Immigration to the Western world#Backlash

{{Short description|Immigration to mainly European-descent countries}}

File:Liberty Island and Downtown Jersey City, 20231001 1038 0866.jpg, which has come to embody the American ideals surrounding immigration]]

Immigration has had a major influence on the demographics and culture of the Western world. Immigration to the West started happening in significant numbers during the 1960s and afterward,{{Cite journal |last1=Meer |first1=Tom van der |last2=Tolsma |first2=Jochem |date=2014-07-30 |title=Ethnic Diversity and Its Effects on Social Cohesion |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |language=en |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=459–478 |doi=10.1146/annurev-soc-071913-043309 |issn=0360-0572|doi-access=free |hdl=2066/133583 |hdl-access=free }} as Europe made its post-war economic recovery and the United States passed the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 allowing non-European immigration.{{Cite book |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203963104 |title=Europe and Asia beyond East and West |date=2006-10-03 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203963104 |isbn=978-1-134-18141-4 |editor-last=Delanty |editor-first=Gerard}}{{Cite journal |last=Therborn |first=Göran |date=1987 |title=Migration and Western Europe: the Old World Turning New |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1699515 |journal=Science |volume=237 |issue=4819 |pages=1183–1188 |doi=10.1126/science.237.4819.1183 |jstor=1699515 |pmid=17801641 |bibcode=1987Sci...237.1183T |issn=0036-8075}}{{Cite web |date=2019-08-12 |title=How the Immigration Act of 1965 Changed the Face of America |url=https://www.history.com/news/immigration-act-1965-changes |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}{{Cite news |last1=Chow |first1=Emily |last2=Keating |first2=Dan |title=The state of U.S. immigration |date=2013-05-20 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/national/the-state-of-immigration/ |access-date=2023-11-20 |newspaper=The Washington Post |language=en}}

Immigration to the West has often been related to the West's colonial history; for example, immigration to Britain historically has come largely from former British colonies (generally as part of the broader Commonwealth migration.){{Citation |last=Tarumoto |first=Hideki |title=Considering Super-diversity in Immigration: Post-Western Sociology and the Japanese Case |date=2023-03-27 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004529328/BP000048.xml |work=Handbook of Post-Western Sociology: From East Asia to Europe |pages=664–676 |access-date=2023-11-19 |publisher=Brill |language=en |isbn=978-90-04-52932-8}}{{Cite book |last=Caldwell |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbxnIirBiy8C |title=Reflections on the Revolution In Europe: Immigration, Islam, and the West |date=2009-07-28 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-385-52924-2 |language=en}} Wars that Western countries have recently been involved in, and the fallout or flows of refugees associated with them, have also been tied to the inflow of immigration.{{Cite journal |last=Meyers |first=Eytan |date=2002 |title=The causes of convergence in Western immigration control |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/review-of-international-studies/article/abs/causes-of-convergence-in-western-immigration-control/A4ED5A482A1F06BB06859E57F67DD330 |journal=Review of International Studies |language=en |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=123–141 |doi=10.1017/S0260210502001237 |issn=1469-9044}}

Significant debate has taken place around the economic and other benefits associated with immigration (particularly for low-skilled workers),{{Cite journal |last=Azarnert |first=Leonid V. |date=2010-12-01 |title=Immigration, fertility, and human capital: A model of economic decline of the West |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0176268010000133 |journal=European Journal of Political Economy |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=431–440 |doi=10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2010.03.006 |issn=0176-2680|hdl=10419/38999 |hdl-access=free }}{{Cite web |last=Venturi |first=Richard |title=Immigration in the West and Its Discontents |url=https://www.strategie.gouv.fr/english-articles/immigration-west-and-its-discontents |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=www.strategie.gouv.fr |language=fr}} with Western governments often more in favor of immigration than their constituents.{{Cite book |last1=Hochschild |first1=Jennifer |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/jlhochschild/publications/complexities-immigration-why-western-countries-struggle-immigration-politi |title=Delivering Citizenship |last2=Mollenkopf |first2=John |date=2009 |publisher=Verlag Bertelsmann Stiftung |location=Berlin, Germany}} Debate has also taken place around both the theory and current state of integration of the immigrants, with some favoring multiculturalism as a solution.{{Cite book |last=Joppke |first=Christian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQlREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |title=Challenge to the Nation-State: Immigration in Western Europe and the United States |date=1998-02-12 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-152193-5 |language=en}}

History

In the United States, theories around immigration have historically revolved around the metaphor of a melting pot, wherein different kinds of immigrants would eventually become more homogeneous and Americanized over time,{{Cite book |last=Gerstle |first=Gary |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvc775dm |title=American Crucible: Race and Nation in the Twentieth Century |date=2001 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-17327-6 |edition=REV - Revised|doi=10.2307/j.ctvc775dm |jstor=j.ctvc775dm }} with such effects seen even today.{{Cite web |title=Migration and Cultural Change |url=https://www.cato.org/research-briefs-economic-policy/migration-cultural-change |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=www.cato.org}}

= Colonial era =

= Contemporary era =

{{See also|Multiculturalism|2015 European migrant crisis|Post-Western era#Migration}}

Internal migration

{{See also|European immigration to the Americas|North American frontier|Europeans in Oceania}}

There is significant migration between the countries of the European Union, where there is freedom of movement.{{Cite web |title=Origins and destinations of European Union migrants within the EU |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/interactives/origins-destinations-of-european-union-migrants-within-the-eu/ |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |date=19 June 2017 |language=en-US}} Migration between OECD countries is also notable, though sometimes limited by cultural differences.{{Cite journal |last1=Belot |first1=Michèle |last2=Ederveen |first2=Sjef |date=2012 |title=Cultural barriers in migration between OECD countries |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41488379 |journal=Journal of Population Economics |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=1077–1105 |doi=10.1007/s00148-011-0356-x |jstor=41488379 |issn=0933-1433|hdl=20.500.11820/d70060d4-9363-450f-8133-94a9e762799d |hdl-access=free }}

Backlash

Backlash to immigration has impacted Western politics significantly;{{Cite news |title=Record migration sparks backlash in wealthy nations |work=Axios |url=https://www.axios.com/2023/07/16/record-migration-backlash-us-europe}}{{Cite journal |last1=Baldwin-Edwards |first1=Martin |last2=Schain |first2=Martin A. |date=1994 |title=The politics of immigration: Introduction |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01402389408425011 |journal=West European Politics |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1080/01402389408425011 |issn=0140-2382}} for example, Britain's decision to leave the European Union was informed partly by some of its voters' desire to reduce immigration.{{Cite news |last1=Porter |first1=Eduardo |last2=Russell |first2=Karl |date=2018-06-20 |title=Migrants Are on the Rise Around the World, and Myths About Them Are Shaping Attitudes |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/06/20/business/economy/immigration-economic-impact.html |access-date=2023-11-20 |issn=0362-4331}} This backlash has helped far-right politics become more prevalent.{{Citation |last1=Haltinner |first1= Kristin |first2=Jackie |last2=Hogan |title=Floods, Invaders, and Parasites: Immigration Threat Narratives and Right-Wing Populism in the USA, UK and Australia |date=2017 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315543048-7/floods-invaders-parasites-immigration-threat-narratives-right-wing-populism-usa-uk-australia-jackie-hogan-kristin-haltinner |work=National Identity in an Age of Migration |access-date=2023-11-23 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315543048-7 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |isbn=978-1-315-54304-8}}

= Illegal immigration =

{{See also|Open border}}File:Mexico-US border at Tijuana.jpg]]

There has been an increase in anti-immigration sentiment in the West in relation to illegal immigration.{{Cite news |last=Fairless |first=Tom |date=2023-07-08 |title=Immigration Backlashes Spread Around the World |language=en-US |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/immigration-backlashes-spread-around-the-world-142124bc |url-access=subscription |access-date=2023-11-20 |issn=0099-9660 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://archive.today/20230708140640/https://www.wsj.com/amp/articles/immigration-backlashes-spread-around-the-world-142124bc |archive-date= 8 Jul 2023 }}{{Cite web |last1=Connor |first1=Phillip |last2=Passel |first2=Jeffrey S. |last3=Krogstad |first3=Jens Manuel |title=How European and U.S. unauthorized immigrant populations compare |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/11/13/how-european-and-u-s-unauthorized-immigrant-populations-compare/ |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=Pew Research Center |date=13 November 2019 |language=en-US}} In the United States, right-wing politicians have called for a border wall with Mexico,{{Cite web |last=Gramlich |first=John |title=How Americans see illegal immigration, the border wall and political compromise |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/01/16/how-americans-see-illegal-immigration-the-border-wall-and-political-compromise/ |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=Pew Research Center |date=16 January 2019 |language=en-US}} and in European politics, accusations have been made of a "Fortress Europe" mentality.{{Cite web |title=Migration policy: three things to know about 'Fortress Europe' |url=https://odi.org/en/insights/migration-policy-three-things-to-know-about-fortress-europe/ |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=ODI: Think change |language=en-gb}}{{Cite journal |last=Vives |first=Luna |date=2016-03-01 |title=The European Union–West African sea border: Anti-immigration strategies and territoriality |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0969776416631790 |journal=European Urban and Regional Studies |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=209–224 |doi=10.1177/0969776416631790 |issn=0969-7764}}

= Muslim immigration =

American responses to Muslim immigration have been influenced by the September 11 attacks.{{Cite journal |title=Islam in the West: From Immigration to Global Islam |url=https://cmes.fas.harvard.edu/files/cmes/files/hmeir08_pp148-175.pdf |journal=Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review}}{{Cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Eric D. |last2=Klor |first2=Esteban F. |date=2016 |title=The Long-run Effect of 9/11: Terrorism, Backlash, and the Assimilation of Muslim Immigrants in the West |url=https://academic.oup.com/ej/article/126/597/2064-2114/5077966 |journal=The Economic Journal |language=en |volume=126 |issue=597 |pages=2064–2114 |doi=10.1111/ecoj.12219}} Within Europe, there has been a concerted backlash to Muslim immigration. Some feel that Muslim Europeans do not fully embody Western values,{{Cite web |title=The role of Islam in European populism: How refugee flows and fear of Muslims drive right-wing support |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-role-of-islam-in-european-populism-how-refugee-flows-and-fear-of-muslims-drive-right-wing-support/ |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}} while others have focused on publicizing various violent incidents perpetrated by Muslims.{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8u0GDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 |title=Global Islamophobia: Muslims and Moral Panic in the West |date=2016-04-22 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-12772-7 |language=en}}

Some members of the Muslim diaspora have become more religious over time, either in response to hostility, or as a result of newer generations seeking a connection with their ancestral homeland and practices.{{Cite journal |last1=Voas |first1=David |last2=Fleischmann |first2=Fenella |date=2012-08-11 |title=Islam Moves West: Religious Change in the First and Second Generations |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145455 |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |language=en |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=525–545 |doi=10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145455 |issn=0360-0572}}

In Europe, certain countries have banned elements of Muslim-associated culture, as is the case with France's burqa ban.{{Cite book |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/33862 |title=Cultural Integration of Immigrants in Europe |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199660094.001.0001 |hdl=20.500.12657/33862 |isbn=978-0-19-966009-4 |editor-last=Algan |editor-first=Yann |language=English |editor-last2=Bisin |editor-first2=Alberto |editor-last3=Manning |editor-first3=Alan |editor-last4=Verdier |editor-first4=Thierry}}

== Terrorism ==

Attention has been called to the rise of "lone-wolf" Islamist terror in Europe, which is partially motivated by anger from some European-born Muslims against their former colonial masters, and how it differs from the relative success of North America in ameliorating native-born Islamic terrorism.{{Cite web |title=Assimilation, Security, and Borders in the Member States |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/9418/chapter-abstract/156280366?redirectedFrom=fulltext |access-date=2023-11-23 |website=academic.oup.com}}{{Cite journal |last=Leiken |first=Robert S. |date=2005 |title=Europe's Angry Muslims |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20034425 |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=84 |issue=4 |pages=120–135 |doi=10.2307/20034425 |jstor=20034425 |issn=0015-7120}}

= Societal cohesion and cultural preservation =

{{See also|Nativism (politics)|Resistance to diversity efforts in organizations|Christian nationalism}}

Some oppose immigration on the basis that it increases cultural, ethnic, and religious diversity in a way that threatens native cultures and can impair social integration.{{Cite journal |last=Ivarsflaten |first=Elisabeth |date=2005 |title=Threatened by diversity: Why restrictive asylum and immigration policies appeal to western Europeans |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13689880500064577 |journal=Journal of Elections, Public Opinion & Parties |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=21–45 |doi=10.1080/13689880500064577 |issn=1745-7289}}{{Cite book |last=Ata |first=Abe W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3oTxDwAAQBAJ |title=Muslim Minorities and Social Cohesion: Cultural Fragmentation in the West |date=2020-09-22 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-09647-7 |language=en}}

This resistance has been noted in the context of the European Union after it expanded to include Eastern Europe, as many migrated towards Western Europe.{{Cite book |last=Johns |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HBr2AgAAQBAJ |title=The New Minorities of Europe: Social Cohesion in the European Union |date=2014-02-27 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-4950-8 |language=en}}

= Great Replacement =

Statistics

Between 2010 and 2017, over a period of eight years, more than one million Africans from Sub-Saharan Africa emigrated to Europe and the US.{{cite web |last=Connor |first=Philip |url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2018/03/22/at-least-a-million-sub-saharan-africans-moved-to-europe-since-2010/ |date=18 March 2018 |title=At Least a Million Sub-Saharan Africans Moved to Europe Since 2010. Sub-Saharan migration to the United States also growing |website=Pew Research Center |access-date=17 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301003547/http://www.pewglobal.org/2018/03/22/at-least-a-million-sub-saharan-africans-moved-to-europe-since-2010/ |archive-date=1 March 2019 |url-status=dead}}
From 2018 to June 2023, over a period of five and half years, more than 780,000 Indian people renounced their Indian citizenship and emigrated to the following Western countries: US (328,619), Canada (161,917), Australia (131,883), UK (83,468), Italy (23,817), New Zealand (23,088), Germany (13,363), Netherlands (8,642), Sweden (8,531).{{cite web |last1=Kumar |first1=Rajiv |title=Why Are Indians Relinquishing Citizenship, and Where are They Heading? Should Govt Be Concerned? |url=https://www.news18.com/india/why-are-indians-relinquishing-citizenship-and-where-are-they-heading-should-govt-be-concerned-8534633.html |website=news18.com |date=13 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230815105152/https://www.news18.com/india/why-are-indians-relinquishing-citizenship-and-where-are-they-heading-should-govt-be-concerned-8534633.html |archive-date=15 August 2023 |access-date=17 May 2024}}
Chinese emigration increased from 2000 onwards. By mid 2020, more than 4.6 million Chinese emigrated to the following Western countries: US (2,184,000), Canada (699,000), Australia (653,000), Italy (233,000), UK (208,000), Spain (179,000), New Zealand (144,000), Germany (143,000), France (126,000), and Netherlands (73,000).{{cite web |last1=Haugen |first1=Heidi Østbø |last2=Speelman |first2=Tabitha |title=China's Rapid Development Has Transformed Its Migration Trends |url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/china-development-transformed-migration |website=migrationpolicy.org |publisher=Migration Policy Institute |date=22 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240516014918/https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/china-development-transformed-migration |archive-date=16 May 2024 |access-date=18 May 2024}}

Notes

References

=Works cited=

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{{cite book |last=Fourquet |first=Jérôme |title=Accueil ou submersion ?: Regards européens sur la crise des migrants |year=2016 |publisher=Éditions de l'Aube |isbn=978-2-8159-2026-1 |language=fr |author-link=Jérôme Fourquet}}
{{Cite book |last=Taguieff |first=Pierre-André |title=La revanche du nationalisme: Néopopulistes et xénophobes à l'assaut de l'Europe |year=2015 |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France |isbn=978-2-13-072950-1 |language=fr |author-link=Pierre-André Taguieff}}