Glottalization#Glottal reinforcement

Glottalization varies along three parameters, all of which are continuums. The degree of glottalization varies from none (modal voice, {{IPA|[d]}}) through stiff voice ({{IPA|[d̬]}}) and creaky voice ({{IPA|[d̰]}}) to full glottal closure (glottal reinforcement or glottal replacement, described below). The timing also varies, from a simultaneous single segment {{IPA|[d̰]}} to an onset or coda such as {{IPA|[ˀd]}} or {{IPA|[dˀ]}} to a sequence such as {{IPA|[ʔd]}} or {{IPA|[dʔ]}}. Full or partial closure of the glottis also allows glottalic airstream mechanisms to operate, producing ejective or implosive consonants; implosives may themselves have modal, stiff, or creaky voice. It is not always clear from linguistic descriptions if a language has a series of light ejectives or voiceless consonants with glottal reinforcement,See Ladefoged and Maddieson (1996:74) for the case of Siona or similarly if it has a series of light implosives or voiced consonants with glottal reinforcement.{{efn|See Vietnamese phonology}} The airstream parameter is only known to be relevant to obstruents, but the first two are involved with both obstruents and sonorants, including vowels.

{{also|Debuccalization}}

When a phoneme is completely substituted by a glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}}, one speaks of glottaling or glottal replacement. This is, for instance, very common in British English dialects such as Cockney and Estuary English dialects. In these dialects, the glottal stop is an allophone of {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} word-finally, and when followed by an unstressed vowel (including syllabic {{IPA|/l/}} {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/n/}}) in a post-stress syllable.{{sfnp|Sullivan|1992|p=46}} 'Water' can be pronounced {{IPA|[ˈwɔːʔə]}} – the glottal stop has superseded the 't' sound. Other examples include "city" {{IPA|[ˈsɪʔi]}}, "bottle" {{IPA|[ˈbɒʔo]}}, "Britain" {{IPA|[ˈbɹɪʔən]}}, "seniority" {{IPA|[sɪiniˈɒɹəʔi]}}. In some consonant clusters, glottal replacement of /t/ is common even among RP speakers.

Geordie English has a unique form of glottalization involving glottal reinforcement of t, k, and p, for example in "matter", "lucky", and "happy". T, k, p sounds between vowels are pronounced simultaneously with a glottal stop represented in IPA as p͡ʔ, k͡ʔ and t͡ʔ.{{cite web |url=https://www.bl.uk/british-accents-and-dialects/articles/geordie-consonant-sounds |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028120902/https://www.bl.uk/british-accents-and-dialects/articles/geordie-consonant-sounds |archive-date=28 October 2020 |date=24 April 2019 |title=Geordie consonant sounds |first=Jonnie |last=Robinson |access-date=20 October 2023 |url-status=live }}

Glottal replacement occurs in Indonesian, where syllable final {{IPA|/k/}} is produced as a glottal stop. In every Gorontalic language except Buol and Kaidipang, *k was replaced by a glottal stop, even in word-initial position, except when it followed *ŋ (*kayu → Gorontalo ayu, *konuku → olu'u).{{cite journal |last1=Sneddon |first1=James N. |last2=Usup |first2=Hunggu Tadjuddin |year=1986 |title=Shared sound changes in the Gorontalic language group: Implications for subgrouping |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume=142 |issue=4 |pages=407–26 |jstor=27863783 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003347 |doi-access=free }} In Hawaiian, the glottal stop is reconstructed to have come from other Proto-Polynesian consonants. The following table displays the shift {{IPA|/k/}} → {{IPA|/ʔ/}} as well as the shift {{IPA|/t/}} → {{IPA|/k/}}.

Glottal replacement is not purely a feature of consonants. Yaneshaʼ has three vowel qualities ({{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, and {{IPA|/o/}}) that have phonemic contrasts between short, long, and "laryngeal" or glottalized forms. While the latter generally consists of creaky phonation, there is some allophony involved. In pre-final contexts, a variation occurs (especially before voiced consonants) ranging from creaky phonation throughout the vowel to a sequence of a vowel, glottal stop, and a slightly rearticulated vowel: {{IPA|/maˀˈnʲoʐ/}} ('deer') → {{IPA|[maʔa̯ˈnʲoʂ]}}.{{sfnp|Fast|1953|p=192}}

{{Infobox IPA

| ipa symbol = ˀ◌

}}

When a phoneme is accompanied (either sequentially or simultaneously) by a {{IPA|[ʔ]}} or a {{IPA|[ˀ]}}, a glottal stop modifier, then one speaks of pre-glottalization or glottal reinforcement.

{{See also|Phonological history of English consonant clusters#Glottalization|T-glottalization|Unreleased stop}}

This is common in some varieties of English, RP included; {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/tʃ/}} are the most affected but {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} also regularly show pre-glottalization.{{sfnp|Roach|1973|p=10}} In the English dialects exhibiting pre-glottalization, the consonants in question are usually glottalized in the coda position: "what" {{IPA|[ˈwɒʔt]}}, "fiction" {{IPA|[ˈfɪʔkʃən]}}, "milkman" {{IPA|[ˈmɪɫʔkmən]}}, "opera" {{IPA|[ˈɒʔpɹə]}}. To a certain extent, some varieties of English have free variation between glottal replacement and glottal reinforcement.{{sfnp|Sullivan|1992|p=46}}

Glottal reinforcement is present in some varieties of Low Saxon, most notably Twents. It usually denotes syllable reduction, and can be heard before plosives: {{lang|twd|Dat düt et}} {{gloss|that does it, that is the case}} can in its most extreme form be reduced to {{IPA|[dʌʔˈdʏʔt]}}.

• Ejective consonant
• Glottalic consonant
• Guttural
• Implosive consonant
• Stød
• T-glottalization

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

Glottalization

• {{cite book|author=Andrésen, B.S.|year=1968|title=Pre-glottalization in English Standard Pronunciation|place=Oslo|publisher=Norwegian University Press}}
• {{cite journal|author=Christopherson, P.|year=1952|title=The glottal stop in English|journal=English Studies|volume=33| issue=1–6 |pages=156–163|doi=10.1080/00138385208596879}}
• {{cite journal|last=Fast |first=Peter W.|year=1953|title=Amuesha (Arawak) Phonemes |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics|volume=19|pages=191–194|doi=10.1086/464218|issue=3| s2cid=145692545 }}
• {{cite journal|author=Higginbottom, E.|year=1964|title=Glottal reinforcement in English|journal=Transactions of the Philological Society|volume=63|pages=129–142|doi=10.1111/j.1467-968X.1964.tb01010.x}}
• {{SOWL}}
• {{cite journal|author=O'Connor, J.D.|year=1952|title=RP and the reinforcing glottal stop|journal=English Studies|volume=33|pages=214–218}}
• {{cite journal|last=Roach |first=P.|year=1973|title=Glottalization of English {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/tʃ/}}: a reexamination|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=3| issue=1 |pages=10–21|doi=10.1017/S0025100300000633|s2cid=145061712 }}
• {{cite book|last=Sullivan |first=A.E.|year=1992|title=Sound Change in Progress: a study of phonological change and lexical diffusion, with reference to glottalization and r-loss in the speech of some Exeter schoolchildren.|publisher=Exeter University Press}}

English accents

• {{cite book|author=Foulkes, P.|author2=Docherty, G.|year=1999|title=Urban Voices: accent studies in the British Isles.|place=London|publisher=Arnold}}
• {{cite book|author=Hughes, A.|author2=Trudgill, P.|year=2005|title=English Accents and Dialects|edition=fourth|place=London|publisher=Arnold}}
• {{Accents of English}}

• {{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art211e.pdf |last=Kortlandt |first=Frederik |chapter=Glottalization, Preaspiration and Gemination in English and Scandinavian |pages=5–10 |title=Amsterdamer Beiträge Zur Älteren Germanistik, Band 58 |date=2003 |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=9042008385}}
• {{cite journal |url=https://www.openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/dspace/bitstream/1887/1926/1/344_103.pdf |last=Kortland |first=Frederik |title=How Old is the English Glottal Stop? |journal=North-Western European Language Evolution |date=1997 |pages=31–32 |access-date=30 December 2019 |archive-date=7 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407105047/https://www.openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/dspace/bitstream/1887/1926/1/344_103.pdf |url-status=dead }}
• {{cite journal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407105043/http://www-users.york.ac.uk/~pf11/Doch-etal-JLING.pdf |archive-date=7 April 2008 |url=http://www-users.york.ac.uk/~pf11/Doch-etal-JLING.pdf |last=Docherty |first=Gerard |title=Descriptive Adequacy in Phonology: a variationist perspective |journal=Journal of Linguistics |volume=33 |date=1997 |issue=2 |pages=275–310|doi=10.1017/S002222679700649X }}
• {{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/staff/kerswill/pkpubs/Kerswill2003DialectLevellDiffusion.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060508051856/http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/staff/kerswill/pkpubs/Kerswill2003DialectLevellDiffusion.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2006 |last=Kerswill |first=Paul |chapter=Dialect Levelling and Geographical Diffusion in British English |title=Social dialectology : in honour of Peter Trudgill |pages=223–243 |date=2003 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=9781588114037 |access-date=4 July 2006 |url-status=live }}
• {{cite journal|url=http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/~joanna/sap36_jp.pdf |last=Przedlacka |first=Joanna |title=Estuary English and RP: Some Recent Findings |date=2001 |journal=Studia Anglica Posnaniensia |volume=36}}
• {{cite web |url=http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/estuary/home.htm |last=Wells |first=J.C. |website=University College of London Department of Phonetics and Linguistics |title=Web documents relating to Estuary English |access-date=12 March 2024}}

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Category:Phonetics