last2=Augusti|first2=E. M.|last3=Bjørnholt|first3=M.|last4=Hafstad|first4=G. S.| year = 2022 | title = Childhood experiences of companion animal abuse and its co-occurrence with domestic abuse: Evidence from a national youth survey in Norway | url = | format = | journal = Journal of Interpersonal Violence | volume = 37|issue = 23–24| pages = NP22627–NP22646| doi =10.1177/08862605211072176| pmid =35156447| pmc =9679564| s2cid =246806885}}

{{Anchor|Social influences}}

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File:Share of women who believe a husband is justified in beating his wife, OWID.svg

How domestic violence is viewed varies from person to person, and from culture to culture, but in many places outside the West, the concept is very poorly understood. In some countries the concept is even widely accepted or completely suppressed. This is because in most of these countries the relation between the husband and wife is not considered one of equals, but instead one in which the wife must submit herself to the husband. This is codified in the laws of some countries – for example, in Yemen, marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.{{cite tech report | last = Amnesty International | author-link = Amnesty International | title = Yemen's dark side: discrimination and violence against women and girls | url = https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde31/014/2009/en/ | type = Report | id = MDE 31/014/2009 | date = 25 November 2009 | access-date = 11 April 2014 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151210214138/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde31/014/2009/en/ | archive-date = 10 December 2015 }} [http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Yemen%27s%20darkside-discrimination_Yemen_HRC101.pdf Direct PDF link] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326165645/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Yemen%27s%20darkside-discrimination_Yemen_HRC101.pdf |date=2016-03-26 }}

According to Violence against Women in Families and Relationships, "globally, wife-beating is seen as justified in some circumstances by a majority of the population in various countries, most commonly in situations of actual or suspected infidelity by wives or their 'disobedience' toward a husband or partner."{{citation | last1 = Flood | first1 = Michael | last2 = Pease | first2 = Robert | last3 = Taylor | first3 = Natalie | last4 = Webster | first4 = Kim | author-link = Michael Flood | contribution = Reshaping attitudes towards violence against women | editor-last1 = Buzawa | editor-first1 = Eve S. | editor-last2 = Stark | editor-first2 = Evan | title = Violence against women in families and relationships, Volume IV: the media and cultural attitudes | page = [https://archive.org/details/violenceagainstw0000unse_j3h7/page/184 184] | publisher = Praeger/ABC-CLIO | location = Santa Barbara, California | year = 2009 | isbn = 978-0-275-99854-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/violenceagainstw0000unse_j3h7/page/184 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=EE8dkgEACAAJ Details.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110213354/https://books.google.com/books?id=EE8dkgEACAAJ |date=2017-01-10 }} These violent acts against a wife are often not considered a form of abuse by society (both men and women) but are considered to have been provoked by the behavior of the wife, who is seen as being at fault. In many places extreme acts such as honor killings are also approved by a high section of the society. In one survey, 33.4% of teenagers in Jordan's capital city, Amman, approved of honor killings. This survey was carried in the capital of Jordan, which is much more liberal than other parts of the country; the researchers said that "we would expect that in the more rural and traditional parts of Jordan, support for honor killings would be even higher".{{cite news |last=Maher |first=Ahmed |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22992365 |title=Many Jordan teenagers 'support honour killings' |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |date=20 June 2013 |access-date=9 September 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921234334/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22992365 |archive-date=21 September 2013 }}

In a 2012 news story, The Washington Post reported, "The Reuters Trust Law group named India one of the worst countries in the world for women this year, partly because [domestic violence] there is often seen as deserved. A 2012 report by UNICEF found that 57 percent of Indian boys and 53 percent of girls between the ages of 15 and 19 think wife-beating is justified."{{cite news | last1 = Khazan | first1 = Olga | last2 = Lakshmi | first2 = Rama | title = 10 reasons why India has a sexual violence problem | url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2012/12/29/india-rape-victim-dies-sexual-violence-proble/ | newspaper = The Washington Post | publisher = Nash Holdings LLC | date = 29 December 2012 | access-date = 9 December 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150512153618/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2012/12/29/india-rape-victim-dies-sexual-violence-proble/ | archive-date = 12 May 2015 }}

In conservative cultures, a wife dressing in attire deemed insufficiently modest can suffer serious violence at the hands of her husband or relatives, with such violent responses seen as appropriate by most of the society: in a survey, 62.8% of women in Afghanistan said that a husband is justified in beating his wife if she wears inappropriate clothes.[https://cso.gov.af/Content/files/AMICS.pdf Monitoring the Situation of Women & Children.''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205040032/http://cso.gov.af/Content/files/AMICS.pdf |date=2016-02-05 }} Afghanistan Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2010/2011. Central Statistics Organisation. UNICEF. January 2013. Retrieved 11 April 2014.

File:A comparison of acceptance of domestic violence in select Arab and Muslim majority countries, UNICEF 2013.png | date = January 2013 | access-date = 11 April 2014 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150102115825/https://libraries.ucsd.edu/info/resources/unicef-monitoring-situation-children-and-women | archive-date = 2 January 2015 }} [http://cso.gov.af/Content/files/AMICS.pdf Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111204848/http://cso.gov.af/Content/files/AMICS.pdf |date=2014-01-11 }}]]

According to Antonia Parvanova, one of the difficulties of dealing legally with the issue of domestic violence is that men in many male-dominated societies do not understand that inflicting violence against their wives is against the law. She said, referring to a case that occurred in Bulgaria, "A husband was tried for severely beating his wife and when the judge asked him if he understood what he did and if he's sorry, the husband said 'But she's my wife'. He doesn't even understand that he has no right to beat her."{{cite news | last = Staff writer | title = Seven women die in EU each day due to domestic violence | url = http://www.novinite.com/articles/158764/Seven+Women+Die+in+EU+Each+Day+Due+to+Domestic+Violence | work = Novinite | publisher = One Click Media Group | location = Bulgaria | date = 8 March 2014 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150405141612/http://www.novinite.com/articles/158764/Seven+Women+Die+in+EU+Each+Day+Due+to+Domestic+Violence | archive-date = 5 April 2015 }} The UN Population Fund writes that:{{cite web | last = UNFPA | author-link = United Nations Population Fund | title = Taking a stand against practices that harm women | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150404082023/http://web.lb.unfpa.org/gender/practices.htm | archive-date = 4 April 2015 | url = http://web.lb.unfpa.org/gender/practices.htm | publisher = United Nations Population Fund | date = April 2015 }}

"In some developing countries, practices that subjugate and harm women – such as wife-beating, killings in the name of honour, female genital mutilation/cutting and dowry deaths – are condoned as being part of the natural order of things".

Strong views among the population in certain societies that reconciliation is more appropriate than punishment in cases of domestic violence are also another cause of legal impunity; a study found that 64% of public officials in Colombia said that if it were in their hands to solve a case of intimate partner violence, the action they would take would be to encourage the parties to reconcile.{{cite news | last = Álvarez | first = Camilo Segura | title = Colombia sigue legitimando la violencia contra la mujer | url = http://www.elespectador.com/noticias/politica/colombia-sigue-legitimando-violencia-contra-mujer-articulo-547754 | work = El Espectador | publisher = Fidel Cano Correa | date = 5 March 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150510123028/http://www.elespectador.com/noticias/politica/colombia-sigue-legitimando-violencia-contra-mujer-articulo-547754 | archive-date = 10 May 2015 }}

Victim blaming is also prevalent in many societies, including in Western countries: a 2010 Eurobarometer poll found that 52% of respondents agreed with the assertion that the "provocative behaviour of women" was a cause of violence against women; with respondents in Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta and Slovenia being most likely to agree with the assertion (more than 70% in each of these countries).{{citation | last = TNS | author-link = Taylor Nelson Sofres | contribution = Annexes: Tables: QC4.11 Please tell me whether you consider each of the following to be a cause of domestic violence against women, or not?: The provocative behaviour of women. | editor-last = TNS | editor-link = Taylor Nelson Sofres | title = Special Eurobarometer 344: Domestic violence against women | url = https://open-data.europa.eu/en/data/dataset/S816_73_2_EBS344 | publisher = European Commission | location = Brussels, Belgium | date = September 2010 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151211000741/https://open-data.europa.eu/en/data/dataset/S816_73_2_EBS344 | archive-date = 2015-12-11 }}{{cite journal |last1=Koss |first1=Mary P. |title=Blame, shame, and community: Justice responses to violence against women. |journal=American Psychologist |date=November 2000 |volume=55 |issue=11 |pages=1332–1343 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.11.1332 |pmid=11280942 }}{{cite journal |last1=Ferrand Bullock |first1=Cathy |title=Framing Domestic Violence Fatalities: Coverage by Utah Newspapers |journal=Women's Studies in Communication |date=11 Nov 2010 |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=34–63 |doi=10.1080/07491409.2007.10162504 |s2cid=144182530 }}

{{Main|Christianity and domestic violence|Islam and domestic violence}}

There is controversy regarding the influence of religion on domestic violence. Judaism, Christianity and Islam have traditionally supported male-dominant households and "socially sanctioned violence against women has been persistent since ancient times."{{citation | last1 = Buzawa | first1 = Eve S. | last2 = Buzawa | first2 = Carl G. | last3 = Stark | first3 = Evan | contribution = Matters of history, faith, and society | editor-last1 = Buzawa | editor-first1 = Eve S. | editor-last2 = Buzawa | editor-first2 = Carl G. | editor-last3 = Stark | editor-first3 = Evan | title = Responding to domestic violence: the integration of criminal justice and human services | page = 53 | publisher = SAGE Publications, Inc | location = Thousand Oaks, California | year = 2012 | edition = 4th | isbn = 978-1-4129-5639-0 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Vg-KrOyoFTkC&pg=PA53 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151031213427/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vg-KrOyoFTkC&pg=PA53 | archive-date = 2015-10-31 }}

Views on the influence of Islam on domestic violence differ. While some authors{{who|date=July 2022}} argue that Islam is connected to violence against women, especially in the form of honor killings,{{Cite journal |last=Dunn |first=Shannon |date=2012 |title=Review of Honour, Violence, Women and Islam; Women, Islam and Everyday Life: Renegotiating Polygamy in Indonesia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23645199 |journal=Journal of Law and Religion |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=545–553 |doi=10.1017/S0748081400000151 |jstor=23645199 |issn=0748-0814 |access-date=February 7, 2024 |archive-date=August 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828020401/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23645199 |url-status=live }} others, such as Tahira Shahid Khan, a professor specializing in women's issues at the Aga Khan University in Pakistan, argue that it is the domination of men and inferior status of women in society that lead to these acts, not the religion itself.{{cite news | last = Mayell | first = Hillary | title = Thousands of women killed for family "honor" | url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/02/0212_020212_honorkilling.html | work = National Geographic News | date = 12 February 2002 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150905122357/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/02/0212_020212_honorkilling.html | archive-date = 5 September 2015 }} [http://www.unl.edu/rhames/courses/212/readings/honor-kil-ng.pdf Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151129092131/http://www.unl.edu/rhames/courses/212/readings/honor-kil-ng.pdf |date=2015-11-29 }}{{cite web|last=Sanctuary for Families |author-link=Sanctuary for Families |title=Home page |url=http://www.sanctuaryforfamilies.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=252&Itemid=259 |website=sanctuaryforfamilies.org |publisher=Sanctuary for Families |access-date=22 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016194204/http://www.sanctuaryforfamilies.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=252&Itemid=259 |archive-date=16 October 2014 }} Public (such as through the media) and political discourse debating the relation between Islam, immigration, and violence against women is highly controversial in many Western countries.{{cite book | last1 = Korteweg | first1 = Anna C. | last2 = Yurdakul | first2 = Gökçe | title = Religion, culture and the politicization of honour-related violence: a critical analysis of media and policy debates in Western Europe and North America | url = http://www.unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/%28httpPublications%29/E61F80827BF3409FC1257744004DC465?OpenDocument | publisher = United Nations Research Institute For Social Development | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150929053001/http://www.unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/(httpPublications)/E61F80827BF3409FC1257744004DC465?OpenDocument | archive-date = 29 September 2015 }}

Among Christians, men and women who attend church more frequently are less likely to commit domestic violence against their partners.{{Cite journal|last=Tracy|first=Steven R.|date=September 2007|title=Patriarchy and domestic violence: Challenging common misconceptions.|url=https://mlhlsi.infiniteuploads.cloud/2021/01/PatriarchyDV.pdf|journal=Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society|volume=50|issue=3|page=581|access-date=February 7, 2024|archive-date=March 19, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319050506/https://mlhlsi.infiniteuploads.cloud/2021/01/PatriarchyDV.pdf|url-status=live}} The effect of church attendance is not caused by increased levels of social support and community integration, which are not significantly related to the perpetration of domestic violence. In addition, even when variations in psychological problems (namely depressive symptoms, low self-esteem, and alcoholism) are accounted for, the salutary effect of church attendance remains.{{Cite journal|last1=Ellison|first1=Christopher G.|last2=Anderson|first2=Kristin L.|date=2001|title=Religious Involvement and Domestic Violence Among U.S. Couples|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/0021-8294.00055|journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=269–286|doi=10.1111/0021-8294.00055|issn=1468-5906|access-date=February 7, 2024|archive-date=August 28, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828020342/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/0021-8294.00055|url-status=live}} People who are theologically conservative are no more likely to commit domestic violence, however, highly conservative men are significantly more likely to commit domestic violence when their partners are much more liberal than them.{{Cite journal|last1=ELLISON|first1=CHRISTOPHER G.|last2=BARTKOWSKI|first2=JOHN P.|last3=ANDERSON|first3=KRISTIN L.|date=1999-01-01|title=Are There Religious Variations in Domestic Violence?|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/019251399020001005|journal=Journal of Family Issues|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=87–113|doi=10.1177/019251399020001005|s2cid=145261724|issn=0192-513X|access-date=February 7, 2024|archive-date=February 7, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207064110/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/019251399020001005|url-status=live}}

Catholic teaching on divorce has led women to fear leaving abusive marriages. However, Catholic bishops specifically state that no person is obliged to remain within an abusive marriage.{{Cite web |title=Domestic Violence |url=https://www.foryourmarriage.org/domestic-violence/ |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=www.foryourmarriage.org |language=en-US |archive-date=October 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001122542/https://www.foryourmarriage.org/domestic-violence/ |url-status=live }}

Medieval Jewish authorities differed on the subject of wife beating. Most rabbis living in Islamic lands allowed it as a tool of discipline, while those from Christian France and Germany generally saw it as justifying immediate divorce.{{cite web |title=Domestic Violence in Jewish Law |url=https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/domestic-violence-in-jewish-law/ |website=My Jewish Learning |access-date=April 20, 2022 |archive-date=May 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526004303/https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/domestic-violence-in-jewish-law/ |url-status=live }}

File:Say no to dowry.jpg]]

Local customs and traditions are often responsible for maintaining certain forms of domestic violence. Such customs and traditions include son preference (the desire of a family to have a boy and not a girl, which is strongly prevalent in parts of Asia), which can lead to abuse and neglect of girls by disappointed family members; child and forced marriages; dowry; the hierarchic caste system which stigmatizes lower castes and "untouchables", leading to discrimination and restricted opportunities of the females and thus making them more vulnerable to abuse; strict dress codes for women that may be enforced through violence by family members; strong requirement of female virginity before the wedding and violence related to non-conforming women and girls; taboos about menstruation leading to females being isolated and shunned during the time of menstruation; female genital mutilation (FGM); ideologies of marital conjugal rights to sex which justify marital rape; the importance given to family honor.{{cite book | last = UNESCAP | author-link = United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific | title = Harmful traditional practices in three counties of South Asia: culture, human rights and violence against women | url = http://www.unescap.org/resources/harmful-traditional-practices-three-countries-south-asia-culture-human-rights-and-violence | publisher = United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific | date = November 2012 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151211144247/http://www.unescap.org/resources/harmful-traditional-practices-three-countries-south-asia-culture-human-rights-and-violence | archive-date = 2015-12-11 }} Gender and Development Discussion Paper Series No. 21. [http://www.unescapsdd.org/files/documents/SDD_pub_2530.pdf Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210165740/http://www.unescapsdd.org/files/documents/SDD_pub_2530.pdf |date=2014-02-10 }}{{cite book | last = Heinisch-Hosek | first = Gabriele | author-link = Gabriele Heinisch-Hosek | title = Tradition and violence against women | url = http://eige.europa.eu/gender-based-violence/resources/international/tradition-and-violence-against-women | publisher = Federal Chancellery of Austria | date = March 2009 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151211112226/http://eige.europa.eu/gender-based-violence/resources/international/tradition-and-violence-against-women | archive-date = 2015-12-11 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20150427192106/http://www.bka.gv.at/DocView.axd?CobId=36150 Pdf.]{{cite book | last = UNFPA | author-link = United Nations Population Fund | title = Addressing harmful traditions in a refugee camp in Chad | url = http://www.unfpa.org/public/site/global/lang/en/pid/1354 | publisher = United Nations Population Fund | date = 12 November 2008 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140221174729/http://www.unfpa.org/public/site/global/lang/en/pid/1354 | archive-date = 21 February 2014 }}

A study reported in 2018 that in sub-saharan Africa 38% of women justified the abuse compared to Europe which had 29%, and South Asia having the highest number with 47% of women justifying the abuse.University of Bristol. "Domestic violence is widely accepted in most developing countries, new study reveals." ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/10/181031141437.htm (accessed May 29, 2021) These high rates could be due to the fact that in lower economically developed countries, women are subject to societal norms and are subject to tradition so therefore are to scared to go against that tradition as they would receive backlashDouki, Saida; Nacef, F.; Belhadj, A.; Bouasker, A.; Ghachem, R. (2003). "Violence against Women in Arab and Islamic Countries". Archives of Women's Mental Health 6, no. 3: 165-171. Opuz v. Turkey, Application no. 33401/02, Council of Europe: European Court of Human Rights, June 9, 2009, [https://archive.today/20120913174538/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,IRIN,,CAF,,4a3b58a10,0.html]. org/refworld/docid/4a2f84392.html (accessed August 1, 2021). whereas in higher economically developed countries, women are more educated and therefore will not conform to those traditions which restrict their basic human rights.

According to a 2003 report by Human Rights Watch, "customs such as the payment of 'bride price' (payment made by a man to the family of a woman he wishes to marry), whereby a man essentially purchases his wife's sexual favors and reproductive capacity, underscore men's socially sanctioned entitlement to dictate the terms of sex, and to use force to do so."{{cite book | last = Human Rights Watch | author-link = Human Rights Watch | title = Policy paralysis: a call for action on HIV/AIDS-related human rights abuses against women and girls in Africa | url = https://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/africa1203/africa1203.pdf | publisher = Human Rights Watch | date = December 2003 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160311131419/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/africa1203/africa1203.pdf | archive-date = 2016-03-11 }}

In recent years, there has been progress in the area of addressing customary practices that endanger women, with laws being enacted in several countries. The Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children is an NGO which works on changing social values, raising consciousness, and enacting laws against harmful traditions which affect the health of women and children in Africa. Laws were also enacted in some countries; for example the 2004 Criminal Code of Ethiopia has a chapter on harmful traditional practices – Chapter III – Crimes committed against life, person and health through harmful traditional practices.{{citation | last = Ethiopia | author-link = Ethiopia | contribution = Book V: Crimes against individuals and the family, Title I: Crimes against life, person and health, Chapter III: Crimes committed against life, person and health through harmful traditional practices | title = Proclamation No. 414/2004: The criminal code of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia | pages = 191–197 | publisher = Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia | location = Addis Ababa, FDR Ethiopia | date = 2004 | url = https://www.icrc.org/ihl-nat/0/D68B3CC48F569422C1257677002ADF3A | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151211041753/https://www.icrc.org/ihl-nat/0/D68B3CC48F569422C1257677002ADF3A | archive-date = 2015-12-11 }} [https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/70993/75092/F1429731028/ETH70993.pdf Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205035323/https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/70993/75092/F1429731028/ETH70993.pdf |date=2016-02-05 }} In addition, the Council of Europe adopted the Istanbul Convention, which requires the states that ratify it to create and fully adjudicate laws against acts of violence previously condoned by traditional, culture, custom, in the name of honor, or to correct what is deemed unacceptable behavior.{{cite web | last = Council of Europe | author-link = Council of Europe | title = Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (CETS No. 210) | url = http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm | publisher = Council of Europe | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150216041736/http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/210.htm | archive-date = 16 February 2015 }} The UN created the Handbook on effective police responses to violence against women to provide guidelines to address and manage violence through the creation of effective laws, law enforcement policies and practices and community activities to break down societal norms that condone violence, criminalize it and create effect support systems for survivors of violence.{{citation | last = UNODC | author-link = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | contribution = Introduction: justice system responses and victim protection · Preventive approaches · Responding to violence against women: the role of the police · Procedural law | editor-last = UNODC | editor-link = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | title = Handbook on effective police responses to violence against women | url = http://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prison-reform/hb_eff_police_responses.pdf | pages = 19, 37–86 | publisher = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | series = Criminal Justice Handbook Series | location = Vienna, Austria | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-92-1-130291-2 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150528071406/http://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prison-reform/hb_eff_police_responses.pdf | archive-date = 2015-05-28 }}

In cultures where the police and legal authorities have a reputation of corruption and abusive practices, victims of domestic violence are often reluctant to turn to formal help.{{citation | last1 = Staudt | first1 = Kathleen | last2 = Robles Ortega | first2 = Rosalba | contribution = Surviving domestic violence in the Paso del Norte border region | editor-last1 = Staudt | editor-first1 = Kathleen | editor-last2 = Monárrez Fragoso | editor-first2 = Julia E. | editor-last3 = Fuentes | editor-first3 = César M. | title = Cities and citizenship at the U.S.-Mexico border: the Paso del Norte metropolitan region | pages = 79–80 | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | location = New York | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-0-230-11291-9}}

Violence on women is sometimes justified by women themselves, for example in Mali 60% of women with no education, just over half of women with a primary education, and fewer than 40% of women with a secondary or higher education believe that husbands have the right to use violence for corrective reasons.{{Cite web|last=Marmot|first=Michael|date=2015-01-21|title=Why do some people still think domestic violence is justified?|url=http://www.theguardian.com/healthcare-network/2015/jan/21/domestic-violence-damages-health-shortens-lives|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-21|website=The Guardian|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122035021/http://www.theguardian.com/healthcare-network/2015/jan/21/domestic-violence-damages-health-shortens-lives |archive-date=January 22, 2015 }}

Acceptance of domestic violence has decreased in some countries, for example in Nigeria where 62.4% of women supported domestic violence in 2003, 45.7% in 2008, and 37.1% in 2013.{{Cite journal|last=Oyediran|first=Kolawole Azeez|date=2016-12-06|title=Explaining trends and patterns in attitudes towards wife-beating among women in Nigeria: analysis of 2003, 2008, and 2013 Demographic and Health Survey data|journal=Genus|volume=72|issue=1|pages=11|doi=10.1186/s41118-016-0016-9|s2cid=39788719|issn=2035-5556 |doi-access=free }} However, in some cases the acceptance increased, for example in Zimbabwe where 53% of women justify wife-beating.{{cite journal |url=https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/81/7/Hindin0703.pdf?ua=1 |journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization |date=2003 |volume=81 |issue=7 |title=Understanding women's attitudes towards wife beating in Zimbabwe |first=Michelle J. |last=Hindin |pages=501–508 |pmid=12973642 |pmc=2572507 |access-date=February 7, 2024 |archive-date=March 23, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323203438/https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/81/7/Hindin0703.pdf?ua=1 |url-status=live }}

In Nigeria, education, place of residence, wealth index, ethnic affiliation, religious affiliation, women's autonomy in household decision-making, and frequency of listening to the radio or watching television significantly influence women's opinions about domestic violence. In the opinion of adolescents aged 15 to 19, 14% of boys in Kazakhstan but 9% of girls believed wife-beating is justified, and in Cambodia, 25% of boys and 42% of girls think it is justified.{{Cite web |url=https://www.advancingpartners.org/sites/default/files/apc_infographic_youth_dashboard-2.pdf |title=APC infographic 2_youth dashboard 11.17.14 |access-date=February 7, 2024 |archive-date=February 5, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240205124915/https://www.advancingpartners.org/sites/default/files/apc_infographic_youth_dashboard-2.pdf |url-status=live }}

{{Further|Forced marriage|Child marriage}}

A forced marriage is a marriage where one or both participants are married without their freely given consent.{{cite news | last = Staff writer | title = Ethics guide: forced marriage: introduction | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/forcedmarriage/introduction_1.shtml | work = BBC Ethics | publisher = BBC | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150903060233/http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/forcedmarriage/introduction_1.shtml | archive-date = 3 September 2015 }} In many parts of the world, it is often difficult to draw a line between 'forced' and 'consensual' marriage: in many cultures (especially in South Asia, the Middle East and parts of Africa), marriages are prearranged, often as soon as a girl is born; the idea of a girl going against the wishes of her family and choosing herself her own future husband is not socially accepted – there is no need to use threats or violence to force the marriage, the future bride will submit because she simply has no other choice. As in the case of child marriage, the customs of dowry and bride price contribute to this phenomenon.{{cite book | last = Shahinian | first = Gulnara | author-link = United Nations Special Rapporteur | title = Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and consequences: thematic report on servile marriage | url = http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/dpage_e.aspx?si=A/HRC/21/41 | publisher = United Nations Human Rights Council | id = A-HRC-21-41 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170903173006/http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/dpage_e.aspx?si=A%2FHRC%2F21%2F41 | archive-date = 2017-09-03 }} A child marriage is a marriage where one or both parties are younger than 18.{{cite web | last = Human Rights Watch | author-link = Human Rights Watch | title = Q&A: child marriage and violations of girls' rights | url = https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/06/14/q-child-marriage-and-violations-girls-rights | website = hrw.org | publisher = Human Rights Watch | date = 14 June 2013 | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150806214818/http://www.hrw.org/news/2013/06/14/q-child-marriage-and-violations-girls-rights | archive-date = 6 August 2015 }}

Forced and child marriages are associated with a high rate of domestic violence. These types of marriages are related to violence both in regard to the spousal violence perpetrated inside marriage, and in regard to the violence related to the customs and traditions of these marriage: violence and trafficking related to the payment of dowry and bride price, honor killings for refusing the marriage.{{cite news |last= |title=Ethics guide: forced marriage |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/forcedmarriage/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409192642/http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/forcedmarriage/ |archive-date=9 April 2014 |access-date=11 April 2014 |work=BBC Ethics |publisher=BBC}}{{cite book | last1 = Khan | first1 = Nasrin | last2 = Hyati | first2 = Selma | title = Bride-price and domestic violence in Timor-Leste: a comparative study of married-in and married-out cultures in four districts | url = http://countryoffice.unfpa.org/timor-leste/?reports=6108 | publisher = United Nations Population Fund | date = September 2012 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151211145008/http://countryoffice.unfpa.org/timor-leste/?reports=6108 | archive-date = 11 December 2015 | access-date = 10 December 2015 }}{{cite book | last1 = Hague | first1 = Gill | last2 = Thiara | first2 = Ravi K. | last3 = MIFUMI | title = Bride-price, poverty and domestic violence in Uganda | publisher = University of Bristol, University of Warwick, and The MIFUMI Project | date = July 2009 }} [http://preventgbvafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Bride-Price-Poverty1.pdf Executive summary.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211080456/http://preventgbvafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Bride-Price-Poverty1.pdf |date=2015-12-11 }} [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.397.1304&rep=rep1&type=pdf Full report.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214013335/http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.397.1304&rep=rep1&type=pdf |date=2015-12-14 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Hague | first1 = Gill | last2 = Thiara | first2 = Ravi K. | last3 = Turner | first3 = Atuki | title = Bride-price and its links to domestic violence and poverty in Uganda: a participatory action research study | journal = Women's Studies International Forum | volume = 34 | issue = 6 | pages = 550–561 | doi = 10.1016/j.wsif.2011.06.008 | date = November–December 2011 }}

The UN Population Fund states, "Despite near-universal commitments to end child marriage, one in three girls in developing countries (excluding China) will probably be married before they are 18. One out of nine girls will be married before their 15th birthday."{{cite web | last = UNFPA | author-link = United Nations Population Fund | title = Marrying too young: end child marriage | url = http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/MarryingTooYoung.pdf | publisher = United Nations Population Fund | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150921221459/http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/MarryingTooYoung.pdf | archive-date = 21 September 2015 }} The UN Population Fund estimates, "Over 67 million women 20–24 year old in 2010 had been married as girls, half of which were in Asia, and one-fifth in Africa." The UN Population Fund says that, "In the next decade 14.2 million girls under 18 will be married every year; this translates into 39,000 girls married each day and this will rise to an average of 15.1 million girls a year, starting in 2021 until 2030, if present trends continue."

Lack of adequate legislation which criminalizes domestic violence, or alternatively legislation which prohibits consensual behaviors, may hinder the progress in regard to reducing the incidence of domestic violence. Amnesty International's Secretary General has stated that: "It is unbelievable that in the twenty-first century some countries are condoning child marriage and marital rape while others are outlawing abortion, sex outside marriage and same-sex sexual activity – even punishable by death."{{cite web | last = Amnesty International | author-link = Amnesty International | title = Women and girls: sexual and reproductive rights under threat worldwide | url = https://www.amnesty.org/en/news/sexual-and-reproductive-rights-under-threat-worldwide-2014-03-06 | website = amnesty.org | publisher = Amnesty International | date = 6 March 2014 | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141206225115/http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/sexual-and-reproductive-rights-under-threat-worldwide-2014-03-06 | archive-date = 6 December 2014 }} According to WHO, "one of the most common forms of violence against women is that performed by a husband or male partner." The WHO notes that such violence is often ignored because often "legal systems and cultural norms do not treat as a crime, but rather as a 'private' family matter, or a normal part of life."{{cite book | last = WHO | author-link = World Health Organization | title = Gender, equity, human rights: gender based violence | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva, Switzerland | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150423143519/http://www.who.int/gender/violence/gbv/en/ | archive-date = 23 April 2015 | url =https://www.who.int/gender/violence/gbv/en/ | access-date = 22 August 2015 }} The criminalization of adultery has been cited as inciting violence against women, as these prohibitions are often meant, in law or in practice, to control women's and not men's behavior; and are used to rationalize acts of violence against women.{{cite book | last = OHCHR | author-link = Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights | title = Statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice | url = http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=12672 | publisher = Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights | date = 18 October 2012 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140426235132/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=12672 | archive-date = 26 April 2014 }}{{cite web | last = UN Women | author-link = UN Women | title = Decriminalization of adultery and defenses | url = http://www.endvawnow.org/en/articles/738-decriminalization-of-adultery-and-defenses.html%29 | website = endvawnow.org | publisher = Virtual Knowledge Centre to End Violence Against Women and Girls, UN Women | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160108112544/http://www.endvawnow.org/en/articles/738-decriminalization-of-adultery-and-defenses.html%29 | archive-date = 8 January 2016 }}

Many countries consider domestic violence legal or have not adopted measures meant to criminalize their occurrence,{{Cite web|last=Achieng|first=Vivian|date=2017-05-26|title=15 Countries Where Domestic Violence Is Legal|url=https://www.theclever.com/15-countries-where-domestic-violence-is-legal/|access-date=2021-10-21|website=theclever|language=en-US|archive-date=September 30, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930164850/https://www.theclever.com/15-countries-where-domestic-violence-is-legal/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|date=2014-03-08|title=These 20 Countries Have No Law Against Domestic Violence|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/countries-no-domestic-violence-law_n_4918784|access-date=2021-10-21|website=HuffPost|language=en|archive-date=February 1, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201124843/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/countries-no-domestic-violence-law_n_4918784|url-status=live}} especially in countries of Muslim majority, and among those countries, some consider the discipline of wives as a right of the husband, for example in Iraq.{{cite web | title=Iraq: Urgent Need for Domestic Violence Law | website=Human Rights Watch | date=2020-04-22 | url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/22/iraq-urgent-need-domestic-violence-law | access-date=2022-03-16 | archive-date=January 18, 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118063634/https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/22/iraq-urgent-need-domestic-violence-law | url-status=live }}

According to High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay:{{cite book | last = OHCHR | author-link = Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights | title = High Commissioner speaks out against domestic violence and "honour killing" on occasion of International Women's Day | url = http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=9869&LangID=E | publisher = Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights | date = 8 March 2010 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140714182718/http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=9869&LangID=E | archive-date = 14 July 2014 }}

{{Blockquote|text=Some have argued, and continue to argue, that family violence is placed outside the conceptual framework of international human rights. However, under international laws and standards, there is a clear State responsibility to uphold women's rights and ensure freedom from discrimination, which includes the responsibility to prevent, protect and provide redress – regardless of sex, and regardless of a person's status in the family.}}

The way the individual rights of a family member versus the rights of the family as a unit are balanced vary significantly in different societies. This may influence the degree to which a government may be willing to investigate family incidents.{{cite web|last=Human Rights Watch|author-link=Human Rights Watch|date=July 2001|title=Uzbekistan: Sacrificing women to save the family? Domestic violence in Uzbekistan|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/uzbekistan/uzbek0701.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205035651/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/uzbekistan/uzbek0701.pdf|archive-date=5 February 2016|access-date=22 August 2015|website=hrw.org|publisher=Human Rights Watch}} In some cultures, individual members of the family are expected to sacrifice almost completely their own interests in favor of the interests of the family as a whole. What is viewed as an undue expression of personal autonomy is condemned as unacceptable. In these cultures the family predominates over the individual, and where this interacts with cultures of honor, individualistic choice that may damage the family reputation in the community may result in extreme punishment, such as honor killings.

In Australia, domestic violence refers to occurrences of violence in domestic settings between people in intimate relationships.{{cite web|date=22 November 2011|title=Domestic violence in Australia—an overview of the issues|url=http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BN/2011-2012/DVAustralia|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819094452/http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BN/2011-2012/DVAustralia|archive-date=19 August 2016|publisher=Parliament of Australia}} The term can be altered by each state's legislation and can broaden the spectrum of domestic violence, such as in Victoria, where familial relationships and witnessing any type of violence in the family is defined as a family violence incident.{{cite web|title=Family Violence Act 2008|url=http://www.legislation.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/PubStatbook.nsf/f932b66241ecf1b7ca256e92000e23be/083D69EC540CD748CA2574CD0015E27C/$FILE/08-52a.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110140724/http://www.legislation.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/PubStatbook.nsf/f932b66241ecf1b7ca256e92000e23be/083D69EC540CD748CA2574CD0015E27C/$FILE/08-52a.pdf|archive-date=2017-01-10|access-date=24 Aug 2016|publisher=legislation.vic.gov.au}} In the Nordic countries the term violence in close relations is used in legal and policy contexts.{{cite book|last=Bredal|first=A.|title='Honour' Killing and Violence|date=2014|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-28955-1|editor-last=Gill|editor-first=A.K.|pages=135–155|chapter=Ordinary v. Other Violence? Conceptualising Honour-Based Violence in Scandinavian Public Policies|doi=10.1057/9781137289568_7|editor-last2=Strange|editor-first2=C.|editor-last3=Roberts|editor-first3=Karl}}

{{Anchor|Immigrant communities}}Domestic violence occurs in immigrant communities, and often there is little awareness in these communities of the laws and policies of the host country. A study among first-generation South Asians in the UK found that they had little knowledge about what constituted criminal behavior under the English law. The researchers found that "there was certainly no awareness that there could be rape within a marriage".{{cite news | last = McVeigh | first = Tracy | title = Abuse going unreported in Britain's south Asian communities – study | url = https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/sep/19/abuse-going-unreported-in-britains-south-asian-communities-study | work = The Guardian | date = 19 September 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160812152918/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/sep/19/abuse-going-unreported-in-britains-south-asian-communities-study | archive-date = 12 August 2016 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Cowburn | first1 = Malcolm | last2 = Gill | first2 = Aisha K. | last3 = Harrison | first3 = Karen | s2cid = 56017459 | title = Speaking about sexual abuse in British South Asian communities: offenders, victims and the challenges of shame and reintegration | journal = Journal of Sexual Aggression | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 4–15 | doi = 10.1080/13552600.2014.929188 | date = January 2015 | url = https://hull-repository.worktribe.com/438457/1/2016-05-03%20Harrison%202.pdf | access-date = June 12, 2021 | archive-date = July 2, 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210702230145/https://hull-repository.worktribe.com/438457/1/2016-05-03%20Harrison%202.pdf | url-status = live }} A study in Australia showed that among the immigrant women sampled who were abused by partners and did not report it, 16.7% did not know domestic violence was illegal, while 18.8% did not know that they could get protection.{{cite book | last1 = Satyen | first1 = Lata | last2 = Ranganathan | first2 = Archna | last3 = Piedra | first3 = Steve | last4 = Simon | first4 = Ben | last5 = Kocsic | first5 = Jessica | title = Family violence in migrant women in Australia: strategies for migrant men to reduce the violence | date = May 2013 }} Conference paper for the White Ribbon International Conference, Sydney, Australia, 13–15 May 2013. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260081396_Family_violence_in_migrant_women_in_Australia_strategies_for_migrant_men_to_reduce_the_violence Conference paper.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222101002/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260081396_Family_violence_in_migrant_women_in_Australia_strategies_for_migrant_men_to_reduce_the_violence |date=2015-12-22 }} [http://www.whiteribbon.org.au/uploads/media/Conference_2013/Family_violence_among_migrant_women_in_Australia_Deakin_University.pdf Powerpoint presentation.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222084158/https://www.whiteribbon.org.au/uploads/media/Conference_2013/Family_violence_among_migrant_women_in_Australia_Deakin_University.pdf |date=2015-12-22 }}

The ability of victims of domestic violence to leave the relationship is crucial for preventing further abuse. In traditional communities, divorced women often feel rejected and ostracized. In order to avoid this stigma, many women prefer to remain in the marriage and endure the abuse.{{citation | last = Fields | first = Rona | contribution = The Negev Bedouin: a contemporary remnant of ancient tribal society | editor-last = Fields | editor-first = Rona | title = Against violence against women: the case for gender as a protected class | pages = 63–64 | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | location = Basingstoke | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-1-137-43917-8}}

Discriminatory marriage and divorce laws can also play a role in the proliferation of the practice.{{cite web | last = Human Rights Watch | author-link = Human Rights Watch | title = Egypt: divorced from justice: women's unequal access to divorce in Egypt: VI. Condemning women to a life of violence | url = https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/egypt1204/egypt1204.pdf | website = hrw.org | publisher = Human Rights Watch | date = December 2004 | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205040840/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/egypt1204/egypt1204.pdf | archive-date = 5 February 2016 }}{{cite book | last = Farouk | first = Sharmeen A. | title = Violence against women: a statistical overview, challenges and gaps in data collection and methodology and approaches for overcoming them | publisher = UN Division for the Advancement of Women, UN Economic Commission for Europe and the World Health Organization | location = Geneva, Switzerland | date = April 2005 }} Expert Group Meeting. [https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/vaw-stat-2005/docs/expert-papers/Farouk.pdf Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213074937/http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/vaw-stat-2005/docs/expert-papers/Farouk.pdf |date=2016-12-13 }} According to Rashida Manjoo, a UN special rapporteur on violence against women:

{{blockquote|In many countries a woman's access to property hinges on her relationship to a man. When she separates from her husband or when he dies, she risks losing her home, land, household goods and other property. Failure to ensure equal property rights upon separation or divorce discourages women from leaving violent marriages, as women may be forced to choose between violence at home and destitution in the street.{{cite book | last = Manjoo | first = Rashida | author-link = Rashida Manjoo | title = Statement by Ms. Rashida Manjoo, Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its cause and consequences | url = https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/csw56/statements/statement-spec-rap-manjoo.pdf | publisher = UN Women | location = New York | date = February 2012 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170318105200/http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/csw56/statements/statement-spec-rap-manjoo.pdf | archive-date = 2017-03-18 }} CSW56.}}

The legal inability to obtain a divorce is also a factor in the proliferation of domestic violence.{{citation | last1 = Conway-Turner | first1 = Kate | last2 = Cherrin | first2 = Suzanne | contribution = Sexual harassment: can women be comfortable in the public world? | editor-last1 = Conway-Turner | editor-first1 = Kate | editor-last2 = Cherrin | editor-first2 = Suzanne | title = Women, families, and feminist politics: a global exploration | page = 198 | publisher = Taylor & Francis | location = Oxford New York | isbn = 978-1-56023-935-2| date = 1998-09-01 }} In some cultures where marriages are arranged between families, a woman who attempts a separation or divorce without the consent of her husband and extended family or relatives may risk being subjected to honor-based violence.{{cite news | last = Mayell | first = Hillary | title = Thousands of women killed for family "honor" | url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/02/0212_020212_honorkilling_2.html | work = National Geographic News | publisher = National Geographic Society | date = 12 February 2002 | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151019011522/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/02/0212_020212_honorkilling_2.html | archive-date = 19 October 2015 }} [http://www.unl.edu/rhames/courses/212/readings/honor-kil-ng.pdf Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151129092131/http://www.unl.edu/rhames/courses/212/readings/honor-kil-ng.pdf |date=2015-11-29 }}{{cite web |last= |title=FAQ: frequently asked questions about honour based violence (HBV) and honour killings |url=http://hbv-awareness.com/faq/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815114026/http://hbv-awareness.com/faq/ |archive-date=15 August 2015 |access-date=22 August 2015 |website=hbv-awareness.com |publisher=Honour Based Violence Awareness (HBVA)}}

The custom of bride price also makes leaving a marriage more difficult: if a wife wants to leave, the husband may demand back the bride price from her family.{{cite book | title = Protecting the girl child: using the law to end child, early and forced marriage and related human rights violations | url = http://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/Protecting_the_Girl_Child.pdf | publisher = Equality Now | date = January 2014 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150528120452/http://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/Protecting_the_Girl_Child.pdf | archive-date = 2015-05-28 }}{{cite book | last = Lelieveld | first = Marlijn | title = Child protection in the Somali region of Ethiopia | url = http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/FINALChild_Protection_in_the_Somali_Region_30511.pdf | publisher = Save the Children | date = April 2011 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924095119/http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/FINALChild_Protection_in_the_Somali_Region_30511.pdf | archive-date = 2015-09-24 }}{{citation | last1 = Stange | first1 = Mary Z. | last2 = Oyster | first2 = Carol K. | last3 = Sloan | first3 = Jane E. | contribution = Equatorial Guinea | editor-last1 = Stange | editor-first1 = Mary Z. | editor-last2 = Oyster | editor-first2 = Carol K. | editor-last3 = Sloan | editor-first3 = Jane E. | title = Encyclopedia of women in today's world, volume 1 | page = 496 | publisher = Sage Reference | location = Thousand Oaks, California | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-1-4129-7685-5}}

In advanced nations{{Clarify|reason=What is an advanced nation?|date=October 2021}} like the UK, Domestic violence victims may have difficulties getting alternative housing which can force them to stay in the abusive relationship.{{Cite news |last=O'Connell |first=Sarah |last2=Eley |first2=Adam |date=2017-10-31 |title=The domestic violence victims 'left begging for a home' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-41803342 |access-date=2025-05-16 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}

Many domestic violence victims delay leaving the abuser because they have pets and are afraid of what will happen to the pets if they leave. Safehouses need to be more accepting of pets, and many refuse to accept pets.[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/world-46404837/the-safehouse-for-women-and-pets-to-flee-abuse The safehouse for women and pets to flee abuse] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612203952/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/world-46404837/the-safehouse-for-women-and-pets-to-flee-abuse |date=June 12, 2020 }} BBC

In some countries, the immigration policy is tied to whether the person desiring citizenship is married to his/her sponsor. This can lead to persons being trapped in violent relations – such persons may risk deportation if they attempt to separate (they may be accused of having entered into a sham marriage).{{cite news|last1=Douglas|first1=Debbie|last2=Go|first2=Avvy|last3=Blackstock|first3=Sarah|date=5 December 2012|title=Editorial opinion: Canadian immigration changes force women to stay with sponsoring spouse for two years|work=The Star|publisher=Star Media Group, Torstar|location=Toronto, Canada|url=https://www.thestar.com/opinion/editorialopinion/2012/12/05/canadian_immigration_changes_force_women_to_stay_with_sponsoring_spouse_for_two_years.html|url-status=live|access-date=22 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904192500/http://www.thestar.com/opinion/editorialopinion/2012/12/05/canadian_immigration_changes_force_women_to_stay_with_sponsoring_spouse_for_two_years.html|archive-date=4 September 2015}}{{cite web|date=May 2013|title=Domestic violence victims must not be trapped by deportation fears|url=http://www.immigrantcouncil.ie/research-publications/publications/694-domestic-violence-victims-must-not-be-trapped-by-deportation-fears|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006110720/http://www.immigrantcouncil.ie/research-publications/publications/694-domestic-violence-victims-must-not-be-trapped-by-deportation-fears|archive-date=6 October 2014|website=immigrantcouncil.ie|publisher=The Immigrant Council of Ireland (ICI)}} [http://immigrantcouncil.ie/files/publications/1a2d6-briefing_document_dv_-_longer_version_-_final_2013.pdf Briefing document by the Domestic Violence Coalition.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424204545/http://immigrantcouncil.ie/files/publications/1a2d6-briefing_document_dv_-_longer_version_-_final_2013.pdf|date=2016-04-24}}{{cite news|last=AFP in Sydney|date=1 August 2014|title=Australian migrants trapped in 'slave-like' marriages|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/aug/01/australian-migrants-slave-marriages|url-status=live|access-date=22 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151011091736/http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/aug/01/australian-migrants-slave-marriages|archive-date=11 October 2015}}{{Cite book|last1=Lyneham|first1=Samantha|url=http://eprints.qut.edu.au/72187/3/72187.pdf|title=Human trafficking involving marriage and partner migration to Australia|last2=Richards|first2=Kelly|publisher=Australian Institute of Criminology|series=Research and Public Policy Series|location=Canberra, Australia|id=Paper no. 124|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205034638/http://eprints.qut.edu.au/72187/3/72187.pdf|archive-date=2016-02-05|url-status=live}} Often the women come from cultures where they will suffer disgrace from their families if they abandon their marriage and return home, and so they prefer to stay married, therefore remaining locked in a cycle of abuse.{{cite book|last=Raza|first=Nusrat|title=Visa for hell|publisher=Best Books Publications|year=2011|location=Lahore|oclc=772450148}}

{{main|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on domestic violence}}

Some studies have found some association between the COVID-19 pandemic and an upsurge in the rate of domestic violence.{{Cite journal|last1=Fawole|first1=Olufunmilayo I.|last2=Okedare|first2=Omowumi O.|last3=Reed|first3=Elizabeth|date=2021-01-20|title=Home was not a safe haven: women's experiences of intimate partner violence during the COVID-19 lockdown in Nigeria|url= |journal=BMC Women's Health|volume=21|issue=1|pages=32|doi=10.1186/s12905-021-01177-9|issn=1472-6874|pmc=7816140|pmid=33472627 |doi-access=free }} The coping mechanisms adopted by individuals during the state of isolation has been implicated in the increase around the globe.{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-30|title=COVID-19 and Violence Against Women and Girls|journal=UN Women Policy Briefs|doi=10.18356/71feb765-en|issn=2618-026X|doi-access=free}} Some of the implications of this restriction period are financial distress, induced stress, frustration, and a resulting quest for coping mechanisms, which could trigger violence.{{Cite journal|last1=Moreira|first1=Diana Nadine|last2=Pinto da Costa|first2=Mariana|date=July 2020|title=The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic in the precipitation of intimate partner violence|url= |journal=International Journal of Law and Psychiatry|volume=71|pages=101606|doi=10.1016/j.ijlp.2020.101606|pmid=32768122|issn=0160-2527|pmc=7318988}}

In major cities in Nigeria, such as Lagos, Abuja; in India, and in Hubei province in China, there was a recorded increase in the level of intimate partner violence.{{Cite web |last=Graham-Harrison |first=Emma |last2=Giuffrida |first2=Angela |last3=Smith |first3=Helena |last4=Ford |first4=Liz |date=2020-03-28 |title=Lockdowns around the world bring rise in domestic violence |url=http://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/mar/28/lockdowns-world-rise-domestic-violence |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119193126/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/mar/28/lockdowns-world-rise-domestic-violence |archive-date=January 19, 2024 |access-date=2021-05-19 |website=The Guardian}}{{Cite web|last1=Oguntayo|first1=Rotimi|last2=A.o|first2=Popoola|last3=Opayemi|first3='Remi Sunday|last4=R|first4=Faworaja Omolara|last5=O|first5=Olaseni Abayomi|date=2020-09-15|title=Spousal Violence in the Era of Covid-19 Lockdown: The Implication of Socioeconomic Distress and Contextual Factors|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/4v6qh|access-date=2021-05-19|doi=10.31219/osf.io/4v6qh|s2cid=226732958|archive-date=February 7, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207064500/https://osf.io/4v6qh/|url-status=live}}

An increase in the prevalence of domestic violence during the restrictions has been reported in many countries including the US, China, and many European countries. In India, a 131% increase in domestic violence in areas that had strict lockdown measures was recorded.{{Cite web|date=2020-03-17|title=The impact of COVID-19 on women and children experiencing domestic abuse, and the life-saving services that support them|url=https://www.womensaid.org.uk/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-women-and-children-experiencing-domestic-abuse-and-the-life-saving-services-that-support-them/|access-date=2021-05-19|website=Women's Aid|archive-date=April 23, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423215349/https://www.womensaid.org.uk/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-women-and-children-experiencing-domestic-abuse-and-the-life-saving-services-that-support-them/|url-status=dead}}{{Cite journal|last1=Usher|first1=Kim|last2=Bhullar|first2=Navjot|last3=Durkin|first3=Joanne|last4=Gyamfi|first4=Naomi|last5=Jackson|first5=Debra|date=2020-05-07|title=Family violence and COVID-19: Increased vulnerability and reduced options for support|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Nursing|volume=29|issue=4|pages=549–552|doi=10.1111/inm.12735|pmid=32314526|pmc=7264607|issn=1445-8330|doi-access=free}}

File:MintoParkMemorial.JPG, in Minto Park, downtown Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, to the women murdered as a result of domestic violence; dedicated in 1992.]]

Bruises, broken bones, head injuries, lacerations, and internal bleeding are some of the acute effects of a domestic violence incident that require medical attention and hospitalization.{{Cite journal | last1 = Jones III | first1 = Richard F. | last2 = Horan | first2 = Deborah L. | title = The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: A decade of responding to violence against women | journal = International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics | volume = 58 | issue = 1 | pages = 43–50 | doi = 10.1016/S0020-7292(97)02863-4 | pmid = 9253665 | date = July 1997 | s2cid = 30014559 | doi-access = free }} Some chronic health conditions that have been linked to victims of domestic violence are arthritis, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic pain, pelvic pain, ulcers, and migraines.{{cite journal | last1 = Berrios | first1 = Daniel C. | last2 = Grady | first2 = Deborah | title = Domestic violence: risk factors and outcomes | journal = The Western Journal of Medicine | volume = 155 | issue = 2 | pages = 133–135 | pmid = 1926841 | pmc = 1002942 | date = August 1991}} Victims who are pregnant during a domestic violence relationship experience greater risk of miscarriage, pre-term labor, and injury to or death of the fetus.

New research illustrates that there are strong associations between exposure to domestic violence and abuse in all their forms and higher rates of many chronic conditions.{{cite book | last1 = Breiding | first1 = Matthew J. | last2 = Chen | first2 = Jieru | last3 = Black | first3 = Michele C. | title = Intimate partner violence in the United States — 2010 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/cdc_nisvs_ipv_report_2013_v17_single_a.pdf | publisher = National Center for Injury Prevention and Control of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | location = Atlanta, Georgia | year = 2014 | oclc = 890407586 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171028182436/https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/cdc_nisvs_ipv_report_2013_v17_single_a.pdf | archive-date = 2017-10-28 }} The strongest evidence comes from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study which shows correlations between exposure to abuse or neglect and higher rates in adulthood of chronic conditions, high-risk health behaviors and shortened life span.{{cite book | last1 = Middlebrooks | first1 = Jennifer S. | last2 = Audage | first2 = Natalie C. | title = The effects of childhood stress on health across the lifespan | url = http://health-equity.pitt.edu/932/1/Childhood_Stress.pdf | publisher = National Center for Injury Prevention and Control of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | location = Atlanta, Georgia | year = 2008 | oclc = 529281759 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205035817/http://health-equity.pitt.edu/932/1/Childhood_Stress.pdf | archive-date = 2016-02-05 }} Evidence of the association between physical health and violence against women has been accumulating since the early 1990s.{{Cite journal | last1 = Koss | first1 = Mary P. | last2 = Heslet | first2 = Lynette | author-link1 = Mary P. Koss | title = Somatic consequences of violence against women | journal = Archives of Family Medicine | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–59 | doi = 10.1001/archfami.1.1.53 | pmid = 1341588 | date = September 1992 }}

{{Further|HIV/AIDS|Women and HIV/AIDS}}

File:AIDS and HIV prevalence 2008.svg in % of HIV among young adults (15–49) per country as of 2008:{{cite web | last = UNAIDS | author-link = Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS | title = Data: AIDSinfo | url = http://www.unaids.org/en/dataanalysis/datatools/aidsinfo/ | website = unaids.org | publisher = UNAIDS | date = 2011 | access-date = 4 March 2013 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130305203900/http://www.unaids.org/en/dataanalysis/datatools/aidsinfo/ | archive-date = 5 March 2013 }}

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The WHO has stated that women in abusive relations are at significantly higher risk of HIV/AIDS. WHO states that women in violent relationships have difficulty negotiating safer sex with their partners, are often forced to have sex, and find it difficult to ask for appropriate testing when they think they may be infected with HIV.{{cite book | last = WHO | author-link = World Health Organization | title = Violence against women and HIV/AIDS: critical intersections: intimate partner violence and HIV/AIDS | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva, Switzerland | url =https://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/pht/InfoBulletinIntimatePartnerViolenceFinal.pdf | series = Information Bulletin Series | id = Bulletin no. 1 | date = November 2004 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131025220637/http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/pht/InfoBulletinIntimatePartnerViolenceFinal.pdf | archive-date = 2013-10-25 }} A decade of cross-sectional research from Rwanda, Tanzania, South Africa, and India, has consistently found women who have experienced partner violence to be more likely to be infected with HIV. The WHO stated that:

{{blockquote|There is a compelling case to end intimate partner violence both in its own right as well as to reduce women and girls' vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. The evidence on the linkages between violence against women and HIV/AIDS highlights that there are direct and indirect mechanisms by which the two interact.}}

Same-sex relationships are similarly affected by the HIV/AIDS status in domestic violence. Research by Heintz and Melendez found that same-sex individuals may have difficulty breaching the topic of safe sex for reasons such as "decreased perception of control over sex, fear of violence, and unequal power distributions..."{{Cite journal | last1 = Heintz | first1 = Adam J. | last2 = Melendez | first2 = Rita M. | s2cid = 35404907 | title = Intimate partner violence and HIV/STD risk among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals | journal = Journal of Interpersonal Violence | volume = 21 | issue = 2 | pages = 193–208 | doi = 10.1177/0886260505282104 | pmid = 16368761 | date = February 2006}} Of those who reported violence in the study, about 50% reported forced sexual experiences, of which only half reported the use of safe sex measures. Barriers to safer sex included fear of abuse, and deception in safe-sex practices. Heintz and Melendez's research ultimately concluded that sexual assault/abuse in same-sex relationships provides a major concern for HIV/AIDS infection as it decreases instances of safe-sex. Furthermore, these incidents create additional fear and stigma surrounding safe-sex conversations and knowing one's STD status.

Among victims who are still living with their perpetrators high amounts of stress, fear, and anxiety are commonly reported. Depression is also common, as victims are made to feel guilty for 'provoking' the abuse and are frequently subjected to intense criticism. It is reported that 60% of victims meet the diagnostic criteria for depression, either during or after termination of the relationship, and have a greatly increased risk of suicide. Those who are battered either emotionally or physically often are also depressed because of a feeling of worthlessness. These feelings often persist long-term and it is suggested that many receive therapy for it because of the heightened risk of suicide and other traumatic symptoms.{{Cite journal | last = Barnett | first = Ola W. | title = Why battered women do not leave, part 2: external inhibiting factors — social support and internal inhibiting factors | journal = Trauma, Violence, & Abuse | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–35 | doi = 10.1177/1524838001002001001 | date = 2001 | s2cid = 146388536 }}

In addition to depression, victims of domestic violence also commonly experience long-term anxiety and panic, and are likely to meet the diagnostic criteria for generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder. The most commonly referenced psychological effect of domestic violence is PTSD, which is characterized by flashbacks, intrusive images, an exaggerated startle response, nightmares, and avoidance of triggers that are associated with the abuse.{{Cite journal | last1 = Vitanza | first1 = Stephanie | last2 = Vogel | first2 = Laura C.M. | last3 = Marshall | first3 = Linda L. | s2cid = 24929418 | title = Distress and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in abused women | journal = Violence & Victims | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–34 | pmid = 8555116 | date = Spring 1995 | doi = 10.1891/0886-6708.10.1.23 }} Studies have indicated that it is important to consider the effect of domestic violence and its psychophysiologic sequelae on women who are mothers of infants and young children. Several studies have shown that maternal interpersonal violence-related PTSD can, despite a traumatized mother's best efforts, interfere with their child's response to the domestic violence and other traumatic events.{{cite journal | last1 = Schechter | first1 = Daniel S. | last2 = Coates | first2 = Susan W. | last3 = Kaminer | first3 = Tammy | last4 = Coots | first4 = Tammy | last5 = Zeanah | first5 = Charles H | last6 = Davies | first6 = Mark | last7 = Schonfeld | first7 = Irvin S. | last8 = Marshall | first8 = Randall D | last9 = Liebowitz | first9 = Michael R | last10 = Trabka | first10 = Kimberly A | last11 = McCaw | first11 = Jaime E | last12 = Myers | first12 = Michael M | title = Distorted maternal mental representations and atypical behavior in a clinical sample of violence-exposed mothers and their toddlers | journal = Journal of Trauma & Dissociation | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 123–147 | doi = 10.1080/15299730802045666 | pmid = 18985165 | pmc = 2577290 | date = June 2008 }}

A 2024 study in the Quarterly Journal of Economics, which used Finnish administrative data with unique identifiers for perpetrators and victims of domestic violence, found that "women who begin relationships with (eventually) physically abusive men suffer large and significant earnings and employment falls immediately upon cohabiting with the abusive partner."{{Cite journal |last1=Adams-Prassl |first1=Abi |last2=Huttunen |first2=Kristiina |last3=Nix |first3=Emily |last4=Zhang |first4=Ning |date=2024 |title=The Dynamics of Abusive Relationships |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjae022 |journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics|volume=139 |issue=4 |pages=2135–2180 |doi=10.1093/qje/qjae022 }} This contributes to economic dependence on the abuser that makes it hard for the victim to exit the relationship.

Once victims leave their perpetrators, they can be stunned by the reality of the extent to which the abuse has taken away their autonomy. Due to economic abuse and isolation, the victim usually has very little money of their own and few people on whom they can rely when seeking help. This has been shown to be one of the greatest obstacles facing victims of domestic violence, and the strongest factor that can discourage them from leaving their perpetrators.{{cite web | title = Domestic violence and housing | url = https://www.stopvaw.org/Domestic_Violence_and_Housing.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151002061435/http://www.stopvaw.org/Domestic_Violence_and_Housing.html | archive-date = 2 October 2015 | website = stopvaw.org | publisher = Stop Violence Against Women: a project of the Advocates for Human Rights | date = August 2013 }}

In addition to lacking financial resources, victims of domestic violence often lack specialized skills, education, and training that are necessary to find gainful employment, and also may have several children to support. In 2003, thirty-six major US cities cited domestic violence as one of the primary causes of homelessness in their areas.{{cite web | title = Domestic violence and homelessness | url = https://www.aclu.org/FilesPDFs/housing%20paper.4.pdf | website = aclu.org | publisher = American Civil Liberties Union Women's Rights Project | date = 2007 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130812013406/http://www.aclu.org/FilesPDFs/housing%20paper.4.pdf | archive-date = 2013-08-12 }} It has also been reported that one out of every three women are homeless due to having left a domestic violence relationship. If a victim is able to secure rental housing, it is likely that her apartment complex will have zero tolerance policies for crime; these policies can cause them to face eviction even if they are the victim (not the perpetrator) of violence. While the number of women's shelters and community resources available to domestic violence victims has grown tremendously, these agencies often have few employees and hundreds of victims seeking assistance which causes many victims to remain without the assistance they need.

Women and children experiencing domestic violence undergo occupational apartheid; they are typically denied access to desired occupations.{{Cite journal | last = Cage | first = Anthea | title = Occupational therapy with women and children survivors of domestic violence: are we fulfilling our activist heritage? A review of the literature | journal = British Journal of Occupational Therapy | volume = 70 | issue = 5 | pages = 192–198 | doi = 10.1177/030802260707000503 | date = May 2007 | s2cid = 71556913 }} Abusive partners may limit occupations and create an occupationally void environment which reinforces feelings of low self-worth and poor self-efficacy in their ability to satisfactorily perform everyday tasks. In addition, work is impacted by functional losses, an inability to maintain necessary employment skills, and an inability to function within the work place. Often, the victims are very isolated from other relationships as well such as having few to no friends, this is another method of control for the abuser.{{Cite journal | last1 = Helfrich | first1 = Christine A. | last2 = Rivera | first2 = Yesenia | title = Employment skills and domestic violence survivors: a shelter-based intervention | journal = Occupational Therapy in Mental Health | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 33–48 | doi = 10.1300/j004v22n01_03 | date = April 2006 | s2cid = 70643760 }}

File:Young kids watch a play about gender based violence at the Young Women’s Christian Association. (10660719084).jpg watch a play on gender-based violence.]]

{{Main|Effects of domestic violence on children|Child abuse#Effects}}

There has been an increase in acknowledgment that a child who is exposed to domestic abuse during their upbringing will suffer developmental and psychological damage.{{Cite journal | last = Dodd | first = Lynda Warren | title = Therapeutic groupwork with young children and mothers who have experienced domestic abuse | journal = Educational Psychology in Practice | volume = 25 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–36 | doi = 10.1080/02667360802697571 | date = March 2009 | s2cid = 144370605 }} During the mid-1990s, the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study found that children who were exposed to domestic violence and other forms of abuse had a higher risk of developing mental and physical health problems.{{cite web | last = Innovations Exchange Team | title = Preventing and mitigating the effects of childhood violence and trauma (based on an interview with Carl C. Bell, MD) | url = https://innovations.ahrq.gov/perspectives/preventing-and-mitigating-effects-childhood-violence-and-trauma | publisher = Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, US Department of Health and Human Services | date = 17 April 2013 | access-date = 27 August 2013 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141006123927/https://innovations.ahrq.gov/perspectives/preventing-and-mitigating-effects-childhood-violence-and-trauma | archive-date = 6 October 2014 }} Because of the awareness of domestic violence that some children have to face, it also generally impacts how the child develops emotionally, socially, behaviorally and cognitively.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fantuzzo JW, Mohr WK | title = Prevalence and Effects of Child Exposure to Domestic Violence | journal = The Future of Children | date=10 May 2020 | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 21–32 | doi=10.2307/1602779 | jstor = 1602779 | pmid = 10777998 | s2cid = 190218 | url = https://repository.upenn.edu/gse_pubs/419 }}

Some emotional and behavioral problems that can result due to domestic violence include increased aggressiveness, anxiety, and changes in how a child socializes with friends, family, and authorities. Depression, emotional insecurity, and mental health disorders can follow due to traumatic experiences.{{cite web | last1 = Kelly | first1 = Dott | last2 = Manza | first2 = Jenny | title = Long-term expressive therapy and caregiver support improves emotional health of low-income children affected by trauma | url = https://innovations.ahrq.gov/profiles/long-term-expressive-therapy-and-caregiver-support-improves-emotional-health-low-income | publisher = Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, US Department of Health and Human Services | date = 24 October 2013 | access-date = 10 July 2013 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170201031925/https://innovations.ahrq.gov/profiles/long-term-expressive-therapy-and-caregiver-support-improves-emotional-health-low-income | archive-date = 1 February 2017 }} Problems with attitude and cognition in schools can start developing, along with a lack of skills such as problem-solving. Correlation has been found between the experience of abuse and neglect in childhood and perpetrating domestic violence and sexual abuse in adulthood.{{cite thesis | degree = MA | last = Sadeler | first = Christiane | date = 1994 | title = An ounce of prevention: the life stories and perceptions of men who sexually offended against children | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University | url = http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/634/ | oclc = 827990779 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120502151721/http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/634/ | archive-date = 2012-05-02 }}

Additionally, in some cases the abuser will purposely abuse the mother or father{{cite journal | last1 = Damant | first1 = Dominique | last2 = Lapierre | first2 = Simon | last3 = Lebossé | first3 = Catherine | last4 = Thibault | first4 = Sylvie | last5 = Lessard | first5 = Geneviève | last6 = Hamelin-Brabant | first6 = Louise | last7 = Lavergne | first7 = Chantal | last8 = Fortin | first8 = Andrée | title = Women's abuse of their children in the context on domestic violence: reflection from women's accounts | journal = Child & Family Social Work | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 12–21 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2206.2009.00632.x | date = February 2010 | url = http://web.mit.edu/end_violence/Articles/Women%27s%20Abuse%20of%20Children.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205035851/http://web.mit.edu/end_violence/Articles/Women%27s%20Abuse%20of%20Children.pdf | archive-date = 2016-02-05 }} in front of the child to cause a ripple effect, hurting two victims simultaneously. Children may intervene when they witness severe violence against a parent, which can place a child at greater risk for injury or death.{{cite web | last = Staff writer | title = Domestic violence: statistics & facts | url = http://www.safehorizon.org/page/domestic-violence-statistics--facts-52.html | website = safehorizon.org | publisher = Safe Horizon | access-date = 24 November 2014 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141124081525/http://www.safehorizon.org/page/domestic-violence-statistics--facts-52.html | archive-date = 24 November 2014 }} It has been found that children who witness mother-assault are more likely to exhibit symptoms of PTSD.{{cite thesis | degree = MA | last = Lehmann | first = Peter John | date = 1995 | title = Children who witness mother-assault: an expander post-traumatic stress disorder conceptualization | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University | url = http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/193/ | isbn = 978-0-612-01816-7 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120502151725/http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/193/ | archive-date = 2012-05-02 }} Consequences to these children are likely to be more severe if their assaulted mother develops PTSD and does not seek treatment due to her difficulty in assisting her child with processing his or her own experience of witnessing the domestic violence.{{cite journal | last1 = Schechter | first1 = Daniel S. | last2 = Willheim | first2 = Erica | last3 = McCaw | first3 = Jaime | last4 = Turner | first4 = J. Blake | last5 = Myers | first5 = Michael M. | last6 = Zeanah | first6 = Charles H. | s2cid = 206562093 | title = The relationship of violent fathers, posttraumatically stressed mothers and symptomatic children in a preschool-age inner-city pediatrics clinic sample | journal = Journal of Interpersonal Violence | volume = 26 | issue = 18 | pages = 3699–3719 | doi = 10.1177/0886260511403747 | pmid = 22170456 | date = December 2011 }}

{{See also|Vicarious traumatization|Burnout (psychology)}}

An analysis in the US showed that 106 of the 771 officer killings between 1996 and 2009 occurred during domestic violence interventions.{{cite journal|last1=Meyer |first1=Shannon |last2=Carroll |first2=Randall H. |title=When officers die: understanding deadly domestic violence calls for service |journal=The Police Chief |volume=78 |issue=5 |pages=24–27 |date=May 2011 |url=http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?fuseaction=display_arch&article_id=2378&issue_id=52011|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906013511/http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?fuseaction=display_arch&article_id=2378&issue_id=52011 |archive-date=September 6, 2015 }} Of these, 51% were defined as unprovoked or as ambushes, taking place before officers had made contact with suspects. Another 40% occurred after contact and the remainder took place during tactical situations (those involving hostages and attempts to overcome barricades). The FBI's LEOKA system grouped officer domestic violence response deaths into the category of disturbances, along with "bar fights, gang matters, and persons brandishing weapons", which may have given rise to a misperception of the risks involved.{{cite book | last1 = Buzawa | first1 = Eva Schlesinger | last2 = Buzawa | first2 = Carl G. | title = Domestic violence: the criminal justice response | publisher = SAGE | location = Thousand Oaks, California | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-0-7619-2448-7 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9jCJXOxKXoUC&pg=PA80 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160623192417/https://books.google.com/books?id=9jCJXOxKXoUC&pg=PA80 | archive-date = 2016-06-23 }}

Due to the gravity and intensity of hearing victims' stories of abuse, professionals (social workers, police, counselors, therapists, advocates, medical professionals) are at risk themselves for secondary or vicarious trauma, which causes the responder to experience trauma symptoms similar to the original victim after hearing about the victim's experiences with abuse.{{cite journal | last1 = Iliffe | first1 = Gillian | last2 = Steed | first2 = Lyndall G. | title = Exploring the counselor's experience of working with perpetrators and survivors of domestic violence | journal = Journal of Interpersonal Violence | volume = 15 | issue = 4 | pages = 393–412 | doi = 10.1177/088626000015004004 | date = April 2000 | s2cid = 143695998 }} Research has demonstrated that professionals who experience vicarious trauma show signs of an exaggerated startle response, hypervigilance, nightmares, and intrusive thoughts although they have not experienced a trauma personally and do not qualify for a clinical diagnosis of PTSD.

{{Further|Epidemiology of domestic violence}}

Domestic violence occurs across the world, in various cultures,{{cite journal | last1 = Watts | first1 = Charlotte | last2 = Zimmerman | first2 = Cathy | title = Violence against women: global scope and magnitude | journal = The Lancet | volume = 359 | issue = 9313 | pages = 1232–1237 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08221-1 | pmid = 11955557 | date = 6 April 2002 | s2cid = 38436965 }} and affects people of all economic statuses; however, indicators of lower socioeconomic status (such as unemployment and low income) have been shown to be risk factors for higher levels of domestic violence in several studies.{{cite journal |author=Capaldi, Deborah|display-authors=etal|title=A Systematic Review of Risk Factors for Intimate Partner Violence |journal=Partner Abuse |volume=3 |issue=2 |date=April 2012 |pages=231–280 |doi=10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.231 |pmc=3384540 |pmid=22754606}} Worldwide, domestic violence against women is most common in Central Sub-Saharan Africa, Western Sub-Saharan Africa, Andean Latin America, South Asia, Eastern Sub-Saharan Africa, Northern Africa and the Middle East. The lowest prevalence of domestic violence against women is found in Western Europe, East Asia and North America.{{Cite journal|last1=Devries|first1=K. M.|last2=Mak|first2=J. Y. T.|last3=García-Moreno|first3=C.|last4=Petzold|first4=M.|last5=Child|first5=J. C.|last6=Falder|first6=G.|last7=Lim|first7=S.|last8=Bacchus|first8=L. J.|last9=Engell|first9=R. E.|last10=Rosenfeld|first10=L.|last11=Pallitto|first11=C.|date=2013-06-20|title=The Global Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women|journal=Science|volume=340|issue=6140|pages=1527–1528|doi=10.1126/science.1240937|pmid=23788730|bibcode=2013Sci...340.1527D|s2cid=206550080|issn=0036-8075|doi-access=free}} In diverse countries there are often ethnic and racial differences in victimization and use of services. In the United States, White women and Black women were more likely to be victims of domestic violence assault than were Asian or Hispanic women, according to a 2012 study.{{cite book |last1=Karmen |first1=Andrew |title=Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology |date=13 April 2015 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-305-46549-7 |page=298 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjh-BAAAQBAJ&dq=women+crime+risk&pg=PA298 |language=en}} "African-American women faced higher risks, and Hispanic and Asian women faced lower risks of beatings than white women in 2010 (Catalano, 2012)."

Non-Hispanic White women are two times more likely to use domestic violence services as compared with Hispanic women.{{cite book |last1=Westervelt |first1=James D. |last2=Cohen |first2=Gordon L. |title=Ecologist-Developed Spatially-Explicit Dynamic Landscape Models |date=14 April 2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4614-1257-1 |page=236 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L0Ra2Q_NZ-kC&dq=%22South+Asian+women%22+%22white+women%22+%22+domestic+violence%22+higher+rate&pg=PA236 |language=en}} "Research indicates that a woman's cultural, ethnic or social background can influence patterns of accessing and utilizing social services...non-Hispanic white women were nine times more likely to use emergency services and twice as likely to use domestic violence services when compared with Hispanic women." In the United Kingdom there is also much research to suggest that income is closely associated with domestic violence, as domestic violence is consistently more common in families with low income.{{cite book |title=Translating pain into action: a study of gender-based violence and minority ethnic women in Ireland |publisher=The Women's Health Council |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X46MXojlPzwC&dq=domestic+violence+incoome+england&pg=PA13 |language=en}} "A growing body of research studies conducted in different countries have found that domestic violence is more common in families with low incomes (Heise, 1998; Kasturirangan, 2004; Walby and Allen, 2004; Sutherland, Sullivan and Bybee, 2001; Sokoloff and Duporit, 2005)." The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that in the United States, 41% of women and 26% of men experience domestic violence within their lifetime.{{Cite web |date=2023-07-23 |title=Fast Facts: Preventing Intimate Partner Violence {{!}}Violence Prevention{{!}}Injury Center{{!}}CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence/fastfact.html |access-date=2024-01-01 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}

In the United Kingdom, statistics show that 1 in 3 victims of domestic abuse are male. This figure comes from the office of National Statistics, which also states that 1 in 7 men and 1 in 4 women will be a victim at some point in their lifetime.{{cite web | url=https://mankind.org.uk/statistics/statistics-on-male-victims-of-domestic-abuse/#:~:text=Summary%2FOverarching%20Statistics%20 | title=Statistics on Male Victims of Domestic Abuse }}

The annual reported serious assaults per capita against intimate partners or family members is shown below by country for last available year.{{cite web | title=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Violent & Sexual Crime, Victims of serious assault | url=https://dataunodc.un.org/dp-crime-victims-serious-assault | access-date=2025-03-31}} Definition of sexual assault differs between countries.

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Domestic violence is among the most underreported crimes worldwide for both men and women. A 2011 review article by intimate partner violence researcher Ko Ling Chan found men tended to underreport their own perpetration of domestic violence while women were more likely to underreport their victimization and overestimate their own violence perpetration.{{Cite journal | last = Chan | first = Ko Ling | title = Gender differences in self-reports of intimate partner violence: a review | journal = Aggression and Violent Behavior | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 167–175 | doi = 10.1016/j.avb.2011.02.008 | date = March–April 2011 | url = http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/134467/1/Content.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208161311/http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/134467/1/Content.pdf | archive-date = 2015-12-08 | hdl = 10722/134467 | hdl-access = free }} As of December 15, 2015, this article has incorporated [https://web.archive.org/web/20150514143116/https://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/134467/1/Content.pdf?accept=1 text] by Chan, made available under the CC BY 3.0 Hong Kong license Financial or familial dependence, normalization of violence, and self-blaming were found to reduce the likelihood of self-reporting victimization in women. By contrast, fear and avoidance of legal consequences, the tendency to blame their partner, and a narrative focus on their own needs and emotions reduced the likelihood of self-reporting perpetration in men.

A 2014 study conducted across the 28 member states of the EU found that only 14% of women reported their most serious incident of intimate partner violence to the police.{{cite web | title = Facts and figures: ending violence against women | url = http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-figures | website = unwomen.org | publisher = UN Women | access-date = 22 August 2015 | date = October 2014 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150827022736/http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-figures | archive-date = 27 August 2015}} A 2009 report on domestic violence in Northern Ireland found that "under-reporting is a concern and domestic abuse is the least likely of all violent crimes to be reported to the police".{{cite news | last = Staff writer | title = Domestic call 'every 23 minutes' | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/7960591.stm | work = BBC News | publisher = BBC | location = Northern Ireland | date = 24 March 2009 | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151211064421/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/7960591.stm | archive-date = 11 December 2015 }}

Male victims are less likely to report domestic violence than female victims,{{cite book |last=Britton |first=Andrew |title=Homicides, Firearm Offences and Intimate Violence, 2010/2011: Supplementary Volume 2 to Crime in England and Wales, 2010/2011 |date=2011 |publisher=Home Office |editor-last=Smith |editor-first=Kevin |location=London |page=96 |chapter=Intimate violence: 2010/11 BCS |quote=Female victims (44%) were around twice as likely to tell someone in a professional organisation than male victims (19%) and around three times more likely to the tell the police (29% compared with 10%). Female victims (19%) were also a lot more likely to tell a health professional than male victims (4%) about the abuse. |access-date=2023-09-17 |chapter-url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/116483/hosb0212.pdf}}{{cite book |last1=Watson |first1=Dorothy |url=http://www.crimecouncil.gov.ie/downloads/Abuse_Report_NCC.pdf |title=Domestic Abuse of Women and Men in Ireland: Report on the National Study of Domestic Abuse |last2=Parsons |first2=Sara |date=2005 |publisher=National Crime Council of Ireland |location=Dublin |page=169 |quote=The survey results showed that five per cent of severely abused men reported their experience to the Gardaí, compared to 29 per cent of severely abused women |access-date=2023-09-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229080456/http://www.crimecouncil.gov.ie/downloads/Abuse_Report_NCC.pdf |archive-date=December 29, 2014 |url-status=dead}}{{Cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=Julie C. |last2=Bates |first2=Elizabeth A. |last3=Colosi |first3=Attilio |last4=Creer |first4=Andrew J. |date=October 2022 |title=Barriers to Men's Help Seeking for Intimate Partner Violence |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |language=en |volume=37 |issue=19–20 |pages=NP18417–NP18444 |doi=10.1177/08862605211035870 |pmid=34431376 |pmc=9554285 |issn=0886-2605}} and may face additional gender related barriers in reporting due to social stigmas regarding male victimization and an increased likelihood of being overlooked by healthcare providers.{{cite book |last=Riviello |first=Ralph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=keng9ELAE2IC&pg=PA129 |title=Manual of Forensic Emergency Medicine |date=July 1, 2009 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn=978-0-7637-4462-5 |page=129 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110202829/https://books.google.com/books?id=keng9ELAE2IC&pg=PA129 |archive-date=January 10, 2017 |url-status=live}}{{cite book |last=Finley |first=Laura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AW-jAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA163M |title=Encyclopedia of Domestic Violence and Abuse |date=July 16, 2013 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-001-0 |page=163 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110205148/https://books.google.com/books?id=AW-jAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA163M |archive-date=January 10, 2017 |url-status=live}}{{cite book |last1=Hess |first1=Kären |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QbYaCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA323 |title=Criminal Investigation |last2=Orthmann |first2=Christine |last3=Cho |first3=Henry |date=January 1, 2016 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-4354-6993-8 |page=323 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110164312/https://books.google.com/books?id=QbYaCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA323 |archive-date=January 10, 2017 |url-status=live}}{{citation |last1=Lupri |first1=Eugene |title=Intimate partner abuse against men |url=http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ncfv-cnivf/familyviolence/pdfs/Intimate_Partner.pdf |page=6 |year=2004 |editor-last1=Lupri |editor-first1=Eugene |access-date=June 21, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090104074211/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ncfv-cnivf/familyviolence/pdfs/Intimate_Partner.pdf |contribution=Consequences of male abuse – direct and indirect |location=Ottawa |publisher=National Clearinghouse on Family Violence |isbn=978-0-662-37975-1 |archive-date=January 4, 2009 |last2=Grandin |first2=Elaine |editor-last2=Grandin |editor-first2=Elaine}}

During lockdown for COVID-19, some victims were inside their homes with their abusers. They were left without an escape during this period, which further led to underreporting.{{Cite journal|last=Sinha|first=Shambhavi|title=COVID – 19 and Surge in Domestic Violence Cases|url=https://www.ijlmh.com/wp-content/uploads/COVID-%E2%80%93-19-and-surge-in-Domestic-Violence-Cases.pdf|journal=International Journal of Law Management & Humanities|volume=3|issue=4|pages=21}} Activists in China have stated that 90% of domestic violence cases have resulted because of the lockdown. The situation was the same in several European countries struggling with the virus.

There continues to be some debate regarding gender differences with relation to domestic violence. Limitations of methodology, such as the conflict tactics scale, that fail to capture injury, homicide, and sexual violence rates,{{Cite web |last=Hamby|first=Sherry|date=2014-05-28|title=Measuring Intimate Partner Violence: A Multi-Study Investigation of Gender Patterns|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268125313}} context (e.g. motivations, fear),{{cite journal |last1=Bjørnholt |first1=M. |last2=Hjemdal |first2=O.K. |year=2018 |title=Measuring violence, mainstreaming gender; does adding harm make a difference? |journal=Journal of Gender-Based Violence |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages= 465–479 |doi= 10.1332/239868018X15366982109807 |doi-access=free }} disparate sampling procedures, respondent reluctance to self-report, and differences in operationalization all pose challenges to existing research.{{Cite journal|last=Hamby|first=Sherry|date=2017-04-01|title=On defining violence, and why it matters|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315967513|journal=Psychology of Violence|volume=7|issue=2|pages=167–180|doi=10.1037/vio0000117|s2cid=151683687}}{{Cite journal | last = Chan | first = Ko Ling | title = Gender symmetry in the self-reporting of intimate partner violence | journal = Journal of Interpersonal Violence | volume = 27 | issue = 2 | pages = 263–286 | doi = 10.1177/0886260511416463 | pmid = 21920874 | date = January 2012 | url = http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/134462/1/Content.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208152121/http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/134462/1/Content.pdf | archive-date = 2015-12-08 | hdl = 10722/134462 | s2cid = 206562160 | hdl-access = free }}{{citation | last = Rose | first = Susan D. | contribution = Gender violence: the problem | editor-last = Rose | editor-first = Susan D. | title = Challenging global gender violence: the global clothesline project | pages = 12–13 | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | location = New York | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-1-137-38848-3 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HZsKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160501065849/https://books.google.com/books?id=HZsKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 | archive-date = 2016-05-01 }} Normalization of domestic violence in those who experience covert forms of abuse, or have been abused by multiple partners, for long periods of time, reduces the likelihood of recognizing, and therefore reporting, domestic violence.{{citation | last = Boundless | author-link = Boundless (company) | contribution = Spousal abuse | editor-last = Boundless | editor-link = Boundless (company) | title = Sociology | pages = 898–899 | publisher = Boundless | location = Boston, Massachusetts | isbn = 978-1-940464-37-4}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=kbLpAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA899 Details.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022140457/https://books.google.com/books?id=kbLpAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA899 |date=2015-10-22 }} Many organizations have made efforts to use gender-neutral terms when referring to perpetration and victimization. For example, using broader terms like family violence rather than violence against women.{{citation | last1 = Wasco | first1 = Sharon M. | last2 = Bond | first2 = Meg A. | contribution = The treatment of gender in community psychology research | editor-last1 = Chrisler | editor-first1 = Joan C. | editor-last2 = McCreary | editor-first2 = Donald R. | title = Handbook of gender research in psychology | page = 632 | publisher = Springer | date = 2010 | isbn = 978-1-4419-1467-5 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=prTnltnNbC4C&pg=PA632 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151022134925/https://books.google.com/books?id=prTnltnNbC4C&pg=PA632 | archive-date = 2015-10-22 }}

Findings often indicate that when committing domestic violence, women are more likely than men to be motivated by self-defense and/or retaliation or fear.{{Cite journal |last1=Swan |first1=Suzanne C. |last2=Gambone |first2=Laura J. |last3=Caldwell |first3=Jennifer E. |last4=Sullivan |first4=Tami P. |last5=Snow |first5=David L. |date=2008 |title=A Review of Research on Women's Use of Violence With Male Intimate Partners |journal=Violence and Victims |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=301–314 |doi=10.1891/0886-6708.23.3.301 |pmc=2968709 |pmid=18624096}}{{Cite journal|last1=Bair-Merritt|first1=Megan H|last2=Crowne|first2=Sarah Shea|last3=Thompson|first3=Darcy A|last4=Sibinga|first4=Erica|last5=Trent|first5=Maria|last6=Campbell|first6=Jacquelyn|date=2010|title=Why Do Women Use Intimate Partner Violence? A Systematic Review of Women's Motivations|journal=Trauma, Violence & Abuse|volume=11|issue=4|pages=178–189|doi=10.1177/1524838010379003|pmc=2994556|pmid=20823071 }}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YBVGswoPYqMC&q=related:PTrUoeplCIkKdM:scholar.google.com/&pg=PA79|title=Current Controversies on Family Violence|last1=Loseke|first1=Donileen R.|last2=Gelles|first2=Richard J.|last3=Cavanaugh|first3=Mary M.|date=2005|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-0-7619-2106-6}}{{Cite journal|last=Dasgupta|first=Shamita|date=November 1, 2002|title=A Framework for Understanding Women's Use of Nonlethal Violence in Intimate Heterosexual Relationships |journal=Violence Against Women|volume=8|issue=11|pages=1364–1389 |doi=10.1177/107780102237408 |s2cid=145186540}} A 2010 systematic review of the literature on women's perpetration of IPV found that the common motives for female-on-male IPV were anger, a need for attention, or as a response to their partner's violence. It also stated that while self-defense and retaliation were common motivations, distinguishing between self-defense and retaliation was difficult.{{Cite journal|last1=Bair-Merritt|first1=Megan H|last2=Crowne|first2=Sarah Shea|last3=Thompson|first3=Darcy A|last4=Sibinga|first4=Erica|last5=Trent|first5=Maria|last6=Campbell|first6=Jacquelyn|date=October 2010|title=Why Do Women Use Intimate Partner Violence? A Systematic Review of Women's Motivations|journal=Trauma, Violence & Abuse|volume=11|issue=4|pages=178–189|doi=10.1177/1524838010379003 |pmc=2994556|pmid=20823071}} Another review found than men and women commit equal levels of physical or psychological aggression, and men are more likely to commit sexual abuse, coercive control and stalking. Another Family violence research by Murray A. Straus concluded that most IPV perpetrated by women against men is not motivated by self-defense.{{cite journal|last1=Straus|first1=Murray A|year=2011|title=Gender symmetry and mutuality in perpetration of clinical-level partner violence: Empirical evidence and implications for prevention and treatment|journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior|volume=16|issue=4|pages=279–288|doi=10.1016/j.avb.2011.04.010}} Other research supports Straus's conclusion about female-perpetrated IPV but adds that men are more likely to retaliate for being hit.Hamby, Sherry. "The Gender Debate About Intimate Partner Violence: Solutions and Dead Ends." Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy 1(1):24-34 · March 2009 DOI: 10.1037/a0015066. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232559408_The_Gender_Debate_About_Intimate_Partner_Violence_Solutions_and_Dead_Ends.Hamil, John. Russel, Brenda L. " Perceptions of Female Offenders: Chapter 10: The Partner Abuse State of Knowledge Project: Implications for Law Enforcement Responses to Domestic Violence." DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-5871-5_10. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287265042_The_Partner_Abuse_State_of_Knowledge_Project_Implications_for_Law_Enforcement_Responses_to_Domestic_Violence. Straus's research was criticized by Loseke et al. for using narrow definitions of self-defense.Loseke, Donileen R.; Gelles, Richard J.; Cavanaugh, Mary M. (2005). Current Controversies on Family Violence. SAGE. {{ISBN|9780761921066}}.

Sherry Hamby states that sexual violence is often left out of measures of IPV. When sexual violence is accounted for, female perpetrators make up less than 10%. She says that males' self-reports of victimization are unreliable, as they consistently underreport their own violence perpetration,{{Cite journal|last=Hamby|first=S.|date=2009|title=The gender debate about intimate partner violence: solutions and dead ends |doi=10.1037/a0015066 |journal=Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy |volume=1|pages=24–34}} and also that both men and women use IPV for coercive control. Coercive control is when one person uses a variety of IPV tactics to control and dominate the other, with little empathy; victims often resist with physical violence.{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/coercivecontrole0000star|title=Coercive Control: How Men Entrap Women in Personal Life|date=2009-03-01|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-538404-8|series=Interpersonal Violence|location=Oxford, New York|url-access=registration}} It is generally perpetrated by men against women, and is the most likely of the types to cause trauma bonding{{Cite journal|last1=Reid|first1=Joan|last2=Haskell|first2=Rachael|last3=Dillahunt-Aspillaga|first3=Christina|last4=Thor|first4=Jennifer|date=2013-01-01|title=Trauma Bonding and Interpersonal Violence|url=https://digital.usfsp.edu/fac_publications/198|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621194107/https://digital.usfsp.edu/fac_publications/198/|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 21, 2018|journal=Psychology of Trauma}} and require medical services.{{cite book | last1=Marx | first1=J. | last2=Hockberger | first2=R. | last3=Walls | first3=R. | title=Rosen's Emergency Medicine - Concepts and Clinical Practice E-Book: 2-Volume Set | publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-4557-4987-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uggC0i_jXAsC&pg=PA875 | access-date=March 1, 2016 | page=875}}{{cite book|first=Robert E.|last=Emery|title=Cultural Sociology of Divorce: An Encyclopedia|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-7443-0|year=2013|page=397|access-date=March 1, 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ix9zAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA397}} A 2011 review by researcher Chan Ko Ling from the University of Hong Kong found that perpetration of minor partner violence was equal for both men and women but more severe partner violence was far likelier to be perpetrated by men. His analysis found that men were more likely to beat up, choke or strangle their partners while women were more likely to throw objects, slap, kick, bite, punch, or hit with an object.

Researchers have also found significantly different outcomes for men and women in response to intimate partner violence.{{cite journal |last1=Caldwell |first1=Jennifer E |last2=Swan |first2=Suzanne C |last3=Woodbrown |first3=V. Diane |year=2012 |title=Gender differences in intimate partner violence outcomes |journal=Psychology of Violence |volume=2 |pages=42–57 |doi=10.1037/a0026296 |s2cid=28208572}} Hamberger's review in 2005 found that men tend to respond to female partner-initiated IPV with laughter and amusement.{{Cite journal|last=Hamberger|first=L. Kevin|date=April 2005|title=Men's and women's use of intimate partner violence in clinical samples: toward a gender-sensitive analysis|journal=Violence and Victims|volume=20|issue=2|pages=131–151 |pmid=16075663 |doi=10.1891/vivi.2005.20.2.131|s2cid=145601530}} Researchers report that male violence causes great fear, "fear is the force that provides battering with its power" and "injuries help sustain the fear."{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/whenmenbatterwom00jaco|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/whenmenbatterwom00jaco/page/35 35]|quote=fear is the force that provides battering with its power.|title=When Men Batter Women: New Insights Into Ending Abusive Relationships|last1=Jacobson|first1=Neil S.|last2=Gottman|first2=John Mordechai|date=1998|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-81447-6}} A 2013 review examined studies from five continents and the correlation between a country's level of gender inequality and rates of domestic violence. The authors found that when partner abuse is defined broadly to include emotional abuse, any kind of hitting, and who hits first, partner abuse is relatively even. They also stated if one examines who is physically harmed and how seriously, expresses more fear, and experiences subsequent psychological problems, domestic violence is significantly gendered toward women as victims.{{Cite journal | last1=Esquivel-Santovena |first1=Esteban Eugenio | last2=Lambert | first2=Teri | last3=Hamel | first3=John | title = Partner abuse worldwide | journal = Partner Abuse | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–8 | doi = 10.1891/1946-6560.4.1.e14 |url =http://domesticviolenceresearch.org/pdf/PASK.Tables14.Revised.pdf| date = January 2013 }}

Laws on domestic violence vary by country. While it is generally outlawed in the Western world, this is not the case in many developing countries. For instance, in 2010, the United Arab Emirates's Supreme Court ruled that a man has the right to physically discipline his wife and children as long as he does not leave physical marks.{{cite news |title=Court in UAE says beating wife, child OK if no marks are left |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120325143850/http://articles.cnn.com/2010-10-19/world/uae.court.ruling_1_islamic-law-sharia-law-ruling | archive-date = 25 March 2012 | url =http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/meast/10/19/uae.court.ruling/index.html |website=CNN |date=19 October 2010 | access-date = 24 January 2014 | url-status = live }} The social acceptability of domestic violence also differs by country. While in most developed countries domestic violence is considered unacceptable by most people, in many regions of the world the views are different: according to a UNICEF survey, the percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances is, for example: 90% in Afghanistan and Jordan, 87% in Mali, 86% in Guinea and Timor-Leste, 81% in Laos, 80% in Central African Republic.{{cite web | last = Childinfo | title = Attitudes towards wife beating: percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a husband/partner is justified in hitting or beating his wife/partner under certain circumstances | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140704112113/http://www.childinfo.org/attitudes_data.php | archive-date = 4 July 2014 | url = https://www.childinfo.org/attitudes_data.php | website = childinfo.org | publisher = Childinfo: monitoring the situation of children and women | access-date = 8 September 2013 }} Refusing to submit to a husband's wishes is a common reason given for justification of violence in developing countries:{{cite web | title = Home page | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140214095207/http://www.measuredhs.com/ | archive-date = 14 February 2014 | url = https://www.measuredhs.com/ | publisher = Measure DHS (Demographic and Health Surveys): Quality information to plan, monitor and improve population, health, and nutrition programs | date = 4 April 2013 | access-date = 8 September 2013 | url-status = dead }} for instance 62.4% of women in Tajikistan justify wife beating if the wife goes out without telling the husband; 68% if she argues with him; 47.9% if she refuses to have sex with him.{{cite book | last = State Committee on Statistics of the Republic of Takistan | title = Tajikistan multiple indicator cluster survey 2005, final report | publisher = State Committee on Statistics of the Republic of Takistan | url = http://www.childinfo.org/files/MICS3_Tajikistan_FinalReport_2005_Eng.pdf| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923213608/http://www.childinfo.org/files/MICS3_Tajikistan_FinalReport_2005_Eng.pdf| url-status = dead| archive-date = 2015-09-23| location = Dushanbe, Tajikistan | date = 2007 }}

{{See also|Violence against women#Domestic violence}}

File:True Manhood - Anti-Domestic Violence Sign - Outside Entebbe - Uganda.jpg]]

The UN Population Fund found violence against women and girls to be one of the most prevalent human rights violations worldwide, stating that "one in three women will experience physical or sexual abuse in her lifetime."{{cite web | last = UNFPA | author-link = United Nations Population Fund | title = Gender-based violence | url = http://www.unfpa.org/gender-based-violence | website = unfpa.org | publisher = United Nations Population Fund | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150815022216/http://www.unfpa.org/gender-based-violence | archive-date = 15 August 2015 }} Violence against women tends to be less prevalent in developed Western nations, and more normalized in the developing world.{{cite book | last = Felson | first = Richard | title = Violence and gender reexamined. | publisher = American Psychological Association | year = 2002 | page = [https://archive.org/details/violenc_fel_2002_00_9713/page/ abstract] | url = https://archive.org/details/violenc_fel_2002_00_9713/page/ | isbn = 978-1-55798-895-9 }}

Wife beating was made illegal nationally in the US by 1920.{{cite web | title = No-drop prosecution of domestic violence: just good policy, or equal protection mandate? | url = http://www.thefreelibrary.com/No-drop+prosecution+of+domestic+violence%3A+just+good+policy,+or+equal...-a058511048 | website = thefreelibrary | publisher = Farlex | access-date = 22 August 2015 }}{{cite book | last = Hanna | first = Cheryl | contribution = Domestic violence | editor-last = Encyclopedia.com | title = Encyclopedia of Crime and Justice | publisher = Gale Group | date = 2002 | url = http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Domestic_violence.aspx | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160903153253/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Domestic_violence.aspx | archive-date = 2016-09-03 }} Although the exact rates are disputed, there is a large body of cross-cultural evidence that women are subjected to domestic violence significantly more often than men.{{citation | last1 = Rogers | first1 = Kenneth | last2 = Baumgardner | first2 = Barbara | last3 = Connors | first3 = Kathleen | last4 = Martens | first4 = Patricia | last5 = Kiser | first5 = Laurel | contribution = Prevention of family violence | editor-last = Compton | editor-first = Michael T. | title = Clinical manual of prevention in mental health | page = 245 | publisher = American Psychiatric Publishing | location = Washington, DC | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-1-58562-347-1 | edition = 1st | quote = Women are more often the victims of domestic violence than men and are more likely to suffer injuries and health consequences... }}{{citation | last1 = Brinkerhoff | first1 = David | last2 = Weitz | first2 = Rose | last3 = Ortega | first3 = Suzanne T. | contribution = The study of society | editor-last1 = Brinkerhoff | editor-first1 = David | editor-last2 = Weitz | editor-first2 = Rose | editor-last3 = Ortega | editor-first3 = Suzanne T. | title = Essentials of sociology | page = 11 | publisher = Wadsworth Cengage Learning | location = Belmont, California | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-1-285-54589-9 | edition = 9th | quote = A conflict analysis of domestic violence, for example, would begin by noting that women are battered far more often and far more severely than are men... | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZQWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170110213803/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZQWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 | archive-date = 2017-01-10 }} In addition, there is broad consensus that women are more often subjected to severe forms of abuse and are more likely to be injured by an abusive partner, and this is exacerbated by economic or social dependence.

The 1993 UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (DEVAW) states that "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which has led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men".{{cite book | last = UNFPA | author-link = United Nations Population Fund | title = UNFPA strategy and framework for action to addressing gender-based violence 2008–2011 | url = http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/2009_add_gen_vio.pdf | publisher = United Nations Population Fund | location = New York | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-89714-951-8 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160112155127/http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/2009_add_gen_vio.pdf | archive-date = 2016-01-12 }}

The DEVAW classifies violence against women into three categories: that occurring in the family (domestic violence), that occurring within the general community, and that perpetrated or condoned by the State.

The Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence against Women defines violence against women as "any act or conduct, based on gender, which causes death or physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, whether in the public or the private sphere".{{cite web | title = Multilateral treaties: Inter-American convention on the prevention, punishment and eradication of violence against women "Convention of Belém do Pará" | url = http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-61.html | website = oas.org | publisher = Department of International Law, Organization of American States | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160413001826/http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-61.html | archive-date = 2016-04-13 }} Similarly with the DEVAW, it classifies violence against women into three categories; one of which being domestic violence – defined as violence against women which takes place "within the family, domestic unit or within any other interpersonal relationship, whether or not the perpetrator shares or has shared the same residence with the woman".

The Maputo Protocol of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights adopted a broader definition, defining violence against women as: "all acts perpetrated against women which cause or could cause them physical, sexual, psychological, and economic harm, including the threat to take such acts; or to undertake the imposition of arbitrary restrictions on or deprivation of fundamental freedoms in private or public life in peacetime and during situations of armed conflicts or of war".{{cite web | last = ACHPR | author-link = African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights | title = Protocol to the African charter on human and peoples' rights on the rights of women in Africa | url = http://www.achpr.org/instruments/women-protocol/ | publisher = African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights | date = 11 July 2003 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151202092756/http://www.achpr.org/instruments/women-protocol | archive-date = 2 December 2015 }}

The Istanbul Convention states: {{"'}}violence against women' is understood as a violation of human rights and a form of discrimination against women ..." (Article 3 – Definitions). In the landmark case of Opuz v Turkey, the European Court of Human Rights held for the first time that gender-based domestic violence is a form of discrimination under the European Convention.{{cite web | last = ECtHR | author-link = European Court of Human Rights | title = Opuz v. Turkey | url = http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-92945 | website = hudoc.echr.coe.int | publisher = European Court of Human Rights | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151222094631/http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-92945 | archive-date = 22 December 2015 }}{{cite web | last = Interights | title = Opuz v. Turkey | url = http://www.interights.org/opuz/index.html | website = interights.org | publisher = INTERIGHTS: International Centre for the Legal Protection of Human Rights | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035459/http://www.interights.org/opuz/index.html | archive-date = 24 September 2015 }}

According to one study, the percentage of women who have reported being physically abused by an intimate partner vary from 69% to 10% depending on the country.{{cite journal | last1 = Heise | first1 = Lori | last2 = Ellsberg | first2 = Mary | last3 = Gottemoeller | first3 = Megan | title = Ending violence against women | journal = Population Reports | volume = XXVII | issue = 4 | series = Series L | page = 11 | date = 1999 | url = https://www.k4health.org/sites/default/files/L%2011.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151223043937/https://www.k4health.org/sites/default/files/L%2011.pdf | archive-date = 2015-12-23 }} In the US, it is estimated that intimate partner violence accounts for 15% of all violent crime.{{cite web | last = Gedulin | first = George | title = San Diego Domestic Violence Attorney | url = http://www.gedulinlaw.com/practice-areas/domestic-violence/ | website = gedulinlaw.com | publisher = George Gedulin | access-date = 25 August 2016 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160827153457/http://www.gedulinlaw.com/practice-areas/domestic-violence/ | archive-date = 27 August 2016 }} Research by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2017 found that over half of all female homicides are committed by intimate partners, 98% of whom are men.{{Cite journal|last1=Petrosky|first1=Emiko|last2=Blair|first2=Janet M.|last3=Betz|first3=Carter J.|last4=Fowler|first4=Katherine A.|last5=Jack|first5=Shane P. D.|last6=Lyons|first6=Bridget H.|date=2017|title=Racial and Ethnic Differences in Homicides of Adult Women and the Role of Intimate Partner Violence — United States, 2003–2014 |journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|volume=66|issue=28|pages=741–746|doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm6628a1|pmid=28727682|pmc=5657947 }}

Femicide is usually defined as the sex-based killing of women or girls by men, although the exact definitions vary. Feminist author Diana E. H. Russell first defined the term in 1976 as "the killing of females by males because they are female." Femicides often occur in the context of domestic violence, such as honor killings or dowry killings. For statistical purposes, femicide is often defined as any killing of a woman. The top countries by rate of femicide are El Salvador, Jamaica, Guatemala, South Africa and Mexico (data from 2004 to 2009).{{Cite journal | last = Small Arms Survey | author-link = Small Arms Survey | title = Femicide: a global problem — research note 14 | journal = Small Arms Survey Research Notes | date = February 2012 | url = http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/about-us/highlights/highlight-rn14.html | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205035809/http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/about-us/highlights/highlight-rn14.html | archive-date = 2016-02-05 }} However, in El Salvador and Colombia, which have a very high rate of femicide, only 3% of all femicides are committed by a current or former intimate partner, while in Cyprus, France, and Portugal former and current partners are responsible for more than 80% of all cases of femicide.

{{Main|Domestic violence against men}}

File:Kalighat Painting Calcutta 19th Century - Woman Striking Man With Broom.jpg painting, Woman Striking Man with Broom, Calcutta, India, 1875]]

Research on men and domestic violence focuses on men as both perpetrators and victims of violence, as well as on how to involve men and boys in anti-violence work.{{cite book |last1=Gottzén |first1=L.|last2=Bjørnholt|first2=M.|last3=Boonzaier|first3=F.|editor-last=Gottzén |editor-first=L.|editor-last2=Bjørnholt|editor-first2=M.|editor-last3=Boonzaier|editor-first3=F.|date=2020 |title=Men, Masculinities and Intimate Partner Violence |chapter= What has masculinity to do with intimate partner violence? |publisher=Routledge|isbn= 978-1-000-21799-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bRb8DwAAQBAJ}} Domestic violence against men includes physical, emotional and sexual forms of abuse, including mutual violence.{{cite web | last = Mayo Clinic Staff | title = Domestic violence against men: know the signs | url = http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/adult-health/in-depth/domestic-violence-against-men/art-20045149 | website = mayoclinic.org | publisher = Mayo Clinic | date = 13 April 2014 | access-date = 11 April 2014 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140413140828/http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/adult-health/in-depth/domestic-violence-against-men/art-20045149 | archive-date = 13 April 2014 }}{{cite news | last = Sullivan | first = Vince | title = Help domestic abuse victims for 35 years | url = http://www.delcotimes.com/general-news/20131007/help-domestic-abuse-victims-for-35-years | work = The Delco Times | publisher = 21st Century Media | access-date = 11 April 2014 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131102225543/http://www.delcotimes.com/general-news/20131007/help-domestic-abuse-victims-for-35-years | archive-date = 2 November 2013 }} Male victims may be reluctant to get help for various reasons.{{Cite journal | last = Kumar | first = Anant | s2cid = 53350351 | title = Domestic violence against men in India: a perspective | journal = Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | pages = 290–296 | doi = 10.1080/10911359.2012.655988| date = March 2012 }} One study investigated whether women who assaulted their male partners were more likely to avoid arrest even when the male contacts police, and found that, "police are particularly unlikely to arrest women who assault their male partners." The reason being that they "assume that the man can protect himself from his female partner and that a woman's violence is not dangerous unless she assaults someone other than her partner".{{Cite journal | last1 = Felson | first1 = Richard B. | last2 = Pare | first2 = Paul-Philippe | title = Does the criminal justice system treat domestic violence and sexual assault offenders leniently? | journal = Justice Quarterly | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | page = 455 | doi = 10.1080/07418820701485601 | date = September 2007 | s2cid = 4686048 | url =https://richardfelson.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/does-cj-treat-leniently.pdf| url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205040704/https://richardfelson.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/does-cj-treat-leniently.pdf | archive-date = 2016-02-05 }} Another study concluded there is "some support for qualitative research suggesting that court personnel are responsive to the gendered asymmetry of intimate partner violence, and may view female intimate violence perpetrators more as victims than offenders."{{Cite journal | last1 = Kingsnorth | first1 = Rodney F. | last2 = MacIntosh | first2 = Randall C. | title = Intimate partner violence: the role of suspect gender in prosecutorial decision-making | journal = Justice Quarterly | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 460–495 | doi = 10.1080/07418820701485395 | date = September 2007 | s2cid = 144217964 | url = http://cj-resources.com/CJ_Female%20Offenders_pdfs/intimate%20partner%20violence%20the%20role%20of%20suspect%20gender%20-%20Kingsnorth%20et%20al%202007.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205035028/http://cj-resources.com/CJ_Female%20Offenders_pdfs/intimate%20partner%20violence%20the%20role%20of%20suspect%20gender%20-%20Kingsnorth%20et%20al%202007.pdf | archive-date = 2016-02-05 }}

{{Main|Parental abuse by children}}

Abuse of parents by their children, also known as child-to-parent violence (CPV),{{cite web |title=Child to Parent Violence Services |url=https://www.pac-uk.org/cpv/ |access-date=13 January 2019 |website=PAC-UK}} is one of the most under-reported and under-researched subject areas in the field of psychology. Parents are quite often subject to levels of childhood aggression in excess of normal childhood aggressive outbursts, typically in the form of verbal or physical abuse. Parents feel a sense of shame and humiliation to have that problem, so they rarely seek help.{{Cite web |title=Growing levels of concern from parents and carers experiencing aggression from their children |url=http://www.familylives.org.uk/about/news-blogs-and-reports/news/growing-levels-of-concern-from-parents-and-carers-experiencing-aggression-from-their-children/ |access-date=July 13, 2022 |archive-date=October 13, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171013065941/http://www.familylives.org.uk/about/news-blogs-and-reports/news/growing-levels-of-concern-from-parents-and-carers-experiencing-aggression-from-their-children/ |url-status=dead }}{{Cite web |title=When family life hurts: Family experience of aggression in children - Parentline plus 31 October 2010 |url=http://www.familylives.org.uk/media_manager/public/209/Documents/Reports/When%20family%20life%20hurts%202010.pdf |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619160335/http://familylives.org.uk/sites/default/files/When%20family%20hurts%202010.pdf |archivedate=June 19, 2012}}

Parental abuse has been defined by Cottrell as "any harmful act of a teenage child intended to gain power and control over a parent. The abuse can be physical, psychological, or financial", and often takes places during the teen years (often from 12 to 17), but it can happen earlier than that. The effects of experiencing abuse from one's child can be profound. In the short term, ongoing parent abuse has been found to impact on a parent's and other family members' physical and psychological health, with specific negative emotions such as fear, shame, guilt and despair commonly reported.{{Cite web |title=Responding to 'parent abuse' {{!}} The Psychologist |url=https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-24/edition-3/responding-parent-abuse |access-date=2017-11-20 |website=thepsychologist.bps.org.uk |language=en |archive-date=December 1, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201033246/https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-24/edition-3/responding-parent-abuse |url-status=dead }}

A child may become abusive if they have suffered some form of abuse themselves, although this may not always be the case. Parent abuse may derive not only from individualized issues, but also from structural societal and cultural factors.{{cite journal |last1=Lansford |first1=Jennifer E. |last2=Godwin |first2=Jennifer |last3=Uribe Tirado |first3=Liliana Maria |last4=Zelli |first4=Arnaldo |last5=Al-Hassan |first5=Suha M. |last6=Bacchini |first6=Dario |last7=Bombi |first7=Anna Silvia |last8=Bornstein |first8=Marc H. |last9=Chang |first9=Lei |last10=Deater-Deckard |first10=Kirby |last11=Di Giunta |first11=Laura |last12=Dodge |first12=Kenneth A. |last13=Malone |first13=Patrick S. |last14=Oburu |first14=Paul |last15=Pastorelli |first15=Concetta |last16=Skinner |first16=Ann T. |last17=Sorbring |first17=Emma |last18=Tapanya |first18=Sombat |last19=Alampay |first19=Liane Peña |title=Individual, family, and culture level contributions to child physical abuse and neglect: A longitudinal study in nine countries |journal=Development and Psychopathology |date=November 2015 |volume=27 |issue=4pt2 |pages=1417–1428 |doi=10.1017/S095457941500084X|pmid=26535934 |pmc=4839471 }}

{{Main|Teen dating violence}}

Among adolescents, researchers have primarily focused on heterosexual Caucasian populations.{{citation | last1 = Chu | first1 = Ann T. | last2 = Sundermann | first2 = Jane M. | last3 = DePrince | first3 = Anne P. | contribution = Intimate partner violence in adolescent romantic relationships | editor-last1 = Donohue | editor-first1 = William T. | editor-last2 = Benuto | editor-first2 = Lorraine T. | editor-last3 = Woodward Tolle | editor-first3 = Lauren | title = Handbook of adolescent health psychology | page = 193 | publisher = Springer | location = New York, New York | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-1-4614-6633-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KX29BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA193 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160610144154/https://books.google.com/books?id=KX29BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA193 | archive-date = 2016-06-10 }} The literature indicates that rates are similar for the number of girls and boys in heterosexual relationships who report experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV), or that girls in heterosexual relationships are more likely than their male counterparts to report perpetrating IPV.{{citation | last1 = Knox | first1 = Lyndee | last2 = Lomonaco | first2 = Carmela | last3 = Alpert | first3 = Elaine | contribution = Adolescent relationship violence | editor-last1 = Mitchell | editor-first1 = Connie | editor-last2 = Anglin | editor-first2 = Deirdre | title = Intimate partner violence: a health-based perspective | pages = 514, 516 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford New York | year = 2009 | isbn = 978-0-19-972072-9 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Q04QO7UmyowC&pg=PA514 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160515225356/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q04QO7UmyowC&pg=PA514 | archive-date = 2016-05-15 }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Williams | first1 = Jessica R. | last2 = Ghandour | first2 = Reem M. | last3 = Kub | first3 = Joan E. | title = Female perpetration of violence in heterosexual intimate relationships: adolescence through adulthood | journal = Trauma, Violence, & Abuse | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 227–249 | doi = 10.1177/1524838008324418 | pmc = 2663360 | date = October 2008 | pmid=18936281}} Ely et al. stated that, unlike domestic violence in general, equal rates of IPV perpetration is a unique characteristic with regard to adolescent dating violence, and that this is "perhaps because the period of adolescence, a special developmental state, is accompanied by sexual characteristics that are distinctly different from the characteristics of adult."{{citation | last1 = Ely | first1 = Gretchen | last2 = Dulmus | first2 = Catherine N. | last3 = Wodarski | first3 = John S. | contribution = Adolescent dating violence | editor-last1 = Rapp-Paglicci | editor-first1 = Lisa A. | editor-last2 = Roberts | editor-first2 = Albert R. | editor-last3 = Wodarski | editor-first3 = John S. | title = Handbook of violence | page = 36 | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | location = New York | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-471-21444-1 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YtOvUULaNZEC&pg=PA36 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160609174408/https://books.google.com/books?id=YtOvUULaNZEC&pg=PA36 | archive-date = 2016-06-09 }} Wekerle and Wolfe theorized that "a mutually coercive and violent dynamic may form during adolescence, a time when males and females are more equal on a physical level" and that this "physical equality allows girls to assert more power through physical violence than is possible for an adult female attacked by a fully physically mature man." Sherry Hamby stated that horseplay and joking among adolescents and young adults is common and that "a small but growing body of research indicates that females may be more likely to include this sort of joking around in responses to IPV questionnaires than males", leading to an apparent gender parity in some studies.Hamby, Sherry (2014). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269401152_Self-Report_Measures_That_Do_Not_Produce_Gender_Parity_in_Intimate_Partner_Violence_A_Multi-Study_Investigation] "Self-Report Measures That Do Not Produce Gender Parity in Intimate Partner Violence A Multi-Study Investigation", Psychology of Violence6(2), January 2014. Retrieved on 31 July 2018.

While the general literature indicates that adolescent boys and girls engage in IPV at about equal rates, females are more likely to use less dangerous forms of physical violence (e.g. pushing, pinching, slapping, scratching or kicking), while males are more likely to punch, strangle, beat, burn, or threaten with weapons. Males are also more likely to use sexual aggression, although both genders are equally likely to pressure their partner into sexual activities. In addition, females are four times more likely to respond as having experienced rape and are more likely to suffer fatal injuries inflicted by their partner, or to need psychological help as a result of the abuse. Females are more likely to consider IPV a serious problem than are their male counterparts, who are more likely to disregard female-perpetrated IPV.{{cite book | last1 = Poet | first1 = Andrea | last2 = Swiderski | first2 = Catherine R. | last3 = McHugh | first3 = Maureen C. | chapter = Developing teen relationships: the role of violence |chapter-url={{Google books|FGBTZmdGudcC|page=221|plainurl=yes}} | editor-last = Paludi | editor-first = Michele A. | title = The psychology of teen violence and victimization, volume 1, Part III. Teen violence by family and mates | pages = 221–241 | publisher = Praeger | location = Santa Barbara, California | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-313-39376-1 }} Along with form, motivations for violence also vary by gender: females are likely to perpetrate violence in self-defense, while males are likely to perpetrate violence to exert power or control. The self-defense aspect is supported by findings that previous victimization is a stronger predictor of perpetration in females than in males.{{citation | last1 = Edwards | first1 = Katie M. | last2 = Dardis | first2 = Christina M. | last3 = Gidycz | first3 = Christine A. | contribution = The role of victimization experiences in adolescent girls and young women's aggression in dating relationships | editor-last = Paludi | editor-first = Michele A. | title = The psychology of teen violence and victimization, volume 2, Part I. Impact of teen violence on adolescents, family, and peers | pages = 71–82 | publisher = Praeger | location = Santa Barbara, California | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-313-39376-1}} Other research indicates that boys who have been abused in childhood by a family member are more prone to IPV perpetration, while girls who have been abused in childhood by a family member are prone to lack empathy and self-efficacy; but the risks for the likelihood of IPV perpetration and victimization among adolescents vary and are not well-understood. Hamby's 2018 literature review of 33 studies, using a scale that rules out the false positives of horseplay and joking, indicates that males report perpetrating significantly more violence than females.{{cite report |doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.34326.86086 |title=Gender Patterns in Intimate Partner Violence: Results from 33 Campus Climate Surveys Based on the Partner Victimization Scale |year=2018 |last1=Bell|first1=Anne-Stuart |last2=Dinwiddie|first2=Martha |last3=Hamby|first3=Sherry |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327023173}}

{{Main|Child abuse}}

File:Map of domestic corporal punishment abolition.svg is outlawed.}} The views on child corporal punishment vary around the world. In most countries parental corporal punishment is not considered a form of domestic violence (if not excessive), but some countries, mostly in Europe and Latin America, have made any form of child corporal punishment illegal.{{cite web | last = Staff writer | title = States with full abolition | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150524174700/http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/prohib_states.html | archive-date = 24 May 2015 | url = https://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/prohib_states.html | website = endcorporalpunishment.org | publisher = Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children | date = March 2015 }}]]

There is a strong link between domestic violence and child abuse. Since domestic violence is a pattern of behavior, these incidences may increase in severity and frequency, resulting in an increased probability the children themselves will become victims. The estimated overlap between domestic violence and child abuse ranges from 30 to 50 percent.{{cite web|url=http://www.vawnet.org/Assoc_Files_VAWnet/PCAA_DVandChild.pdf|date=September 1996|title=The Relationship Between Domestic Violence and Child Abuse|publisher=Prevent Child Abuse America|access-date=2016-04-16|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151207171540/http://www.vawnet.org/Assoc_Files_VAWnet/PCAA_DVandChild.pdf|archive-date=2015-12-07}}

Today, corporal punishment of children by their parents remains legal in a majority of countries, but in Western countries that still allow the practice there are strict limits on what is permitted. The first country to outlaw parental corporal punishment was Sweden (parents' right to spank their own children was first removed in 1966{{cite book |last=Durrant |first=Joan E. |editor1=Frehsee, Detlev |display-editors=etal|title=Family Violence Against Children: A Challenge for Society |date=1996 |location=Berlin |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-014996-8 |pages=19–25 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8IyJkWAAXjkC&q=%22swedish+ban+on+corporal+punishment%22 |chapter=The Swedish Ban on Corporal Punishment: Its History and Effects}}), and it was explicitly prohibited by law from July 1979. As of 2021, corporal punishment of children is banned in all settings, including by parents, in 63 countries.{{cite web |title=Countdown to universal prohibition |url=https://endcorporalpunishment.org/countdown/ |website=End Corporal Punishment |date=January 29, 2018 |publisher=End Violence Against Children |access-date=2 November 2021}}

{{Main|Domestic violence in same-sex relationships}}

{{further|Sexual assault of LGBT persons}}

Historically, domestic violence has been seen as a heterosexual family issue and little interest has been directed at violence in same-sex relationships,{{cite thesis | degree = MA | last = Aguinaldo | first = Jeffrey | date = 2000 | title = Partner abuse in gay male relationships: challenging 'we are family' | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University | url = http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/697/ | isbn = 978-0-612-53261-8 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120425045957/http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/697/ | archive-date = 2012-04-25 }} but domestic violence does occur in same-sex relationships as well. The Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention states, "For several methodological reasons – nonrandom sampling procedures and self-selection factors, among others – it is not possible to assess the extent of same-sex domestic violence. Studies on abuse between gay male or lesbian partners usually rely on small convenience samples such as lesbian or gay male members of an association."{{citation | contribution = Same-sex relationships | editor-last1 = Fisher | editor-first1 = Bonnie S. | editor-last2 = Lab | editor-first2 = Steven P. | title = Encyclopedia of gender and society, Volume 1 | page = 312 | publisher = SAGE | location = Thousand Oaks, California | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-1-4129-6047-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8kHrWPLLX54C&pg=PA312 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151015090753/https://books.google.com/books?id=8kHrWPLLX54C&pg=PA312 | archive-date = 2015-10-15 }}

A 1999 analysis of nineteen studies of partner abuse concluded that "research suggests that lesbians and gay men are just as likely to abuse their partners as heterosexual men."{{Cite journal | last1 = Burke | first1 = Leslie K. | last2 = Follingstad | first2 = Diane R. | title = Violence in lesbian and gay relationships: theory, prevalence, and correlational factors | journal = Clinical Psychology Review | volume = 19 | issue = 5 | pages = 487–512 | doi = 10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00054-3 | pmid = 10467488 | date = August 1999 }} In 2011, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention released the 2010 results of their National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey and report that 44% of lesbian women, 61% of bisexual women, and 35% of heterosexual women have experienced domestic violence in their lifetime.{{cite book | last1 = Walters | first1 = Mikel L. | last2 = Chen | first2 = Jieru | last3 = Breiding | first3 = Matthew J. | title = National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: An overview of 2010 findings on victimization by sexual orientation | publisher = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | date = January 2013 | access-date = 5 November 2014 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/cdc_nisvs_victimization_final-a.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141028012540/http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/cdc_nisvs_victimization_final-a.pdf | archive-date = 28 October 2014 }} This same report states that 26% of gay men, 37% of bisexual men, and 29% of heterosexual men have experienced domestic violence in their lifetime. A 2013 study showed that 40.4% of self-identified lesbians and 56.9% of bisexual women have reported being victims of partner violence.{{Cite journal | last1 = Chen | first1 = Ping-Hsin | last2 = Jacobs | first2 = Abbie | last3 = Rovi | first3 = Susan L.D. | title = Intimate partner violence: IPV in the LGBT community | journal = FP Essentials | volume = 412 | pages = 28–35 | pmid = 24053263 | date = September 2013 | url = http://www.aafp.org/cme/subscriptions/fp-essentials/editions.html | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151210214351/http://www.aafp.org/cme/subscriptions/fp-essentials/editions.html | archive-date = 2015-12-10 }} In 2014, national surveys{{Clarify|reason=National? Which nation?|date=October 2021}} indicated that anywhere from 25 to 50% of gay and bisexual males have experienced physical violence from a partner.{{Cite journal | last1 = Finneran | first1 = Catherine | last2 = Stephenson | first2 = Rob | title = Antecedents of intimate partner violence among gay and bisexual men | journal = Violence & Victims | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 422–435 | pmid = 25069147 | pmc = 4354888 | doi = 10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-12-00140 | date = 2014 }}

Some sources indicate that gay and lesbian couples experience domestic violence at the same frequency as heterosexual couples,{{citation | last = Karmen | first = Andrew | contribution = Victims of rapes and other sexual assaults | editor-last = Karmen | editor-first = Andrew | title = Crime victims: an introduction to victimology | page = 255 | publisher = Cengage Learning | location = Belmont, California | year = 2010 | edition = 7th | isbn = 978-0-495-59929-6 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yb4Nkeks15AC&pg=PA255 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151022134934/https://books.google.com/books?id=yb4Nkeks15AC&pg=PA255 | archive-date = 2015-10-22 }} while other state that domestic violence among gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals might be higher than among heterosexual individuals, that gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals are less likely to report domestic violence that has occurred in their intimate relationships than heterosexual couples are, or that lesbian couples experience domestic violence less than heterosexual couples do.{{citation | last1 = Kaslow | first1 = Nadine J. | last2 = Thorn | first2 = Sheridan L. | last3 = Paranjape | first3 = Anuradha | contribution = Interventions for abused African-American women and their children | editor-last1 = Hampton | editor-first1 = Robert L. | editor-last2 = Gullotta | editor-first2 = Thomas P. | title = Interpersonal violence in the African-American community evidence-based prevention and treatment practices | page = 49 | publisher = Springer | location = Dordrecht, Netherlands | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-387-29598-5 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IAG1R-ZMmkYC&pg=PA49 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151123083323/https://books.google.com/books?id=IAG1R-ZMmkYC&pg=PA49 | archive-date = 2015-11-23 }} One study focusing on Hispanic men indicated that gay men are less likely to have been perpetrators or victims of domestic violence than heterosexual men but that bisexual men are more likely to have been both.{{Cite journal | last1 = Gonzalez-Guarda | first1 = Rosa M. | last2 = De Santis | first2 = Joseph P. | last3 = Vasquez | first3 = Elias P. | title = Sexual orientation and demographic, cultural, and psychological factors associated with the perpetration and victimization of intimate partner violence among Hispanic men | journal = Issues in Mental Health Nursing | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 103–109 | doi = 10.3109/01612840.2012.728280 | pmid = 23369121 | pmc = 3563281 | date = February 2013 }} By contrast, some researchers commonly assume that lesbian couples experience domestic violence at the same rate as heterosexual couples, and have been more cautious when reporting domestic violence among gay male couples.

Gay and lesbian relationships have been identified as a risk factor for abuse in certain populations. LGBT people in some parts of the world have very little legal protection from domestic violence, because homosexuality is criminalized (as of 2014, same-sex sexual acts are punishable by imprisonment in 70 countries and by death in another 5 countries){{cite news | last1 = Rodgers | first1 = Lucy | last2 = Gutierrez Martin | first2 = Pablo Gutierrez Martin | last3 = Rees | first3 = Martyn | last4 = Connor | first4 = Steven | title = Where is it illegal to be gay? | url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-25927595 | work = BBC News | publisher = BBC | date = 10 February 2014 | access-date = 22 August 2015 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150812100906/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-25927595 | archive-date = 12 August 2015 }} and these legal prohibitions prevent LGBT victims of domestic violence from reporting the abuse to authorities.{{cite journal | last = Serra | first = Natalie E. | title = Queering international human rights: LGBT access to domestic violence remedies | journal = Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law | volume = 21 | issue = 3 | pages = 583–607 | date = 2013 | url = http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1611&context=jgspl | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140819082107/http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1611&context=jgspl | archive-date = 2014-08-19 }}

People in same-sex relationships face special obstacles in dealing with the issues that some researchers have labeled the double closet. A 1997 Canadian study by Mark W. Lehman suggests similarities include frequency (approximately one in every four couples); manifestations (emotional, physical, financial, etc.); co-existent situations (unemployment, substance abuse, low self-esteem); victims' reactions (fear, feelings of helplessness, hypervigilance); and reasons for staying (love, can work it out, things will change, denial).{{cite book | last = Lehman | first = Mark Warren | title = At the end of the rainbow: a report on gay male domestic violence and abuse | publisher = Minnesota Center Against Violence and Abuse | location = St. Paul, Minnesota | date = 1997 | url = http://www.mincava.umn.edu/documents/rainbow/At%20The%20End%20Of%20The%20Rainbow.pdf | access-date = 30 December 2007 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080216045419/http://www.mincava.umn.edu/documents/rainbow/At%20The%20End%20Of%20The%20Rainbow.pdf | archive-date = 16 February 2008 }} Studies conducted by Emory University in 2014 identified 24 triggers for partner violence through web-based surveys, ranging from drugs and alcohol to safe-sex discussions. A general theme of power and control seems to underlie abuse in both heterosexual and homosexual relationships.

At the same time, significant differences, unique issues, and deceptive myths are typically present. Lehman, regarding his 1997 survey, points to added discrimination and fears that gay and lesbian individuals may face. This includes potential dismissal by police and some social services, a lack of support from peers, fear of attracting stigma toward the gay community, the impact of an HIV/AIDS status in keeping partners together (due to health care insurance/access, or guilt), threat of outing, and encountering supportive services that are targeted, or structured for the needs of heterosexual women, and may not meet the needs of gay men or lesbians. This service structure can make LGBTQ victims feel even more isolated and misunderstood than they may already because of their minority status.{{cite web|title=Same-sex abuse|url=https://www.womenslaw.org/laws_state_type.php?id=13586&state_code=PG&open_id=all|website=womenslaw.org|publisher=National Network to End Domestic Violence, Inc.|access-date=24 November 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320065837/http://womenslaw.org/laws_state_type.php?id=13586&state_code=PG&open_id=all|archive-date=20 March 2015}} Lehman, however, stated that "due to the limited number of returned responses and non-random sampling methodology the findings of this work are not generalizable beyond the sample" of 32 initial respondents and final 10 who completed the more in-depth survey. Particularly, sexual stressors and an HIV/AIDS status have emerged as significant differences in same-sex partner violence.

{{main|Management of domestic violence}}

Management of domestic violence may take place through medical services, law enforcement,{{cite book | last1 = Garner | first1 = Joel | last2 = Clemmer | first2 = Elizabeth | title = Danger to police in domestic disturbances—a new look | publisher = Bureau of Justice Statistics, US Department of Justice | url = https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/102634NCJRS.pdf | date = 1986 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151222214122/https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/102634NCJRS.pdf | archive-date = 2015-12-22 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Stanford | first1 = R.M. | last2 = Mowry | first2 = B.L. | title = Domestic disturbance danger rate | journal = Journal of Police Science and Administration | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 244–249 | date = December 1990 | url = https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/abstract.aspx?ID=126767 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151222223603/https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/abstract.aspx?ID=126767 | archive-date = 2015-12-22 }} {{ncj|126767}} counseling, and other forms of prevention and intervention. Participants in domestic violence may require medical treatment, such as examination by a family physician, other primary care provider,{{cite journal | last1 = Gerbert | first1 = Barbara | last2 = Caspers | first2 = Nona | last3 = Bronstone | first3 = Amy | last4 = Moe | first4 = James | last5 = Abercrombie | first5 = Priscilla | title = A qualitative analysis of how physicians with expertise in domestic violence approach the identification of victims | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 131 | issue = 8 | pages = 578–584 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-131-8-199910190-00005 | pmid = 10523218 | date = 1999 | s2cid = 30576148 }} or emergency room physicians.{{cite journal | last1 = Boyle | first1 = Adrian | last2 = Robinson | first2 = S. | last3 = Atkinson | first3 = P. | title = A qualitative analysis of how physicians with expertise in domestic violence approach the identification of victims | journal = Emergency Medicine Journal | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–13 | doi = 10.1136/emj.2003.007591 | pmid = 14734366 | pmc = 1756378 | date = January 2004 }}

Counseling is another means of managing the effects of domestic violence. For the victim of abuse, counseling may include an assessment of the presence,{{cite journal | last = Lawson | first = David M. | title = Incidence, explanations, and treatment of partner violence | journal = Journal of Counseling & Development | volume = 81 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–32 | doi = 10.1002/j.1556-6678.2003.tb00221.x | date = Winter 2003}} extent and types of abuse. A lethality assessment is a tool that can assist in determining the best course of treatment for a client, as well as helping the client to recognize dangerous behaviors and more subtle abuse in their relationship.{{cite journal | last = Campbell | first = Jacquelyn C. | s2cid = 31389329 | title = Commentary on Websdale: lethality assessment approaches: reflections on their use and ways forward | journal = Violence Against Women | volume = 11 | issue = 9 | pages = 1206–1213 | doi = 10.1177/1077801205278860 | pmid = 16049107 | date = September 2005 }} In a study of victims of domestic violence-related attempted homicide, only about one-half of the participants recognized that their perpetrator was capable of killing them, as many domestic violence victims minimize the true seriousness of their situation.{{cite journal | last = Campbell | first = Jacquelyn C. | title = Safety planning based on lethality assessment for partners of batterers in intervention programs | journal = Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 129–| doi = 10.1300/J146v05n02_08 | date = September 2001 | s2cid = 144850697 }} Another important component is safety planning, which allows the victim to plan for dangerous situations they may encounter, and is effective regardless of their decision on whether they remain with their perpetrator.

Counseling may be used by offenders to minimize the risk of future domestic violence,{{cite book | last1 = Andrews | first1 = Donald A. | last2 = Bonta | first2 = James | title = The psychology of criminal conduct | publisher = Anderson Publishing | location = Cincinnati, Ohio | year = 1994 | isbn = 978-0-87084-711-0 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Tharp | first1 = Andra Teten | last2 = Schumacher | first2 = Julie A. | last3 = Samper | first3 = Rita E. | last4 = McLeish | first4 = Alison C. | last5 = Coffey | first5 = Scott F. | title = Relative importance of emotional dysregulation, hostility, and impulsiveness in predicting intimate partner violence perpetrated by men in alcohol treatment | journal = Psychology of Women Quarterly | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 51–60 | doi = 10.1177/0361684312461138 | pmid = 23990693 | pmc = 3753816 | date = March 2013 }} or to stop the violence and repair the harm it has caused.{{cite book |last1=Augusta-Scott |first1=Tod |year=2017 |chapter=Preparing Men to Help the Women They Abused Achieve Just Outcomes: A Restorative Approach |chapter-url={{Google books|KAq9DgAAQBAJ|page=206|plainurl=yes}} |editor1-first=Tod |editor1-last=Augusta-Scott |editor2-first=Katreena |editor2-last=Scott |editor3-first=Leslie M. |editor3-last=Tutty |title=Innovations in Interventions to Address Intimate Partner Violence: Research and Practice |location=New York |publisher=Routledge }} Most commonly, to date, convicted or self-referring offenders undertake programmes for perpetrators of intimate partner violence. These are delivered in a group format, one or two hours per week, over a set time period. Programme facilitators guide participants through a curriculum of adult education-style modules, which draw on a variety of therapeutic approaches, but predominantly cognitive behavioural therapy and psycho-education. A debate on the effectiveness of these programmes is ongoing. While some partners and ex-partners of offenders have experienced improvements in their situation, others have not, and there also appears to be a risk of doing harm.{{cite journal | last1 = McGinn | first1 = Tony | last2 = Taylor | first2 = Brian | last3 = McColgan | first3 = Mary | last4 = Lagdon | first4 = Susan | s2cid = 22523192 | title = Survivor perspectives on IPV perpetrator interventions: a systematic narrative review | journal = Trauma, Violence, & Abuse | doi = 10.1177/1524838015584358 | pmid = 25964277 | date = May 2015 | volume=17 | issue = 3 | pages=239–255| url = https://pure.ulster.ac.uk/en/publications/fff33e6a-dfc1-4396-855b-56b343517e4f }} Along with using group work, there are other approaches that incorporate individual and conjoint conversations to help stop the violence and restore the victims' safety and respect.

Prevention and intervention includes ways to prevent domestic violence by offering safe shelter, crisis intervention, advocacy, and education and prevention programs. Community screening for domestic violence can be more systematic in cases of animal abuse, healthcare settings, emergency departments, behavioral health settings and court systems. Tools are being developed to facilitate domestic violence screening such as mobile apps.{{cite web | last = Staff writer | title = app to help physicians screen for domestic abuse | url = https://mobihealthnews.com/13989/app-to-help-physicians-screen-for-domestic-abuse/ | website = mobihealthnews.com | publisher = Mobile Health News | date = 20 October 2011 | access-date = 23 December 2011 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111220151029/http://mobihealthnews.com/13989/app-to-help-physicians-screen-for-domestic-abuse/ | archive-date = 20 December 2011 }}{{cite web | last = Staff writer | title = The R3 app and reviews | url = https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/r3-app/id491452316?mt=8 | website = iTunes | date = 11 February 2012 | access-date = 25 June 2012 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130526185850/https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/r3-app/id491452316?mt=8 | archive-date = 26 May 2013 }} The Duluth Model or Domestic Abuse Intervention Project is a program developed to reduce domestic violence against women,{{cite web | last = Staff writer | title = Conceptual framework | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130512100557/http://www.d.umn.edu/educ/accreditation/bot/framework/index.html | archive-date = 12 May 2013 | url = https://www.d.umn.edu/educ/accreditation/bot/framework/index.html | website = d.umn.edu | publisher = University of Minnesota Duluth }} which is the first multi-disciplinary program designed to address the issue of domestic violence by coordinating the actions of a variety of agencies dealing with domestic conflict.{{cite web | last = Staff writer | title = History | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110728094345/http://www.theduluthmodel.org/history.php | archive-date = 28 July 2011 | url = http://www.theduluthmodel.org/history.php | website = theduluthmodel.org | publisher = Domestic Abuse Intervention Programs }}

domestic violence hotlines offer advice, support and referral services to those in abusive relationships.

Specialized domestic violence courts have been increasingly used since the 1980s to adjudicate domestic violence cases in the United States.

File:(4)_Ghana_Domestic_Violence_is_a_Human_Right_Abuse_Poster.jpg, Ghana]]

There exist several strategies that are being used to attempt to prevent or reduce domestic violence. It is important to assess the effectiveness of a strategy that is being implemented.{{cite book | last = WHO | author-link = World Health Organization | title = Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: taking action and generating evidence | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva, Switzerland | url = http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44350/1/9789241564007_eng.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205034703/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44350/1/9789241564007_eng.pdf | archive-date = 2016-02-05 }}

File:Live Fear Free - Domestic Abuse.webm's campaign to change attitudes about domestic abuse; a short TV advertisement]]

Reforming the legislation in order to ensure that domestic violence falls under the scope of the law is important. This may imply repealing existing laws which discriminate against women: according to the WHO, "when the law allows husbands to physically discipline wives, implementing a programme to prevent intimate partner violence may have little impact". Marriage laws are also important; "women should also be able to enter freely into a marriage or to leave it, to obtain financial credit, and to own and administer property." Abolishing or restricting the offering and receiving of dowry and bride price and scrutinizing the impact of these transactions on the legislative decisions regarding domestic violence is also important. UN Women has stated that the legislation should ensure that "a perpetrator of [domestic violence], including marital rape, cannot use the fact that he paid bride price as a defence to a [domestic violence] charge".{{cite book | last = UN Women | author-link = UN Women | title = Supplement to the handbook for legislation on violence against women: "harmful practices" against women | publisher = UN Women | location = New York | year = 2012 | url = http://www.unwomen.org/~/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2012/12/unw-legislation-supplement-en%20pdf.pdf| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150610131259/http://www.unwomen.org/~/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2012/12/unw-legislation-supplement-en%20pdf.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2015-06-10 }}

Gender norms that promote the inferiority of women may lead to the abuse of women by intimate partners. The WHO writes that, "Dismantling hierarchical constructions of masculinity and femininity predicated on the control of women, and eliminating the structural factors that support inequalities are likely to make a significant contribution to preventing intimate partner and sexual violence".

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, "A key strategy in preventing [domestic violence] is the promotion of respectful, nonviolent relationships through individual, community, and societal level change."{{cite web | last = Staff writer | title = Prevent domestic violence in your community | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151003152901/http://www.cdc.gov/features/intimatepartnerviolence/ | archive-date = 3 October 2015 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/features/intimatepartnerviolence/ | website = cdc.gov | publisher = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | date = 2015 }} Early intervention programs, such as school-based programs to prevent dating violence are also effective. Children who grow up in violent homes may be led to believe that such behavior is a normal part of life, therefore it is important to challenge such attitudes when they are present among these children.{{cite book | last = Dept. for Health | author-link = Department of Health (UK) | title = Responding to domestic abuse: a handbook for health professionals | publisher = Department of Health | location = London, UK | year = 2005 | url = http://dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/publications/publicationspolicyandguidance/dh_4126161 | archive-url = http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20060123125814/dh.gov.uk/en/publicationsandstatistics/publications/publicationspolicyandguidance/dh_4126161 | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2006-01-23 | oclc = 278343897 }}

The UN Sustainable Development Goal 16 has a target to end all forms of violence including domestic violence through global advocacy and demand for effective institutions.{{Cite news|last=Doss|first=Eric|title=Sustainable Development Goal 16|url=https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/sdg-16/|access-date=2020-09-25|website=United Nations and the Rule of Law}} The joint UN-EU Spotlight initiative was launched in 2016 to advance this goal worldwide with focus on developing countries and regions.{{cite news |title=UN, EU Launch Spotlight Initiative for Central Asia, Afghanistan to Support Women |url=https://astanatimes.com/2020/12/un-eu-launch-spotlight-initiative-for-central-asia-afghanistan-to-support-women/ |agency=The Astana Times}} The Spotlight Initiative is embraced by all implementing partners as critical to economic and political progress in both the implementing and targeted societies.

{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|

• Abusive power and control
• Athletes and domestic violence
• Battered woman syndrome
• Belém do Pará Convention (Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence against Women)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)
• Crime statistics
• Depp v. Heard
• Domestic violence in transgender relationships
• Femicide
• Intimate partner violence and U.S. military populations
• Narcissistic parent
• Officer–involved domestic violence
• Online gender-based violence
• Outline of domestic violence
• Parental bullying of children
• Erin Pizzey, domestic violence advocate
• Rape statistics
• Signal for Help
• Spasime movement
• Women's police station
• Wellness check}}

{{Reflist|group=nb}}

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• {{cite book | last1 = Hampton | first1 = Robert L. | last2 = Gullotta | first2 = Thomas P. | title = Interpersonal violence in the African American community: evidence-based prevention and treatment practices | publisher = Springer | location = New York | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-387-29598-5 }}
• {{cite book | last1 = Hannah | first1 = Mo Therese | last2 = Goldstein | first2 = Barry | title = Domestic Violence, Abuse, and Child Custody: Legal Strategies and Policy Issues | publisher = Civic Research Institute | location = Kingston, New Jersey | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-1-887554-84-8 | url = http://www.civicresearchinstitute.com/dvac.html }}
• {{cite thesis | degree = MSW | last = Hanson | first = Tenniel Melisa | date = 2005 | title = "No woman no cry": An examination of the use of feminist ideology in shelters for abused women when working with Caribbean-Canadian women | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University | url = http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/181/ | isbn = 978-0-494-04873-3 }}
• {{cite journal | last = Helton | first = Peggy | title = Resources for battering intervention and prevention programs in Texas to mitigate risk factors which increase the likelihood of participant dropout | journal = An Applied Research Project Submitted to the Department of Political Science, Texas State University-San Marcos, in Partial Fulfillment for the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Public Administration, Spring 2011 | url = http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/351 | publisher = Applied Research Projects, Texas State University-San Marcos | id = paper 351 | year = 2011 | access-date = June 16, 2011 | archive-date = August 16, 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110816202929/http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/351/ | url-status = dead }}
• {{cite book | last = Jackson | first = Nicky Ali | title = Encyclopedia of domestic violence | publisher = Routledge | location = New York, New York | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-415-96968-0 }}
• {{Cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = Brittny A. | last2 = Cui | first2 = Ming | last3 = Ueno | first3 = Koji | last4 = Fincham | first4 = Frank D. | title = Intimate partner violence in interracial and monoracial couples | journal = Family Relations | volume = 62 | issue = 1 | pages = 202–211 | doi = 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2012.00747.x | pmid = 23554541 | date = February 2013 | pmc = 3611980 }}
• {{cite book | last = McCue | first = Margi Laird | title = Domestic violence: a reference handbook | publisher = ABC-CLIO | location = Santa Barbara, California | year = 2008 | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-1-85109-779-1 }}
• {{cite book | last = Moreno | first = Claudia | title = Global and regional estimates of violence against women: prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva, Switzerland | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-92-4-156462-5 | url = http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/85239/1/9789241564625_eng.pdf }}
• {{cite thesis | degree = MSW | last = Pollard | first = Carrie | date = 2004 | title = Examining predictors of level of attendance in a group treatment program for men who abuse | publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University | url = http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/171/ | isbn = 978-0-612-92277-8 }}
• {{cite book | last1 = Radford | first1 = Lorraine | last2 = Hester | first2 = Marianne | title = Mothering through domestic violence | publisher = Jessica Kingsley Publishers | location = London, UK; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1-280-73823-4 }}
• {{cite book |first1=David L. |last1=Richards |first2=Jillienne |last2=Haglund |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-61205-148-2 |title=Violence Against Women and the Law |series=International Studies Intensives}}
• {{cite book | last = Roberts | first = Albert R. | title = Battered women and their families: intervention strategies and treatment programs | publisher = Springer | location = New York | year = 2007 | edition = 3rd | isbn = 978-0-8261-4592-5 }}
• {{cite book | last = Wilcox | first = Paula | title = Surviving domestic violence: gender, poverty and agency | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | location = Houndmills England New York | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1-4039-4113-8 }}

{{refend}}

{{Commons category|Domestic violence}}

{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=yes lcheading=Family violence}}

• [https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/587334 World Report on Violence Against Children], Secretary-General of the UN
• [https://www.unicef.org/reports/hidden-plain-sight Hidden in Plain Sight: A statistical analysis of violence against children], UNICEF
• [http://resourcecentre.savethechildren.se/library/prohibiting-violent-punishment-girls-and-boys-key-element-ending-family-violence Prohibiting Violent Punishment of Girls and Boys: A key element in ending family violence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817175013/http://resourcecentre.savethechildren.se/library/prohibiting-violent-punishment-girls-and-boys-key-element-ending-family-violence |date=August 17, 2016 }}, Save the Children
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20151227023424/http://www.hotpeachpages.net/index.html Hot Peach Pages] international directory of domestic violence agencies with abuse information in over 100 languages
• [https://www.domesticshelters.org/ Searchable database of domestic violence shelters and programs in the US and links to informative articles]

{{Medical resources

| ICD11 = {{hlist|class=inline|{{ICD11|Maltreatment|491063206}}| {{ICD11|Assault|73322695}}}}

| ICD10 = {{hlist|class=inline|{{ICD10|T74}} Maltreatment syndromes |{{ICD10|X85-Y09}} Assault}}

| ICD10CM = {{flatlist|class=inline|

• Adult and child abuse, neglect and other maltreatment
• [https://www.icd10data.com/ICD10CM/Codes/S00-T88/T66-T78/T74- T74 confirmed]
• [https://www.icd10data.com/ICD10CM/Codes/S00-T88/T66-T78/T76- T76 suspected]
• [https://www.icd10data.com/ICD10CM/Codes/V00-Y99/X92-Y09 X92-Y09 Assault]

}}

| ICD9 = {{flatlist|class=inline|

• {{ICD9|995.5}} Child maltreatment syndrome
• Adult maltreatment and abuse
• {{ICD9|995.80}}
• {{ICD9|995.81}}
• {{ICD9|995.82}}
• {{ICD9|995.83}}
• {{ICD9|995.84}}
• {{ICD9|995.85}}
• [http://www.icd9data.com/2015/Volume1/E000-E999/E960-E969/default.htm E960-E969] Homicide And Injury Purposely Inflicted By Other Persons

}}

| OMIM =

| MeshID = D017579

| DiseasesDB =

| SNOMED CT =

| Curlie = Society/People/Women/Issues/Violence_and_Abuse/Domestic_Violence/

| MedlinePlus = https://medlineplus.gov/domesticviolence.html

| eMedicineSubj = article

| eMedicineTopic = 805546

| PatientUK =

| GeneReviewsNBK =

| GeneReviewsName =

| GARDNum =

| GARDName =

| RP =

| AO =

| WO = orthopaedic-manifestations-of-child-abuse

| OrthoInfo =

| Scholia = Q156537

| OB = trauma/1060/domestic-and-elder-abuse

}}

{{Domestic violence}}

{{abuse}}

{{navboxes|title=Domestic violence by continent|list=

{{Africa topic|Domestic violence in}}

{{Asia topic|Domestic violence in}}

{{Europe topic|Domestic violence in}}

{{North America topic|Domestic violence in}}

{{Oceania topic|Domestic violence in}}

{{South America topic|Domestic violence in}}

}}

{{Family}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Abuse

Category:Violence against women

Category:Violence against children

Category:Violence against men

Category:Causes of death

Category:Crimes against women

Category:Family disruption

Category:Children's rights

Category:Women's rights

Category:Men's rights