Functionalism (architecture)#Danish Functionalism

The theoretical articulation of functionalism in buildings can be traced back to the Vitruvian triad, where utilitas (variously translated as 'commodity', 'convenience', or 'utility') stands alongside firmitas (firmness) and venustas (beauty) as one of three classic goals of architecture. Functionalist views were typical of some Gothic Revival architects. In particular, Augustus Welby Pugin wrote that "there should be no features about a building which are not necessary for convenience, construction, or propriety" and "all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essential construction of the building".A.W.N.Pugin, The true principles of pointed or Christian architecture: set forth in two lectures delivered at St. Marie's, Oscott.

In 1896, Chicago architect Louis Sullivan coined the phrase Form follows function. However, this aphorism does not relate to a contemporary understanding of the term 'function' as utility or the satisfaction of user needs; it was instead based in metaphysics, as the expression of organic essence and could be paraphrased as meaning 'destiny'.Forty, A. ‘Words & Buildings: Function’, pp 174.

In the mid-1930s, functionalism began to be discussed as an aesthetic approach rather than a matter of design integrity (use). The idea of functionalism was conflated with a lack of ornamentation, which is a different matter. It became a pejorative term associated with the baldest and most brutal ways to cover space, like cheap commercial buildings and sheds, then finally used, for example in academic criticism of Buckminster Fuller's geodesic domes, simply as a synonym for 'gauche'.

For 70 years the influential American architect Philip Johnson held that the profession has no functional responsibility whatsoever, and this is one of the many views today. The position of postmodern architect Peter Eisenman is based on a user-hostile theoretical basis and even more extreme: "I don't do function."Branko Mitrovic, Philosophy for Architects, New York: Chronicle Books, 2012. p.153.

{{Main|Modern architecture}}

Popular notions of modern architecture are heavily influenced by the work of the Franco-Swiss architect Le Corbusier and the German architect Mies van der Rohe. Both were functionalists at least to the extent that their buildings were radical simplifications of previous styles. In 1923, Mies van der Rohe was working in Weimar Germany, and had begun his career of producing radically simplified, lovingly detailed structures that achieved Sullivan's goal of inherent architectural beauty. Le Corbusier famously said "a house is a machine for living in"; his 1923 book Vers une architecture was, and still is, very influential, and his early built work such as the Villa Savoye in Poissy, France, is thought of as prototypically function.

The former Czechoslovakia was an early adopter of the functionalist style, with notable examples such as Villa Tugendhat in Brno, designed by Mies van der Rohe in 1928, Villa Müller in Prague, designed by Adolf Loos in 1930, and the majority of the city of Zlín, developed by the Bata shoe company as a factory town in the 1920s{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/17/travel/exploring-czech-functionalism-in-brno.html|title=Exploring Czech Functionalism in Brno|last=Rail|first=Evan|date=2012-06-15|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-05-28|issn=0362-4331}} and designed by Le Corbusier's student František Lydie Gahura.

Numerous villas, apartment buildings and interiors, factories, office blocks and department stores can be found in the functionalist style throughout the country, which industrialised rapidly in the early 20th century while embracing the Bauhaus-style architecture that was emerging concurrently in Germany.{{Cite web|url=https://www.travelandleisure.com/articles/form-and-function|title=Discovering Brno's Architecture|work=Travel + Leisure|access-date=2019-05-28}} Large urban extensions to Brno in particular contain numerous apartment buildings in the functionalist style, while the domestic interiors of Adolf Loos in Plzeň{{Cite web|url=https://www.adolfloosplzen.cz/en/|title=Adolf Loos in Plzeň|website=adolfloosplzen.cz|access-date=2019-05-28}} are also notable for their application of functionalist principles.

Střední průmyslová škola, Havlíčkova, Mladá Boleslav.jpg|Secondary Industrial School (Mladá Boleslav), 1927, Jiří Kroha

VT16 PD zahrada.jpg|Villa Tugendhat (Brno), 1928, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

Villa-Mueller-Prag-2.jpg|Villa Müller (Prague), 1930, Adolf Loos

Brno, Crematorium.jpg|Brno Crematorium (Brno), 1930, Ernst Wiesner

Hotel Avion, Brno (May 2008).JPG|Hotel Avion (Brno), 1928, Bohuslav Fuchs

Bata Corporate Town.jpeg|Zlín, factory city built by the Bata Company

Památník Tomáše Bati.jpg|Tomas Bata Memorial (Zlín), 1933, František Lydie Gahura

File:Kansankatu 47 Oulu 20080503.JPG)]]

In Scandinavia and Finland, the international movement and ideas of modernist architecture became widely known among architects at the 1930 Stockholm Exhibition, under the guidance of director and Swedish architect Gunnar Asplund. Enthusiastic architects collected their ideas and inspirations in the manifesto acceptera and in the years thereafter, a functionalist architecture emerged throughout Scandinavia. The genre involves some peculiar features unique to Scandinavia and it is often referred to as "funkis", to distinguish it from functionalism in general. Some of the common features are flat roofing, stuccoed walls, architectural glazing and well-lit rooms, an industrial expression and nautical-inspired details, including round windows.William C Miller (2016): Nordic Modernism: Scandinavian Architecture 1890–2017, The Crowood Press Ltd., {{ISBN|978 1 78500 237 3}} The global stock market crisis and economic meltdown in 1929, instigated the needs to use affordable materials, such as brick and concrete, and to build quickly and efficiently. These needs became another signature of the Nordic version of functionalist architecture, in particular in buildings from the 1930s, and carried over into modernist architecture when industrial serial production became much more prevalent after World War II.

As most architectural styles, Nordic funkis was international in its scope and several architects designed Nordic funkis buildings throughout the region. Some of the most active architects working internationally with this style, includes Edvard Heiberg, Arne Jacobsen and Alvar Aalto. Nordic funkis features prominently in Scandinavian urban architecture, as the need for urban housing and new institutions for the growing welfare states exploded after World War II. Funkis had its heyday in the 1930s and 1940s, but functionalist architecture continued to be built long into the 1960s. These later structures, however, tend to be categorized as modernism in a Nordic context.

Vilhelm Lauritzen, Arne Jacobsen and C.F. Møller were among the most active and influential Danish architects of the new functionalist ideas and Arne Jacobsen, Poul Kjærholm, Kaare Klint, and others, extended the new approach to design in general, most notably furniture which evolved to become Danish modern.Andrew Hollingsworth, Danish Modern, 2008, Gibbs Smith, p. 31. Some Danish designers and artists who did not work as architects are sometimes also included in the Danish functionalist movement, such as Finn Juhl, Louis Poulsen and Poul Henningsen. In Denmark, bricks were largely preferred over reinforced concrete as construction material, and this included funkis buildings. Apart from institutions and apartment blocks, more than 100,000 single-family funkis houses were built in the years 1925–1945. However, the truly dedicated funkis design was often approached with caution. Many residential buildings only included some signature funkis elements such as round windows, corner windows or architectural glazing to signal modernity while not provoking conservative traditionalists too much. This branch of restrained approach to the funkis design created the Danish version of the bungalow building.Jeanne Brüel (2014): "Funkishuset – en bevaringsguide", {{in lang|da}} Bygningskultur DanmarkJohan Hage: [https://issuu.com/johanhage/docs/web_funkishuset Funkishuset] {{in lang|da}}

Fine examples of Danish functionalist architecture are the now listed Kastrup Airport 1939 terminal by Vilhelm Lauritzen, Aarhus University (by C. F. Møller et al.) and Aarhus City Hall (by Arne Jacobsen et al.), all including furniture and lamps specially designed for these buildings in the functionalist spirit. The largest functionalist complex in the Nordic countries is the 30,000-sq. m. residential compound of Hostrups Have in Copenhagen.Niels-Ole Lund (2008): Nordic Architecture, Arkitektens Forlag, {{ISBN|9788774072584}}

Frederiksberg funkis, april 2004 (508279000).jpg|Det Grønne Funkishus (1932), Frederiksberg. Early funkis, facade detail.

Arne Jacobsen Bellavista 2005-07.jpg|Bellavista (1934), Klampenborg

Bakkegaarden.jpg|Bakkegården (1935–38), Aarhus

Ib Lunding - Champagnehuset.jpg|Champagnehuset (1936), Copenhagen

Skovvangskolen (facade).jpg|Skovvangsskolen (1937), Aarhus

Frederiksgade 1.jpg|Frederiksgade no. 1 (1939), Aarhus

Strandparken (grøn blok).jpg|Strandparken (1938), Aarhus. Typical pastel colour for stuccoed funkis.

The Standard (Havnegade).jpg|The Standard (1937), Copenhagen. Former custom house.

Knippelsbro.jpg|Knippelsbro bridge (1935), Copenhagen

Facade på Aarhus Rådhus.jpg|Aarhus City Hall (1941), Aarhus. Marble facade.

Lyngby Rådhus - arkitekturbilleder.dk.jpg|Lyngby City Hall (1941), Lyngby

Dronningegården - balconies.jpg|Dronningegården (1958), Copenhagen. Late funkis.

Psykologisk Institut, AU 03.jpg|Aarhus University (1933 onwards)

Aarhus university - fisker, møller, stegmann, sørensen 1931.jpg|Aarhus University. This building is from 1974.

Some of the most prolific and notable architects in Finland, working in the funkis style, includes Alvar Aalto and Erik Bryggman who were both engaged from the very start in the 1930s. The Turku region pioneered this new style and the journal Arkkitehti mediated and discussed functionalism in a Finnish context. Many of the first buildings in the funkis style were industrial structures, institutions and offices but spread to other kinds of structures such as residential buildings, individual housing and churches. The functionalist design also spread to interior designs and furniture as exemplified by the iconic Paimio Sanatorium, designed in 1929 and built in 1933.YIT: [https://www.yitgroup.com/en/news-repository/news/functionalism-is-a-finnish-thing Functionalism is a Finnish thing]{{cite book|title=Finland: Modern Architectures in History|author=Roger Connah|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2006}}{{cite book|title=Finnish Architecture and the Modernist Tradition|author=Malcolm Quantrill|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2012}}

Aalto introduced standardised, precast concrete elements as early as the late 1920s, when he designed residential buildings in Turku. This technique became a cornerstone of later developments in modernist architecture after World War II, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. He also introduced serial produced wooden housing.

File:Tennispalatsi Helsinki.jpg|Tennispalatsi (1937) in Helsinki

File:Helsinki-Malmin lentoaseman historiallinen terminaali.jpg|Helsinki-Malmi Airport Terminal (1938)

File:Stora Enso main office.JPG|Stora Enso head office (1962) in Helsinki

File:Olympiastadion 2020-04-19.jpg|Helsinki Olympic Stadium (1938)

File:Lasipalatsi Bio Rex.jpg|Lasipalatsi (1936) in Helsinki

File:Sokos Vaakuna Helsinki.jpg|Hotel Vaakuna (1940) in Helsinki

File:Paimio Sanatorium2.jpg|Paimio Sanatorium (1931) in Paimio

File:Vyborg AaltoLibrary 0033.jpg|alt=Viipuri Library (1927) in Viipuri|Viipuri Library (1927) in Vyborg

Interbellum avant-garde Polish architects in the years 1918–1939 made a notable impact in the legacy of European modern architecture and functionalism. A lot of Polish architects were fascinated by Le Corbusier like his Polish students and coworkers Jerzy Sołtan, Aleksander Kujawski (both co-authors of Unité d'habitation in MarseilleLe Corbusier l'unité d'habitation de Marseille Jacques Sbriglio 2013) and his coworkers Helena Syrkus (Le Corbusier's companion on board of the S.S. Patris, an ocean liner journeying from Marseille to Athens in 1933 during the CIAM IVJózef Piłatowicz POGLĄDY HELENY I SZYMONA SYRKUSÓW

NA ARCHITEKTURĘ W LATACH 1925–1956 Warszawa 2009), Roman Piotrowski and Maciej Nowicki. Le Corbusier said about Poles (When the Cathedrals Were White, Paris 1937) "Academism has sent down roots everywhere. Nevertheless, the Dutch are relatively free of bias. The Czechs believe in 'modern' and the Polish also." Other Polish architects like Stanisław Brukalski was meeting with Gerrit Rietveld and inspired by him and his neoplasticism. Only a few years after the construction of Rietveld Schröder House, Polish architect Stanisław Brukalski built his own house{{Cite web|url=https://zabytek.pl/pl/obiekty/warszawa-willa-barbary-i-stanislawa-brukalskich|title=Willa Barbary i Stanisława Brukalskich, Warszawa – Zabytek.pl|website=zabytek.pl}} in Warsaw in 1929 supposedly inspired by Schröder House he had visited. His Polish example of the modern house was awarded bronze medal in Paris world expo in 1937. Just before the Second World War, it was fashionable to build in Poland a lot of large districts of luxury houses in neighbourhoods full of greenery for wealthy Poles like, for example, district Saska Kępa in Warsaw or district Kamienna Góra in seaport Gdynia. The most characteristic features in Polish functionalist architecture 1918–1939 were portholes, roof terraces and marble interiors.

Probably the most outstanding work of Polish functionalist architecture is the entire city of Gdynia, modern Polish seaport established 1926.

File:11 kat9 archpol35 70 a.jpg|Bohdan Lachert villa with roof garden (1929) in Warsaw. The house was considered as the best implementation of so-called villa architecture at the time in Warsaw (opinion by professor Lech Niemojewski in 1929). It's the house inspired by the form of ocean liner.Architektura w Warszawie. Lata 1918–1939. Marta Leśniakowska Warszawa 2006

File:Willa, ul. Niegolewskiego 8, Warszawa, dz. Żoliborz, Mart2.JPG|Stanisław Brukalski villa with roof terrace (1929) in Warsaw

File:Orzeł ministerstwo infrastruktury.jpg|Polish eagle basalt relief on the building of the Ministry of Infrastructure (by Rudolf Świerczyński, 1931) in Warsaw

File:Wiata peronowa w Michalinie 0001.JPG|Small station Michalin near Warsaw (1936) by Kazimierz Centnerszwer. Typical modern railway station built in series near Warsaw.

File:Gdynia 234669023555.jpg|Roman Piotrowski ZUS Insurance building (1936) in Gdynia

File:Gdynia- Dom Żeglarza Polskiego (4).JPG|Bohdan Damięcki Gdynia Maritime University (1937)

File:Gdynia, Inżynierska 111 (3) cz.jpg|Narcyz Obrycki villa (1937) in Gdynia

File:Willa ul Sieroszewskiego 1a Gdynia KS.JPG|Tadeusz Kossak villa (1938) in seaport Gdynia. Three large porthole windows in the back.

File:Szklany Dom ul. Mickiewicza w Warszawie 2017.jpg|Juliusz Żórawski Housing Unit "Glass House" (1938-1941) in Warsaw with luxury apartments 177m² each and large roof terrace

In Russia and the former Soviet Union, functionalism was known as Constructivist architecture, and was the dominant style for major building projects between 1918 and 1932. The 1932 competition for the Palace of the Soviets and the winning entry by Boris Iofan marked the start of eclectic historicism of Stalinist Architecture and the end of constructivist domination in Soviet Union.

File:Moscow, Mosselprom Building.jpg|Mosselprom building (David Kogan, 1923–4)

File:Melnikov House in MSK (img2).jpg|Melnikov House in Moscow. It is at the top of UNESCO's list of "Endangered Buildings". There is an international campaign to save it.

File:Moscow, Narkomfin building in May 2021 03.jpg|Narkomfin Building, apartment house (Moisei Ginzburg, 1930)

File:Chernikhov tower.jpg|Red Carnation Factory, St Petersburg (Yakov Chernikhov)

Notable representations of functionalist architecture include:

File:Slovakia Bratislava 154.JPG

• Aarhus University, Denmark
• ADGB Trade Union School, Germany
• Administratívna budova spojov, Bratislava, Slovakia
• Obchodný a obytný dom Luxor, Bratislava, Slovakia
• Villa Tugendhat, Brno, Czech Republic
• Kavárna Era, Brno, Czech Republic
• Kolonie Nový dům, Brno, Czech Republic
• Veletržní palác, Prague, Czech Republic
• Villa Müller, Prague, Czech Republic
• Zlín city, Czech Republic
• Tomas Bata Memorial, Zlín, Czech Republic
• Booth House, Bridge Street, Sydney, Australia
• Bullfighting Arena, Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal
• Glass Palace, Helsinki, Finland
• Hotel Hollywood, Sydney, Australia
• Knarraros lighthouse, Stokkseyri, Iceland
• Pärnu Rannahotell, Pärnu, Estonia
• Pärnu Rannakohvik, Estonia
• Södra Ängby, Stockholm, Sweden
• Stanislas Brukalski's villa, Warsaw, Poland
• Modernist Center of Gdynia, Poland
• Villa Savoye, Poissy, France

File:Ängbyhöjden 28 1938.jpg, 1938]]

The residential area of Södra Ängby in western Stockholm, Sweden, blended a functionalist or international style with garden city ideals. Encompassing more than 500 buildings, it remains the largest coherent functionalistic villa area in Sweden and possibly the world, still well-preserved more than a half-century after its construction 1933–40 and protected as a national cultural heritage.Detailed references listed in the article on Södra Ängby.

File:Zlin-Areal Svit.JPG

Zlín is a city in the Czech Republic which was in the 1930s completely reconstructed on principles of functionalism. In that time the city was a headquarters of Bata Shoes company and Tomáš Baťa initiated a complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and the Garden city movement.

Zlín's distinctive architecture was guided by principles that were strictly observed during its whole inter-war development. Its central theme was the derivation of all architectural elements from the factory buildings. The central position of the industrial production in the life of all Zlín inhabitants was to be highlighted. Hence the same building materials (red bricks, glass, reinforced concrete) were used for the construction of all public (and most private) edifices. The common structural element of Zlín architecture is a square bay of 20x20 feet (6.15x6.15 m). Although modified by several variations, this high modernist style leads to a high degree of uniformity of all buildings. It highlights the central and unique idea of an industrial garden city at the same time. Architectural and urban functionalism was to serve the demands of a modern city. The simplicity of its buildings which also translated into its functional adaptability was to prescribe (and also react to) the needs of everyday life.

The urban plan of Zlín was the creation of František Lydie Gahura, a student at Le Corbusier's atelier in Paris. Architectural highlights of the city are e.g. the Villa of Tomáš Baťa, Baťa's Hospital, Tomas Bata Memorial, The Grand Cinema or Baťa's Skyscraper.

{{see also|Khrushchyovka}}

Image:Panel Khrushchev house in Tomsk.jpg in Tomsk, Russia.]]

Khrushchyovka ({{lang-rus|хрущёвка|p=xrʊˈɕːɵfkə}}) is an unofficial name of type of low-cost, concrete-paneled or brick three- to five-storied apartment building which was developed in the Soviet Union during the early 1960s, during the time its namesake Nikita Khrushchev directed the Soviet government. The apartment buildings also went by the name of "Khruschoba" ({{Lang|ru|Хрущёв+трущоба}}, Khrushchev-slum).

The development of functionalism in landscape architecture paralleled its development in building architecture. At the residential scale, designers like Christopher Tunnard, James Rose, and Garrett Eckbo advocated a design philosophy based on the creation of spaces for outdoor living and the integration of house and garden.Rogers, Elizabeth Barlow. Landscape Design: A Cultural and Architectural History. New York: Abrams, 2001. pp. 23, 454–455 At a larger scale, the German landscape architect and planner Leberecht Migge advocated the use of edible gardens in social housing projects as a way to counteract hunger and increase self-sufficiency of families. At a still larger scale, the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne advocated for urban design strategies based on human proportions and in support of four functions of human settlement: housing, work, play, and transport.

• Modernist architecture; streamline moderne
• Enrique Yáñez

{{refbegin}}

• Vers une Architecture and Villa Savoye: A Comparison of Treatise and Building – A multipart essay explaining the basics of Le Corbusier's theory and contrasting them with his built work.
• Behne, Adolf (1923). The Modern Functional Building. Michael Robinson, trans. Santa Monica: Getty Research Institute, 1996.
• Forty, Adrian (2000). "Function". Words and Buildings, A Vocabulary of Modern Architecture. Thames & Hudson, p. 174–195.
• Michl, Jan (1995). [http://janmichl.com/eng.fff-hai.html Form follows WHAT? The modernist notion of function as a carte blanche] 1995.

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• [https://www.fostinum.org/czech-and-slovak-functionalist-architecture.html Fostinum: Czech and Slovak Functionalist Architecture]

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