Human presence in space

For outer space being the dominant expanse of space, "space" is often used synonymously for outer space, referring to human presence in space to human presence across all of space, including astronomical bodies which outer space surrounds.

The United States has been using the term "human presence" to identify one of the long-term goals of its space program and its international cooperation.{{Cite journal|title=Achieving Human Presence in Space Exploration|journal=Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments|date=November 2013|author=Dan Lester|publisher=MIT Press|url=https://doi.org/10.1162/PRES_a_00160|volume=22|issue=4|pages=345–349|doi=10.1162/PRES_a_00160|s2cid=41221956}} While it traditionally means and is used to name direct human presence, it is also used for mediated presence. Differentiating human presence in space between direct and mediated human presence, meaning human or non-human presence, such as with crewed or uncrewed spacecraft, is rooted in a history of how human presence is to be understood (see dedicated chapter).

Human, particularly direct, presence in space is sometimes replaced with "boots on the ground" or equated with space colonization. But such terms, particularly colonization{{Cite web | last=Bartels | first=Meghan | title=People are calling for a movement to decolonize space-here's why | website=Newsweek | date=May 25, 2018 | url=https://www.newsweek.com/should-we-colonize-space-some-people-argue-we-need-decolonize-it-instead-945130 | access-date=Oct 31, 2021 |quote="[Mae] Jemison's nonprofit 100 Year Starship initiative emphasizes using space-bound technology to improve life on Earth as well and frames travel around the phrase 'establishing a human presence.'" ... "Robert Zubrin, said that the one word he shies away from is colony, preferring settlement because the first "confuses the issue with imperialism.""}} and even settlement has been avoided and questioned to describe human presence in space, since they employ very particular concepts of appropriation, with historic baggage,{{Cite web|url=https://www.space.com/bill-nye-space-settlement-not-colonization.html|author=Mike Wall|website=Space.com|date=25 October 2019|title=Bill Nye: It's Space Settlement, Not Colonization|access-date=17 November 2020}}{{Cite web|title=When discussing Humanity's next move to space, the language we use matters.|url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/urban-scientist/when-discussing-humanity-8217-s-next-move-to-space-the-language-we-use-matters/|website=Scientific American|access-date=1 December 2020|date=26 March 2015|author=DNLee|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190914011756/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/urban-scientist/when-discussing-humanity-8217-s-next-move-to-space-the-language-we-use-matters/|archive-date=14 September 2019|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|date=2018-11-09|title=We need to change the way we talk about space exploration|first=Nadia|last=Drake|author-link=Nadia Drake|publisher=National Geographic|access-date=2020-12-01|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/11/we-need-to-change-way-we-talk-about-space-exploration-mars/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016235826/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/11/we-need-to-change-way-we-talk-about-space-exploration-mars/|archive-date=2019-10-16|url-status=dead}} addressing the forms of human presence in a particular and not general way.

Alternatively some have used the term "humanization of space",{{Cite book|title=The Palgrave handbook of society, culture and outer space|editor1=James Ormrod|editor2=Peter Dickens|author2=James Ormrod|author1=Peter Dickens|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|chapter=Introduction: the production of outer space|date=2016|pages=1–43|isbn=978-1-137-36351-0}}{{Cite web|date=2011-06-11|access-date=2019-01-09|url=http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/aroundthemall/2011/06/q-a-nichelle-nichols-aka-lt-uhura-and-nasa/|title=Q & A: Nichelle Nichols, AKA Lt. Uhura, and NASA|publisher=Smithsonian.com|author=Arcynta Ali Childs|quote=Ten years after "Star Trek" was cancelled, almost to the day, I was invited to join the board of directors of the newly formed National Space Society. They flew me to Washington and I gave a speech called "New Opportunities for the Humanization of Space" or "Space, What's in it for me?" In [the speech], I'm going where no man or woman dares go. I took NASA on for not including women and I gave some history of the powerful women who had applied and, after five times applying, felt disenfranchised and backed off. [At that time] NASA was having their fifth or sixth recruitment and women and ethnic people [were] staying away in droves. I was asked to come to headquarters the next day and they wanted me to assist them in persuading women and people of ethnic backgrounds that NASA was serious [about recruiting them]. And I said you've got to be joking; I didn't take them seriously. . . . John Yardley, who I knew from working on a previous project, was in the room and said 'Nichelle, we are serious.' I said OK. I will do this and I will bring you the most qualified people on the planet, as qualified as anyone you've ever had and I will bring them in droves. And if you do not pick a person of color, if you do not pick a woman, if it's the same old, same old, all-white male astronaut corps, that you've done for the last five years, and I'm just another dupe, I will be your worst nightmare.|archive-date=2011-06-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110627163412/http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/aroundthemall/2011/06/q-a-nichelle-nichols-aka-lt-uhura-and-nasa/|url-status=dead}}{{Cite book|last1=Dickens|first1=Peter|last2=Ormrod|first2=James|url=http://monthlyreview.org/2010/11/01/the-humanization-of-the-cosmos-to-what-end/|title=The Humanization of the Cosmos – to What End?|date=Nov 2010|publisher=Monthly Review|access-date=2016-10-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003183108/http://monthlyreview.org/2010/11/01/the-humanization-of-the-cosmos-to-what-end/|archive-date=2016-10-03|url-status=live}} which differs in focusing on the general development, impact and structure of human presence in space.

On an international level the United Nations uses the phrase of "outer space activity" for the activity of its member states in space.

{{Main|Space age}}

{{See also|History of spaceflight|List of spaceflight records|Timeline of first orbital launches by country|Lists of spacecraft|Lists of artificial objects sent into space|Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes|Timeline of first artificial satellites by country|Satellite#First satellites of countries|Timeline of space travel by nationality|Timeline of space exploration|Discovery and exploration of the Solar System|Timeline of Solar System exploration|List of Solar System probes}}

Human presence in outer space began with the first launches of artificial object in the mid 20th century, and has increased to the point where Earth is orbited by a vast number of artificial objects and the far reaches of the Solar System have been visited and explored by a range of space probes. Human presence throughout the Solar System is continued by different contemporary and future missions, most of them mediating human presence through robotic spaceflight.

First a realized project of the Soviet Union and followed in competition by the United States, human presence in space is now an increasingly international and commercial field.

{{Anchor|Space participation}}

{{See also|Politics of outer space}}

Participation and representation of humanity in space is an issue of human access to and presence in space ever since the beginning of spaceflight. Different space agencies, space programs and interest groups such as the International Astronomical Union have been formed supporting or producing humanity's or a particular human presence in space. Representation has been shaped by the inclusiveness, scope and varying capabilities of these organizations and programs.

Some rights of non-spacefaring countries to partake in spaceflight have been secured through international space law, declaring space the "province of all mankind", understanding spaceflight as its resource, though sharing of space for all humanity is still criticized as imperialist and lacking,{{Cite magazine |author=Haris Durrani |date=19 July 2019 |title=Is Spaceflight Colonialism? |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/apollo-space-lunar-rockets-colonialism/ |magazine=The Nation |access-date=18 November 2020}} particularly regarding regulation of private spceflight.{{Cite web | last=Wheeling | first=Kate | title=Outer Space Treaties Didn't Anticipate the Privatization of Space Travel. Can They Be Enforced? | website=Pacific Standard | date=Aug 14, 2019 | url=https://psmag.com/.amp/social-justice/outer-space-treaties-didnt-anticipate-the-privatization-of-space-travel-can-they-be-enforced | access-date=Nov 9, 2021}}

Additionally to international inclusion the inclusion of women,{{Cite web|url=https://theconversation.com/almost-90-of-astronauts-have-been-men-but-the-future-of-space-may-be-female-125644|date=16 June 2020|author=Alice Gorman|title=Almost 90% of astronauts have been men. But the future of space may be female|access-date=18 December 2020}} people of colour and with disability has also been lacking.{{cite journal | last=Link | first=AJ | title=Galactic Accessibility: An Introduction to Interplanetary Human Rights Law Through Crip Legal Theory | journal=Northern Illinois University Law Review | date=2022-08-30 | volume=42 | issue=3 | pages=345–369 | url=https://huskiecommons.lib.niu.edu/niulr/vol42/iss3/4 | access-date=2023-06-14 | archive-date=6 February 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206100652/https://huskiecommons.lib.niu.edu/niulr/vol42/iss3/4/ | url-status=live }}{{cite web | title=Eight steps to advance ESA diversity | website=ESA | url=https://www.esa.int/About_Us/Corporate_news/Eight_steps_to_advance_ESA_diversity | access-date=5 November 2024}}{{cite web | title=Space4People with Disabilities | website=UNOOSA | date=9 March 2017 | url=https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/space4personswithdisabilites/index.html | access-date=5 November 2024}} To reach a more inclusive spaceflight some organizations like the Justspace Alliance and IAU featured Inclusive Astronomy{{Cite web|url=https://www.inclusiveastronomy.org/|title=HOME|website=IAU100InclusiveAstro|access-date=2021-03-09|archive-date=2021-12-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222220447/https://www.inclusiveastronomy.org/|url-status=dead}} have been formed in recent years.

{{Main|Space law|Space policy|Common heritage of mankind|Extraterrestrial real estate|Space traffic management}}

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Space activity is legally based on the Outer Space Treaty, the main international treaty. Though there are other international agreements such as the significantly less ratified Moon Treaty.

The Outer Space Treaty established the basic ramifications for space activity in article one:

"The exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and shall be the province of all mankind."

And continued in article two by stating:

"Outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means."{{Cite web |url=http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/outer_space | title = Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies | access-date = 18 November 2020 | publisher= United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs}}

The development of international space law has revolved much around outer space being defined as common heritage of mankind. The Magna Carta of Space presented by William A. Hyman in 1966 framed outer space explicitly not as terra nullius but as res communis, which subsequently influenced the work of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS).{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.bl.uk/digitisedmanuscripts/2015/06/space-the-final-frontier.html|author=Alexander Lock|website=The British Library – Medieval manuscripts blog|title=Space: The Final Frontier|date=6 June 2015|access-date=18 November 2020}}

The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs and the International Telecommunication Union are international organizations central for facilitating space regulation, such as space traffic management.

File:Starlink Satellites Imaged from CTIO.jpeg containing 19 or more streaks due to Starlink satellite's satellite flare light pollution]]

Humans have been producing a range of radiation which has reached space unintentionally as well as intentionally, well before any direct human presence in space.

Electromagnetic radiation such as light, of humans, has been reaching even stars as far away as the age of the radiation.{{Cite web|url=https://www.planetary.org/articles/3390|date=24 February 2012|access-date=20 January 2021|author=Emily Lakdawalla|title=This is how far human radio broadcasts have reached into the galaxy}}

Beginning in the 20th century, humans have been sending radiation significantly into space. Nuclear explosions, especially high-altitude ones have since at times, starting with 1958, just a year after the first satellite Sputnik was launched, introduced strong and broad radiation from humans into space, producing electromagnetic pulses and orbital radiation belts, adding to the explosion's destructive potential on ground and in orbit.

While Earth's and humanities radiation profile is the main material for space based remote Earth observation, but radiation by human activity from Earth and from space has also been an obstacle for human activities, such as spiritual life{{Cite journal|first1=Aparna|last1=Venkatesan|first2=James|last2=Lowenthal|first3=Parvathy|last3=Prem|first4=Monica|last4=Vidaurri|title=The impact of satellite constellations on space as an ancestral global commons|journal=Nature Astronomy|year=2020|volume=4|issue=11|pages=1043–1048|doi=10.1038/s41550-020-01238-3|bibcode=2020NatAs...4.1043V|s2cid=228975770|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|date=2019-12-06|title=Towards inclusive practices with indigenous knowledge|first1=Aparna|last1=Venkatesan|first2=David|last2=Begay|first3=Adam J.|last3=Burgasser|first4=Isabel|last4=Hawkins|author4-link=Isabel Hawkins|first5=Ka'iu|last5=Kimura|first6=Nancy|last6=Maryboy|first7=Laura|last7=Peticolas|journal=Nature Astronomy|volume=3|issue=12|pages=1035–1037|doi=10.1038/s41550-019-0953-2|arxiv=2009.12425|bibcode=2019NatAs...3.1035V|s2cid=212942611}} or astronomy through light pollution{{Cite web|url=https://www.rcinet.ca/en/2020/11/18/astronomers-vs-tech-giants-in-space/|title=Astronomers vs tech giants in space|first=Marc|last=Montgomery|date=2020-11-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129000829/https://www.rcinet.ca/en/2020/11/18/astronomers-vs-tech-giants-in-space/|archive-date=2020-11-29}} and radio spectrum pollution from Earth and space. In the case of radio astronomy radio quiet zones have been kept and sought out, with the far side of the Moon being most pristine facing away from human made electromagnetic interference.

{{Main|Space debris|Space sustainability|List of artificial objects on extraterrestrial surfaces|Space environmentalism}}

{{See also|Kessler syndrome|Space archaeology}}

File:LEO-SpaceDebris-Nov2020.png

Space junk as product and form of human presence in space has existed ever since the first orbital spaceflights and comes mostly in the form of space debris in outer space. Space debris has been for example possibly the first human objects to have been present in space beyond Earth, reaching its escape velocity after being ejected purposefully from an exploded Aerobee rocket in 1957.{{Citation | url = http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/beamline/31/1/31-1-maurer.pdf | title = Idea Man | first = S.M. | last = Maurer | journal = Beamline | date = 2001 | volume = 31 | issue = 1 | access-date = 2020-11-20}} Most space debris is in orbit around Earth, it can stay there for years to centuries if at altitudes from hundreds to thousands of kilometers, before it falls to Earth.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/news/debris_faq.html|title=Frequently Asked Questions: Orbital Debris|work=NASA|access-date=28 November 2020|archive-date=23 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323170238/https://www.nasa.gov/news/debris_faq.html|url-status=dead}} Space debris is a hazard since it can hit and damage spacecraft. Having reached considerable amounts around Earth, policies have been put into place to prevent space debris and hazards, such as international regulation to prevent nuclear hazards in Earth's orbit and the Registration Convention as part of space traffic management.

But space junk can also come as result of human activity on astronomical bodies, such as the remains of space missions, like the many artificial objects left behind on the Moon,{{Cite web|title=What is space junk and why is it a problem?|url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/what-is-space-junk-and-why-is-it-a-problem.html|author=Jonathan O'Callaghan|website=Natural History Museum, London|access-date=18 November 2020}} and on other bodies.

File:ALSEP AS17-134-20500.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2]]

{{Excerpt|List of artificial objects on extraterrestrial surfaces|Estimated total masses of objects|only=table}}

{{Main|Robotic spaceflight|List of active Solar System probes|Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes|List of Solar System probes}}

Human presence in space has been strongly based on the many robotic spacecraft, particularly as the many artificial satellites in orbit around Earth.

Many firsts of human presence in space have been achieved by robotic missions. The first artificial object to reach space, above the 100 km altitude Kármán line, and therefore performing the first sub-orbital flight was MW 18014 in 1944. But the first sustained presence in space was established by the orbital flight of Sputnik in 1957. Followed by a rich number of robotic space probes achieving human presence and exploration throughout the Solar system for the first time.

Human presence at the Moon was established by the Luna programme starting in 1959, with a first flyby and heliocentric orbit (Luna 1), a first arrival of an artificial object on the surface with an impactor (Luna 2), and a for the first time a successful flight to the far side of the Moon (Luna 3). The Moon then was in 1966 visited for the first time by a lander (Luna 9), as well as an orbiter (Luna 10), and in 1970 for the first time a rover (Lunokhod 1) landed on an extraterrestrial body.

Interplanetary presence was established at Venus by the Venera program, with a flyby in 1961 (Venera 1) and a crash in 1966 (Venera 3).{{Cite book|url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/beyond-earth-tagged.pdf|title=Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958–2016|page=1|last1=Siddiqi|first1=Asif A.|lccn=2017059404|isbn=978-1-62683-042-4|publisher=NASA History Program Office|edition=second|year=2018|id=SP2018-4041|series=The NASA history series|location=Washington, DC}}{{Cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1965-092A |title=Venera 3 |website=NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive}}

Presence in the outer Solar System was achieved by Pioneer 10 in 1972{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/07/pioneer-10-first-probe-inner-precursor-juno/|date=15 July 2017|author=Chris Gebhardt|title=Pioneer 10: first probe to leave the inner solar system & precursor to Juno|access-date=20 November 2020}} and presence in interstellar space by Voyager 1 in 2012.

The 1958 Vanguard 1 is the fourth artificial satellite and the oldest spacecraft still in space and orbit around Earth, though inactive.{{Cite web|url=http://www.americaspace.com/2018/03/18/vanguard-1-oldest-manmade-satellite-turns-60-this-weekend/|title=Vanguard 1, Oldest Manmade Satellite, Turns 60 This Weekend|work=AmericaSpace|publisher=Ben Evans|date=March 18, 2018|access-date=December 3, 2020}}

{{Main|Animals in space|Plants in space|List of microorganisms tested in outer space|Interplanetary contamination|Planetary protection}}

File:Posta Romana - 1959 - Laika 120 B.jpg was sent into space in 1957, without plans for survival on return, becoming the first animal (including humans) to reach orbit.{{citation |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-04-11-177105809_x.htm |title=Russia opens monument to space dog Laika |first=Vladimir |last=Isachenkov |newspaper=Associated Press |date=11 April 2008 |access-date=30 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926033452/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-04-11-177105809_x.htm |archive-date=26 September 2015 |url-status=live }} Here in her flight harness on a Romanian stamp from 1959.]]

Since the very beginning of human outer space activities in 1944, and possibly before that,{{Cite web | title=Space dust may transport life between worlds | website=The University of Edinburgh | date=2017-11-20 | url=https://www.ed.ac.uk/news/2017/space-dust-may-transport-life-between-worlds | access-date=2022-08-04}} life has been present with microscopic life as space contaminate and after 1960 as space research subjects. Prior to crewed spaceflight non-human animals had been subjects of space research, specifically bioastronautics and astrobiology, being exposed to ever higher testflights. The first animals (including humans) and plant seeds in space above the 100 km Kármán line were corn seeds and fruit flies, launched for the first time on 9 July 1946,{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/449089main_White_Sands_Missile_Range_Fact_Sheet.pdf|title="Birthplace of America's Missile and Space Activity", NASA|access-date=2022-08-04|archive-date=2017-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224060917/https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/449089main_White_Sands_Missile_Range_Fact_Sheet.pdf|url-status=dead}} with the first fruit flies launched and returned alive in 1947.{{Cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/afspbio/part1.htm |title=The Beginnings of Research in Space Biology at the Air Force Missile Development Center, 1946–1952 |access-date=31 January 2008 |work=History of Research in Space Biology and Biodynamics |publisher=NASA| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080125044753/https://history.nasa.gov/afspbio/part1.htm| archive-date= 25 January 2008 | url-status= live}} In 1949 Albert II, became the first mammal and first primate reaching the 100 km Kármán line, and in 1957 the dog Laika became the first animal in orbit, with both also becoming the first fatalities of spaceflight and in space, respectively. In 1968, on Zond 5 turtoises, insects and planets became the first animals (incl. humans) and plants to fly to and returned safely from the Moon and any extraterrestrial flight. In 2019 Chang'e 4 landed fruit flies on the Moon, the first extraterrestrial stay of non-human animals.{{cite web | last=Numbers | first=The | title=Change-4 Probe lands on the moon with "mysterious passenger" of CQU-Chonqqing University | website=Chonqqing University | date=2018-12-08 | url=http://english.cqu.edu.cn/info/1038/1941.htm | access-date=2023-10-24}}

Visits of organisms to extraterrestrial bodies have been a significant issue of planetary protection, as with the crash of tardigrades on the Moon in 2019.

Plants first grown in 1966 with Kosmos 110{{Cite book|author1=Brian Harvey|author2=Olga Zakutnyaya|title=Russian Space Probes: Scientific Discoveries and Future Missions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q6qyVkapjeoC&pg=PA315|year=2011|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4419-8150-9|page=315}} and in 1971 on Salyut 1, with the first producing seeds August 4, 1982 on Salyut 7.{{Cite web | last=Magazine | first=Smithsonian | title=Growing Pains | website=Smithsonian Magazine | date=2003-08-31 | url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/growing-pains-4148507/ | access-date=2022-08-04}} The first plant to sprout on the Moon and any extraterrestrial body grew in 2019, on the Chang'e 4 lander.{{cite journal | last1=Castelvecchi | first1=Davide | last2=Tatalović | first2=Mićo | title=Plant sprouts on the Moon for first time ever | journal=Nature | publisher=Nature Publishing Group | date=2019-01-15 | doi=10.1038/d41586-019-00159-0 | url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-00159-0 | access-date=2023-10-24}}

Plants and growing them in space and places such as the Moon have been important subjects of space research, but also as psychological support and possibly nutrition during continuous crewed presence in space.

{{See also|Human spaceflight|Women in space|Astronaut|Spaceflight participant|List of human spaceflights|List of space travelers by name}}

File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg crewmember Tracy Caldwell Dyson views the Earth, 2010.]]

Direct human presence in space was achieved with Yuri Gagarin flying a space capsule in 1961 for one orbit around Earth for the first time. While direct human presence in open space, by exiting a spacecraft in a spacesuit, a so-called extravehicular activity, has been achieved since the first person to do so, Alexei Leonov, in 1965.

Though Valentina Tereshkova was in 1963 the first woman in space, women saw no further presence in space until the 1980s and are still underrepresented, e.g. with no women ever being present on the Moon. An internationalization of direct human presence in space started with the first space rendezvous of two crews of different human spaceflight programs, the Apollo–Soyuz mission in 1975 and at the end of the 1970s with the Interkosmos program.

Space stations have harboured so far the only long-duration direct human presence in space. After the first station Salyut 1 (1971) and its tragic Soyuz 11 crew, space stations have been operated consecutively since Skylab (1973), having allowed a progression of long-duration direct human presence in space. Long-duration direct human presence has been joined by visiting crews since 1977 (Salyut 6). Consecutive direct human presence in space has been achieved since the Salyut successor Mir starting with 1987. This was continued until the operational transition from the Mir to the ISS, giving rise with its first occupation to an uninterrupted direct human presence in space since 2000.{{Cite web|title=The International Space Station Has Been Continuously Inhabited for Ten Years Today|author=Rebecca Boyle|date=2 November 2010|url=https://www.popsci.com/science/article/2010-11/happy-anniversary-international-space-station/|website=Popular Science|access-date=18 November 2020}}

While human population records in orbit developed from 1 in 1961, 2 in 1962, 4–7 in 1969, 7–11 in 1984

and 13 in 1995,{{Cite web|url=https://www.space.com/6503-population-space-historic-high-13.html|title=Population in Space at Historic High: 13|date=27 March 2009|author=Tariq Malik|website=Space.com |access-date=21 November 2020}} to 14 in 2021, 17 in 2023{{cite web | last=Pearlman | first=Robert Z. | title=New record! 17 people are in Earth orbit at the same time right now | website=Space.com | date=2023-05-30 | url=https://www.space.com/record-17-people-in-earth-orbit-at-once | access-date=2023-06-01}} and 19 in 2024,{{cite web | last=Wall | first=Mike | title=New record! 19 people are orbiting Earth right now | website=Space.com | date=2024-09-11 | url=https://www.space.com/new-record-19-people-orbiting-earth-soyuz-iss | access-date=2024-09-12}} developing into a continuous population of no less than 10 people on two space stations since 5 June 2022 (as of 2024).{{cite web | title=Human Spaceflight: Rides | website=Jonathan's Space Report | url=https://www.planet4589.org/space/astro/web/pop.html | access-date=2024-09-12}} The ISS has hosted the most people in space at the same time, reaching 13 for the first time during the eleven day docking of STS-127 in 2009.{{Cite web | title=Mission STS-127 | website=Canadian Space Agency | date=Aug 13, 2008 | url=https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/missions/sts-127.asp | access-date=Oct 20, 2021}}

File:STS-131 & Expedition 23 Group Portrait.jpg and Expedition 23 crew members gather for a group portrait of 13 in 2010, which set the record of four women at the same time in space.{{Cite web|url=http://www.roscosmos.ru/main.php?id=2&nid=8979|title=Four Women will Fly in Space for the First Time in the History|date=3 April 2010|access-date=3 April 2010|publisher=Russian Federal Space Agency|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408203932/http://roscosmos.ru/main.php?id=2&nid=8979|archive-date=8 April 2010|df=dmy-all}}]]

Beyond Earth the Moon has been the only astronomical object which so far has seen direct human presence through the week long Apollo missions between 1968 and 1972, beginning with the first orbit by Apollo 8 in 1968 and with the first landing by Apollo 11 in 1969. The longest extraterrestrial human stay was three days by Apollo 17.

While most persons who have been to space are astronauts, professional members of human spaceflight programs, particularly governmental ones, the few others, starting in the 1980s, have been trained and gone to space as spaceflight participants, with the first space tourist staying in space in 2001.

By the end of the 2010s several hundred people from more than 40 countries have gone into space, most of them reaching orbit. 24 people have traveled to the Moon and 12 of them walked on the Moon.{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldspaceflight.com/bios/stats.php|title=Astronaut/Cosmonaut Statistics|website=www.worldspaceflight.com|access-date=2019-12-03}}

Space travelers have spent by 2007 over 29,000 person-days (or a cumulative total of over 77 years) in space including over 100 person-days of spacewalks.{{Cite web |url=http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/other/stat_kk.sht |title=Total duration of man-flights for different spacecrafts |access-date=2007-02-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208224003/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/other/stat_kk.sht |archive-date=2007-02-08 }}

Usual durations for individuals to inhabit space on long-duration stays are six months,{{Cite web | title=The 20 Most Frequently Asked Questions about the International Space Station | website=Visit Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex at Cape Canaveral | url=https://www.kennedyspacecenter.com/blog/the-20-most-frequently-asked-questions-about-the-international-space-station | access-date=Oct 20, 2021}} with the longest stays on record being at about a year.

{{Human spaceflight timeline}}

{{wide image|Space Population.png|800px|}}

{{See also|Ground segment|Space segment|Space architecture|Aerospace architecture|Airborne observatory|Artificial satellite|Inter-satellite service|Satellite constellation|Space observatory|Space station|Space habitat (facility)|Interplanetary Internet|Planetary surface construction|Space-based economy|Space-based solar power|Extraterrestrial real estate|Space logistics|Space industry}}

A permanent human presence in space depends on an established space infrastructure which harbours, supplies and maintains human presence. Such infrastructure has originally been Earth ground-based, but with increased numbers of satellites and long-duration missions beyond the near side of the Moon space-to-space based infrastructure is being used. First simple interplanetary infrastructures have been created by space probes particularly when employing a system which combines a lander and a relaying orbiter.

Space stations are space habitats which have provided a crucial infrastructure for sustaining a continuous direct human, including non-human, presence in space. Space stations have been continuously present in orbit around Earth from Skylab in 1973, to the Salyut stations, Mir and eventually ISS.

The planned Artemis program includes the Lunar Gateway a future space station around the Moon as a multimission waystation.{{Cite web|url=https://spacenews.com/op-ed-nasa-must-shift-its-focus-to-infrastructure-and-capabilities-that-support-dynamic-missions/|author=Greg Autry|date=22 August 2019|title=NASA must shift its focus to infrastructure and capabilities that support dynamic missions|publisher=SpaceNews|access-date=25 November 2020}}

{{wide image|Orbitalaltitudes.jpg|700px|Orbital altitudes of several significant satellites of Earth}}

{{Main|Space art#Art in space|Religion in space}}

File:Fallen Astronaut.jpg sculpture by Paul Van Hoeydonck, placed on the Moon by David Scott of Apollo 15]]

Human presence has also been expressed through spiritual and artistic installations in outer space or on the Moon.

Apollo 15 Mission Commander David Scott left for example a Bible on their Lunar Roving Vehicle during an extravehicular activity on the Moon. Space has furthermore been the site of people taking part in religious festivities such as Christmas on the International Space Station.

{{For-text|basic general outer space presence, as in Earth sub-orbital to orbital presence| above the overlaping chapter of "Forms" of human presence in space}}

{{Main|List of objects at Lagrange points|List of artificial objects in heliocentric orbit}}

{{See also|Co-orbital configuration|Quasi-satellite|Temporary satellite|Interplanetary spaceflight|Interplanetary Transport Network|Lunar cycler|Mars cycler}}

Human presence in Earth orbit and heliocentric orbit has been the case with a range of artificial objects since the beginning of spaceflight (both possibly with debris since 1957, but for sure since 1958 with Sputnik 1 and in 1959 with Luna 1 respectively), and at more interplanetary heliocentric orbits since 1961 with Venera 1. Extraterrestrial orbits other than heliocentric orbit has been achieved since 1966, starting with Luna 10 around the Moon and several at the same time in orbit of the Moon that same year starting with Lunar Orbiter 1, and since 1971 with Mariner 9 around another planet (Mars).

Humans have also used and occupied co-orbital configurations, particularly at different liberation points with halo orbits, to harness the benefits of those so called Lagrange points.

Some interplanetary missions, particularly the Ulysses solar polar probe and considerably Voyager 1 and 2, as well as others like Pioneer 10 and 11, have entered trajectories taking them out of the ecliptic plane.

{{Main|List of extraterrestrial orbiters|Satellite system (astronomy)|Deliberate crash landings on extraterrestrial bodies|Atmospheric entry probe|List of landings on extraterrestrial bodies|Sample-return mission|Lander (spacecraft)|List of artificial objects on extraterrestrial surfaces|Interplanetary mission|List of interplanetary voyages|List of minor planets and comets visited by spacecraft|List of missions to minor planets|List of missions to comets}}

Humanity has reached different types of astronomical bodies, but the longest and most diverse presence (including non-human, e.g. sprouting plants{{Cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/2182111/chinese-lunar-landers-cotton-seeds-lead-way-plant-life-germinates|title=Chinese lunar lander's cotton seeds spring to life on far side of the moon|last1=Zheng|first1=William|date=15 January 2019|website=South China Morning Post|access-date=27 November 2019}}) has been on the Moon, particularly because it is the first and only extraterrestrial body having been directly visited by humans.

Space probes have been establishing and mediating human presence interplanetarily since their first visits to Venus. Mars has seen a continuous presence since 1997,{{Cite web|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2017/07/04/nasa-marks-20-years-of-continuous-mars-exploration/|title=NASA marks 20 years of continuous Mars exploration|last1=Clark|first1=Stephen|date=4 July 2017|website=Spaceflightnow|access-date=28 November 2020}} after being first flown by in 1964 and landed on in 1971. A group of missions have been present on Mars since 2001, including continuous presence by a series of rovers since 2003.

Beside having reached some planetary-mass objects (that is planets, dwarf planets or the largest, so-called planetary-mass moons), humans have also reached, landed and in some cases even returned robotic probes from some small Solar System bodies, like asteroids and comets, with a range of space probes.

The Solar System region near the Sun's corona, inside Mercury's orbit, with its high gravitational potential difference from Earth and the subsequent high delta-v needed to reach it, has only been considerably pierced on highly elliptic orbits by some solar probes like Helios 1 & 2, as well as the more contemporary Parker Solar Probe. The latter being the closest to reach the Sun, breaking speed records with its very low solar altitudes at perihelion apsis.

Future direct human presence beyond Earth's orbit is possibly going to be re-introduced if current plans for crewed research stations to be established on Mars and on the Moon are continued to be developed.

File:Gateway and Orion in lunar orbit (5).jpg, serving as a communication hub, science laboratory, short-term habitation for crewed missions and holding area for rovers in Lunar orbit{{citation-attribution|1={{Cite web|title=Competition Seeks University Concepts for Gateway and Deep Space Exploration Capabilities|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/competition-seeks-university-concepts-for-gateway-and-deep-space-exploration-capabilities|last1=Jackson|first1=Shanessa|website=nasa.gov|publisher=NASA|access-date=19 September 2018|date=11 September 2018|archive-date=17 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617064456/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/competition-seeks-university-concepts-for-gateway-and-deep-space-exploration-capabilities/|url-status=live}} }}]]

{{See also|List of missions to the outer planets}}

Human presence in the outer Solar System has been established by the first visit to Jupiter in 1973 by Pioneer 10. Thirty years later nine probes had traveled to the Outer Solar System, and the first such probe (JUICE, the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer) by another space agency than NASA had just been launched on its way. Jupiter and Saturn are the only outer Solar System bodies which have been orbited by probes (Jupiter: Galileo in 1995 and Juno in 2016; Saturn: Cassini–Huygens in 2004), with all other outer Solar System probes performing flybys.

The Saturn moon Titan, with its special lunar atmosphere, has so far been the only body in the outer Solar System to be landed on by the Cassini–Huygens lander Huygens in 2005.

{{Main|List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System}}

{{See also|Interstellar probe}}

Several probes have reached Solar escape velocity, with Voyager 1 being the first to cross after 36 years of flight the heliopause and enter interstellar space on August 25, 2012, at distance of 121 AU from the Sun.{{Cite news|last=Morin|first=Monte|title=NASA confirms Voyager 1 has left the Solar System| url=https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-nasa-confirms-voyager-1-has-exited-the-solar-system-20130912,0,3406650.story| newspaper=Los Angeles Times| date=September 12, 2013}}

File:PIA23681-SolarSystemViewFromVoyager1-20200212.jpg collage of the most recent pictures of the Solar System taken by Voyager 1 (12 February 2020)]]

{{Redirect|Space habitation|the facility|Space habitat (facility)}}

{{Further|Bioastronautics|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Life support system|Locomotion in space |Reduced muscle mass, strength and performance in space|Space food|Astronautical hygiene|Spaceflight radiation carcinogenesis|Space medicine|Sex in space|Space tourism|Space-based economy|Space farming|List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents|Writing in space|Space art#Art in space|Music in space|Religion in space|Lunar habitation|Extraterrestrial settlement}}

File:ISS-43 Birthday of astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti.jpg crew celebrate a birthday in Zvezda the ISS service module, 2015.]]

Living in outer space is fundamentally different to living on Earth. It is shaped by the characteristic environment of outer space, particularly its microgravity (producing weightlessness) and its near perfect vacuum (supplying few and producing unhindered exposure to radiation and material from far away). Mundane needs such as for air, pressure, temperature and light have to be accommodated completely by life support systems. Furthermore movement, food intake and hygiene is confronted with challenges.

Long-duration stays are particularly endangered by the prevalent radiation exposure and the health effects of microgravity. Human fatalities have been the case due to accidents during spaceflight, particularly at launch and reentry. With the last in-flight accident killing humans, the Columbia accident in 2003, the sum of in-flight fatalities has risen to 15 astronauts and 4 cosmonauts, in five separate incidents.{{cite web |last=Harwood |first=William |title=Astronaut fatalities |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts114/fdf/fatalities.html |date=23 May 2005 |publisher=spaceflightnow.com |access-date=19 March 2013}}{{cite book |last1=Musgrave |first1=Gary Eugene |last2=Larsen |first2=Axel |last3=Sgobba |first3=Tommaso |title=Safety Design of Space Systems |year=2009 |publisher=Butterworth–Heinemann |isbn=978-0080559223 |page=143}} Over 100 others have died in accidents during activity directly related to spaceflight or testing.

None of them remained in space, but small parts of the remains of deceased people have been taken as space burials to orbital space since 1992 and controversially even to the Moon since 1999.{{cite web | title=Celestis Memorial Spaceflights | date=2011-08-08 | url=http://celestis.com/luna01Flight.asp | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314165835/http://celestis.com/luna01Flight.asp | archive-date=2014-03-14 | url-status=unfit | access-date=2024-01-07}}

File:STS-107 Chawla and Clark.jpg (foreground), the first Indian woman in space, and Laurel Clark on STS-107 before the crew's fatal return flight, 2003]]

Bioastronautics, space medicine, space technology and space architecture are fields which are occupied with alleviating the effects of space on humans and non-humans.

Research has begun into the culture and "microsocieties" that are formed in space, with space archeologists analyzing residue from space environments to learn about astronaut life.{{Cite web |last=Gannonpublished |first=Megan |date=2017-07-17 |title=What Could Space Archaeologists Tell Us about Astronaut Culture? |url=https://www.space.com/37502-space-station-archaeology-astronaut-culture.html |access-date=2024-11-16 |website=Space.com |language=en}} A few incidents of astronauts from different countries having difficulties in getting along have also been studied.{{Cite journal |last=Kanas |first=N. |last2=Sandal |first2=G. |last3=Boyd |first3=J. E. |last4=Gushin |first4=V. I. |last5=Manzey |first5=D. |last6=North |first6=R. |last7=Leon |first7=G. R. |last8=Suedfeld |first8=P. |last9=Bishop |first9=S. |last10=Fiedler |first10=E. R. |last11=Inoue |first11=N. |last12=Johannes |first12=B. |last13=Kealey |first13=D. J. |last14=Kraft |first14=N. |last15=Matsuzaki |first15=I. |date=2009-04-01 |title=Psychology and culture during long-duration space missions |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0094576508003883 |journal=Acta Astronautica |volume=64 |issue=7 |pages=659–677 |doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2008.12.005 |issn=0094-5765}}

{{About|the impact of human presence and the mitigation of any unwanted impact on space and human presence|the purpose of sustaining human presence|Human presence in space#Purposes and uses|section=yes}}

{{See also|Planetary protection|Space debris|Space sustainability|Kessler syndrome|Space environmentalism|Space law|Reusable launch system|Reusable spacecraft|Space traffic management|2009 satellite collision|Light pollution#From satellites|Radio spectrum pollution|Space environment|List of artificial objects on extraterrestrial surfaces|List of objects at Lagrange points|Graveyard orbit|List of artificial objects in heliocentric orbit|Space infrastructure|Space archaeology|Technosignature|Space and survival|Sacrifice zone}}

File:Space sustainability overview black.png issues under consideration]]

Human space activity, and its subsequent presence, can and has been having an impact on space as well as on the capacity to access it. This impact of human space activity and presence, or its potential, has created the need to address its issues regarding planetary protection, space debris, nuclear hazards, radio pollution and light pollution, to the reusability of launch systems, for space not to become a sacrifice zone.{{Cite web | last=Calma | first=Justine | title=Jeff Bezos eyes space as a new 'sacrifice zone' | website=The Verge | date=Jul 21, 2021 | url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/7/21/22587249/jeff-bezos-space-pollution-industry-sacrifice-zone-amazon-environmental-justice | access-date=Nov 9, 2021}}

Sustainability has been a goal of space law, space technology and space infrastructure, with the United Nations seeing the need to advance long-term sustainability of outer space activities in space science and application,{{Cite web|url=https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/topics/long-term-sustainability-of-outer-space-activities.html|title=Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities|publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs|access-date=19 November 2020}} and the United States having it as a crucial goal of its contemporary space policy and space program.{{Cite web|url=https://vienna.usmission.gov/2020-copuos-stsc-long-term-sustainability-of-outer-space-activities/|title=2020 COPUOS STSC – U.S on Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities|date=3 February 2020|access-date=15 December 2020}}{{Cite web|url=https://spacenews.com/op-ed-building-on-the-artemis-accords-to-address-space-sustainability/|date=22 December 2020|author=Jennifer A. Manner|title=Building on the Artemis Accords to address space sustainability|access-date=28 December 2020}}

Human presence in space is particularly being felt in orbit around Earth. The orbital space around Earth has seen increasing and extensive human presence, beside its benefits it has also produced a threat to it by carrying with it space debris, potentially cascading into the so-called Kessler syndrome.{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/science/22229792/space-orbital-collisions-risk-satellites-real-time|date=19 January 2021|author=William Poor|title=Outer space is a mess that Moriba Jah wants to clean up|access-date=19 January 2021}} This has raised the need for regulation and mitigation of such to secure a sustainable access to outer space.

{{Main|Metaphysics of presence|Cosmology|Archaeoastronomy|Cultural astronomy|Space archaeology|Space Age|History of spaceflight|Space fiction|Astronomy|History of astronomy|History of the center of the Universe|Ultraview effect}}

File:Nebra solstice 2.jpg ({{circa|1800–1600 BCE}}), one of the oldest astronomical artifacts, displaying the Sun, possibly the Pleiades and the Moon as a crescent, and gold strips on the side of the disc marking the summer and winter solstices,{{cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/80363367|title=Time is power. Who makes time?: 13th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany|chapter=The Nebra Sky Disc – astronomy and time determination as a source of power|last=Meller|first=Harald|date=2021|publisher=Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale).|isbn=978-3-948618-22-3}}{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0dlijsmVJ9c&t=760s |title=Concepts of cosmos in the world of Stonehenge |website=British Museum |date=2022}} and the top representing the horizon{{Cite book |last1=Bohan |first1=Elise |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/940282526 |title=Big History |last2=Dinwiddie |first2=Robert |last3=Challoner |first3=Jack |last4=Stuart |first4=Colin |last5=Harvey |first5=Derek |last6=Wragg-Sykes |first6=Rebecca |last7=Chrisp |first7=Peter |last8=Hubbard |first8=Ben |last9=Parker |first9=Phillip |collaboration=Writers |date=February 2016 |publisher=DK |others=Foreword by David Christian |isbn=978-1-4654-5443-0 |edition=1st American |location=New York |page=20 |oclc=940282526}} and north]]

Individually or as a society humans have engaged since pre-history in developing their perception of space above the ground, or the cosmos at large, and developing their place in it.

Social sciences have been studying such works of people from pre-history to the contemporary with the fields of archaeoastronomy to cultural astronomy. With actual human activity and presence in space the need for fields like astrosociology and space archaeology have been added.

{{Main|Earth observation|Overview effect|Timeline of first images of Earth from space|Extraterrestrial sky#Earth from Mars|Earth in culture|Space selfie}}

File:Earth and Moon from Mars PIA04531.jpg on May 8, 2003, 13:00 UTC. South America is visible.]]

Earth observation has been one of the first missions of spaceflight, resulting in a dense contemporary presence of Earth observation satellites, having a wealth of uses and benefits for life on Earth.

Viewing human presence from space, particularly by humans directly, has been reported by some astronauts to cause a cognitive shift in perception, especially while viewing the Earth from outer space, this effect has been called the overview effect.

{{Main|Space observatory|List of space telescopes}}

Parallel to the above overview effect the term "ultraview effect" has been introduced for a subjective response of intense awe some astronauts have experienced viewing large "starfields" while in space.{{Cite journal |last1=Weibel |first1=Deana |author-link=Deana Weibel |date=13 August 2020 |title=The Overview Effect and the Ultraview Effect: How Extreme Experiences in/of Outer Space Influence Religious Beliefs in Astronauts |journal=Religions |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=418 |doi=10.3390/rel11080418 |s2cid=225477388 |doi-access=free}}

Space observatories like the Hubble Space Telescope have been present in Earth's orbit, benefiting from advantages from being outside Earth's atmosphere and away from its radio noise, resulting in less distorted observation results.

{{See also|Telepresence|Presence (telepresence)|Telerobotics|Human–machine system}}

Related to the long discussion of what human presence constitutes and how it should be lived, the discussion about direct (e.g. crewed) and mediated (e.g. uncrewed) human presence, has been decisive for how space policy makers have chosen human presence and its purposes.{{Cite journal|title=A robotics perspective on human spaceflight|author=Alex Ellery|date=1999|journal=Earth, Moon, and Planets|volume=87|issue=3|pages=173–190|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|doi=10.1023/A:1013190908003|bibcode=1999EM&P...87..173E|s2cid=116182207|url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013190908003|access-date=25 November 2020}}

The relevance of this issue for space policy has risen with the advancement and resulting possibilities of telerobotics, to the point where most of the human presence in space has been reallized robotically, leaving direct human presence behind.

{{Main|Location of Earth|Solar System#Galactic context|History of the center of the Universe}}

The location of human presence has been studied throughout history by astronomy and was significant in order to relate to the heavens, that is to outer space and its bodies.

The historic argument between geocentrism and heliocentrism is one example about the location of human presence.

{{wide image|Location of Earth (9x1-English Annot).jpg|3000px|A diagram of Earth's location in the observable Universe. (Click here for an alternate image.)}}

{{See also|Fermi paradox|Planetary protection|Uncontacted peoples|Search for extraterrestrial life|Active SETI|First contact (anthropology)|Rare Earth hypothesis|Zoo Hypothesis|Post-detection policy|Outside Context Problem|Meaning of life|Human condition|Anthropocentrism|Speciesism|Carbon chauvinism|Space and survival|Existence}}

Realizations of the scales of space, have been taken as subject to discuss human and life's existence or relations to space and time beyond them, with some understanding humanity's or life's presence as a singularity or one to be in isolation, pondering on the Fermi paradox.

A diverse range of arguments of how to relate to space beyond human presence have been raised, with some seeing space beyond humans as reason to venture out into space and exploring it, some aiming for contact with extraterrestrial life, to arguments for protection of humanity or life from its possibilities.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2018/03/stephen-hawking-controversial-physics-black-holes-bets-science/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200911143024/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2018/03/stephen-hawking-controversial-physics-black-holes-bets-science/|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 11, 2020|title=Stephen Hawking's Most Provocative Moments, From Evil Aliens to Black Hole Wagers|date=2 May 2018|author=Michael Greshko|publisher=National Geographic|access-date=25 November 2020}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/searching-life-beyond-earth-scientists-debate-danger-messages-hostile-aliens-10078189.html|title=Searching for life beyond Earth: Scientists debate danger of messages to 'hostile' aliens|date=1 March 2015|author=Joel Achenbach|work=The Independent|access-date=25 November 2020}}

Considerations about the ecological integrity{{Cite web | last=Gorman | first=Alice | title=#SpaceWatchGL Opinion: An ecofeminist approach to the sustainable use of the Moon | website=SpaceWatch.Global | date=2022-07-01 | url=https://spacewatch.global/2022/07/spacewatchgl-opinion-an-ecofeminist-approach-to-the-sustainable-used-of-the-moon/ | access-date=2022-07-03}} and independence of celestial bodies, counter exploitive understandings of space as dead, particularly in the sense of terra nullius, have raised issues such as rights of nature.

{{See also|Space ethics|Space advocacy|Space policy|Spaceflight#Applications|Human nature|Ultimate fate of the universe|Cosmicism|Space colonization#Reasons}}

File:The Blue Marble (remastered).jpg, like with this famous image of Earth called Blue Marble, has been one of the most basic uses of outer space, having enabled a critical awareness of the global dimension of humanity's impact on Earth.]]

Space and human presence in it has been the subject of different agendas.{{Cite web|title=Next steps in sustaining human presence in space|author1=Barbara Imhof|author2=Maria João Durãmo|author3=Theodore Hall|date=December 2017|url=https://aerospaceamerica.aiaa.org/year-in-review/next-steps-in-sustaining-human-presence-in-space/|access-date=18 November 2020}}

Human presence in space at its beginnings, was fueled by the Cold War and its outgrowing the Space Race. During this time technological, nationalist, ideological and military competition were dominant driving factors of space policy{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalcoldwarexhibition.org/schools-colleges/national-curriculum/space-race/|website=National Cold War Exhibition|title=Space Race|publisher=Royal Air Force Museum|date=2013|access-date=24 November 2020}} and the resulting activity and, particularly direct human, presence in space.

With the waning of the Space Race, concluded by cooperation in human spaceflight, focus shifted in the 1970s further to space exploration and telerobotics, having a range of achievements and technological advances.{{Cite journal|title=Robots and humans in space flight: Technology, evolution, and interplanetary travel|journal=Technology in Society|volume=29|date=2007|pages=271–282|doi=10.1016/j.techsoc.2007.04.007|publisher=Elsevier Ltd.|first1=Roger|last1=Launiusa|first2=Howard|last2=McCurdyb|issue=3}} Space exploration meant by then also an engagement by governments in the search for extraterrestrial life.

Since human activity and presence in space has been producing spin-off benefits, other than for the above purposes, such as Earth observation and communication satellites for civilian use, international cooperation to advance such benefits of human presence in space grew with time.{{Cite book|title=Fundamentals of Space Business and Economics|last=Gurtuna|first=Ozgur|publisher=Springer|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4614-6695-6|location=Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London|pages=31|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-6696-3|series=SpringerBriefs in Space Development|bibcode=2013fsbe.book.....G }} Particularly for the purpose of continuing benefits of space infrastructure and space science the United Nations has been pushing for safeguarding human activity in outer space in a sustainable way.

With the contemporary so-called NewSpace, the aim of commercialization of space has grown along with a narrative of space habitation for the survival of some humans away from and without Earth, which in turn has been critically analyzed and highlighted colonialist purposes for human activity and presence in space.{{Cite web |author=Joon Yun |website=Worth.com |title=The Problem With Today's Ideas About Space Exploration. |date=January 2, 2020

|url=https://www.worth.com/is-space-the-next-frontier-for-the-same-old-story-of-imperialism/ |access-date=2020-11-21}} This has given rise for a deeper engagement in the fields of space environment and space ethics.{{Cite web | last=Weinberg. | first=Justin | title=Philosophers On Space Exploration | website=Daily Nous | date=February 22, 2021 | url=https://dailynous.com/2021/02/22/philosophers-on-space-exploration/ | access-date=February 21, 2022}}

• Space exploration#Rationales
• Benefits of space exploration
• NASA spinoff technologies
• Space research
• Earth observation
• Astronomy
• Space observatory
• Search for extraterrestrial life (see also first contact)
• Communication
• Spaceflight/Space transportation
• Commercial use of space
• Space tourism
• Space mining (see also Surface chauvinism and surfacism)
• Space manufacturing
• Environmental dumping
• Planetary protection
• Planetary defense
• Isolationism
• For presence, in itself (see Human outpost space basing)
• Space imperialism
• National or private potency and competition (see Space Race)
• Militarization of space
• Extraterrestrial settlement
• Emigration from Earth
• Integration or naturalization (see also biological naturalization such as Pantropy)
• Demographic push (e.g. due to overconsumption)
• Forced displacement
• Space and survival
• Escapism
• Space development as a purpose of progress (see also New Frontier)
• Expansionism
• Space colonization
• Civilizing mission
• Terraforming (see also Ethics of terraforming)
• Directed panspermia

• {{Category|Outer space lists}}
• {{Category|Lists of outer space lists}}
• Outline of space science
• Outline of space exploration
• Timeline of Solar System exploration
• List of spaceflight records
• Rights of nature
• Anthropogenic metabolism
• Anthroposphere
• Collective consciousness
• Scale (analytical tool)
• Noosphere
• Ecological civilization
• Human impact on the environment
• {{Section link|World Ocean|Anthropogenic presence and impact}}
• Human ecology
• Technosignature
• Extremophile

{{Notelist

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{{Space}}

{{Outer space}}

{{Space exploration}}

{{Spaceflight}}

{{Space exploration lists and timelines}}

{{Politics of outer space}}

Category:Space

Category:Outer space

Category:Space exploration