Islam in Europe

The Muslim population in Europe is extremely diverse with varied histories and origins. Today, the Muslim-majority regions of Europe include several countries in the Balkans (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and the European part of Turkey), some Russian republics in the North Caucasus and the Idel-Ural region, and the European part of Kazakhstan. These communities consist predominantly of indigenous Europeans of the Muslim faith, whose religious tradition dates back several hundred years to the Middle Ages. The transcontinental countries of Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Kazakhstan are also majority Muslim.

File:Sultan Murat Fatih mosque, Prishtina Kosovo.JPG in Pristina, Kosovo]]

{{main|Islamization of Albania|Ottoman Albania}}

{{further|Albanian revolt of 1432–1436|Skanderbeg's rebellion}}

File:Shkup1912.jpg in August 1912]]

In medieval Albania, the rebellion against the Ottomans had already been smouldering for years before Skanderbeg deserted the Ottoman army.{{cite book|last1=Bury|first1=John Bagnell|author-link1=John Bagnell Bury|last2=Whitney|first2=James Pounder|author-link2=James Pounder Whitney|last3=Tanner|first3=Joseph Robson|author-link3=Joseph Robson Tanner |author4=Charles William Previté-Orton |author5-link=Zachary Nugent Brooke|author5=Zachary Nugent Brooke|title=The Cambridge Medieval History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5btAAAAMAAJ|year=1966|publisher=Macmillan|page=383|quote= In Albania, where rebellion had been smouldering for several years, the heroic Skanderbeg (George Castriota) revolted and under ...|author4-link=Charles William Previté-Orton}} The most notable earlier revolt was revolt of 1432–36 led principally by Gjergj Arianiti. Although Skanderbeg was summoned by his relatives during this rebellion, he remained loyal to the sultan and did not fight the Ottomans.Fine 1994, p. 535 {{quote|In 1432 Andrew Thopia revolted against his Ottoman overlords ... inspired other Albanian chiefs, in particular George Arianite (Araniti) ... The revolt spread ... from region of Valona up to Skadar ... At this time, though summoned home by his relatives ... Skanderbeg did nothing, he remained ... loyal to sultan}} After this rebellion was suppressed by the Ottomans, Arianiti again revolted against the Ottomans in the region of central Albania in August 1443.

Skanderbeg decided to leave his position of Ottoman sanjakbey and revolt against the Ottomans only after the victorious Crusade of Varna in 1443.{{cite book|author1=Kenneth M. Setton|author-link1=Kenneth M. Setton|author2=Harry W. Hazard|author3=Norman P. Zacour|title=A History of the Crusades: The Impact of the Crusades on Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKaPrQPFIAMC&pg=PA292|date=1 June 1990|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-10744-4|page=293|quote=One result of the victorious campaign of 1443 was the successful revolt of Albanians under George Castriota}} Successes of the crusaders inspired revolt of Skanderbeg and revolt of Constantine XI Palaiologos in the Despotate of the Morea.{{cite book|last1=Fine|first1=John V. A.|author-link1=John V. A. Fine|last2=Fine|first2=John Van Antwerp|author-link2=John Van Antwerp Fine|title=The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LvVbRrH1QBgC&pg=PA548|year=1994|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=0-472-08260-4|page=548|quote=The crusaders' successes inspired two other major revolts, ... the revolt of Skanderbeg in Albania...}} In early November 1443, Skanderbeg deserted the forces of Sultan Murad II during the Battle of Nish, while fighting against the crusaders of John Hunyadi.{{Cite book|title = Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, 1405–1468|last = Frasheri|first = Kristo|author-link1=Kristo Frashëri|year = 2002| publisher=Botimet Toena |isbn = 99927-1-627-4|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vwR3PQAACAAJ&q=kristo+frasheri+skenderbeu}} Skanderbeg quit the field along with 300 other Albanians serving in the Ottoman army.{{Cite book|title = Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, 1405–1468|last = Frasheri|first = Kristo|year = 2002| publisher=Botimet Toena |isbn = 99927-1-627-4}} He immediately led his men to Krujë, where he arrived on November 28,{{Cite book|title = Scanderbeg; his life, correspondence, orations, victories, and philosophy|last = Drizari|first = Nelo|year = 1968|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=QYppAAAAMAAJ}} and by the use of a forged letter from Sultan Murad to the Governor of Krujë he became lord of the city.{{Cite book|title = Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, 1405–1468|last = Frasheri|first = Kristo|year = 2002| publisher=Botimet Toena |isbn = 9789992716274|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vwR3PQAACAAJ&q=kristo+frasheri+skenderbeu}} To reinforce his intention of gaining control of the former domains of Zeta, Skanderbeg proclaimed himself the heir of the Balsha family. After capturing some less important surrounding castles (Petrela, Prezë, Guri i Bardhë, Svetigrad, Modrič and others) and eventually gaining control over more than his father Gjon Kastrioti's domains, Skanderbeg abjured Islam and proclaimed himself the avenger of his family and country.{{Cite book|title =Volume 12|publisher =T. Cadell jun. and W. Davies|series= The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|last = Gibbon|first = Edward|author-link1=Edward Gibbon|year = 1802|pages = [https://archive.org/details/historydeclinea49gibbgoog/page/n186 168]|url = https://archive.org/details/historydeclinea49gibbgoog}} He raised a red flag with a black double-headed eagle on it: Albania uses a similar flag as its national symbol to this day.{{Cite book|title = Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra (1405-1468)|last = Frasheri|first = Kristo|year = 2002|isbn = 9789992716274|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vwR3PQAACAAJ&q=kristo+frasheri+skenderbeu}}

Until September 1912, the Ottoman government intentionally kept Albanians divided within four ethnically heterogeneous vilayets to prevent Albanian national unification.{{Citation |author=Hidryma Meletōn Chersonēsou tou Haimou |title=Balkan studies: biannual publication of the Institute for Balkan Studies |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZniAAAAMAAJ&q=divided+%22Albanian+vilayet%22 |volume=8 |year=1967 |publisher= The Institute for Balkan Studies |location=Thessaloniki |oclc=1519050 |page= 30 |quote= Ottoman government, although purposely keeping Albanians administratively divided into separate, ethnically non-homogeneous vilayets, in order to prevent any unification and national development... }} The reforms introduced by the Young Turks provoked the Albanian Revolt of 1912 which lasted from January to August 1912.{{cite web|url=http://dedgjoluli.org/history1911uprising.php|title=The Highland Uprising of 1911|first=Romeo|last=Gurakuqi|date=November 2007|publisher=Shoqata Dedë Gjo' Luli Association|format=php|access-date=January 9, 2011|quote=It was provoked by the laws passed by the new regime that claimed to loyally implement the old fiscal policy on the extremely impoverished population, impose new heavy taxes upon people, forcefully recruit Albanians for the Turkish army, continue the process of the entire population disarmament, extend its absolute power all over Albania, even over those regions that had always enjoyed certain privileges.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725223246/http://www.dedgjoluli.org/history1911uprising.php |archive-date=July 25, 2011 }} In January 1912, Hasan Prishtina, Albanian deputy in the Ottoman parliament, publicly warned members of the parliament that the policy of the Young Turks' government would lead to a revolution in Albania.{{cite web| url = http://www.omda.bg/imir/studies/alban_id28.html|title= Albania and Albanian Identities|first= Antonina|last = Zhelyazkova|year = 2000|publisher= International Center for Minority Studies and Intercultural Relations| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110927060403/http://www.omda.bg/imir/studies/alban_id28.html

| archive-date = September 27, 2011| url-status = dead| access-date = January 10, 2011| quote= At a parliamentary session in January 1912, ... Albanian deputy Hasan Prishtina warned that the reactionary policy of the Young Turks' government was going to lead to a revolution in Albania.

}} The Albanian revolt was successful and until August 1912 rebels managed to gain control over whole Kosovo vilayet (including Novi Pazar, Sjenica, Pristina and even Skopje), a part of the Scutari Vilayet (including Elbasan, Përmet and Leskovik), Konitsa in Janina Vilayet and Debar in Monastir Vilayet.{{cite book|last= Bogdanović|first = Dimitrije|author-link = Dimitrije Bogdanović|editor = Antonije Isaković|title= Knjiga o Kosovu|url = http://www.kosovo.net/sk/rastko-kosovo/istorija/knjiga_o_kosovu/index.html|access-date = January 9, 2011| volume= 2|orig-year = 1984|date=November 2000|publisher = Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts|location = Belgrade|language = sr|chapter = Albanski pokreti 1908-1912.| chapter-url = http://www.kosovo.net/sk/rastko-kosovo/istorija/knjiga_o_kosovu/bogdanovic-kosovo_2.html|quote = ... ustanici su uspeli da ... ovladaju celim kosovskim vilajetom do polovine avgusta 1912, što znači da su tada imali u svojim rukama Prištinu, Novi Pazar, Sjenicu pa čak i Skoplje... U srednjoj i južnoj Albaniji ustanici su držali Permet, Leskoviku, Konicu, Elbasan, a u Makedoniji Debar...}} The Ottoman government ended the Albanian revolt on 4 September 1912 by accepting all demands related to establishing an unified autonomous system of administration and justice for Albanians within one vilayet—the Albanian vilayet.{{cite book |last= Shaw|first= Stanford J.|author-link = Stanford J. Shaw|author2 = Ezel Kural Shaw|title = History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=AIET_7ji7YAC&q=demands+of+albanian+rebels+1912&pg=PA293|access-date = January 10, 2011|volume = 2|orig-year = 1977|year = 2002|publisher = The Press Syndicate of University of Cambridge|location = United Kingdom|isbn = 978-0-521-29166-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/293 293]|chapter = Clearing the Decks: Ending the Tripolitanian War and the Albanian Revolt|quote= Therefore, with only final point being ignored, on September 4, 1912 the government accepted proposals and the Albanian revolt was over|url= https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan/page/293}}{{harvnb|Elsie|2010|p=367|ps=: "PRESIDENT: Ismail Qemal Bej Vlora, who declared Albanian independence in 1912, was the first acting head of state and therefore might be regarded as the country's first president."}}

The international relations of Albania began to function on a state level after it was proclaimed independent and the first diplomatic efforts of its government were requests for the international recognition of the Albanian state.{{Cite journal|last=Meta |first=Beqir |author-link=Beqir Meta |title=The European legacy : toward new paradigms |journal=The European Legacy |series= Fourth International Conference of the International Society for the study of European Ideas |volume= 1 |issue=2 |year=1996 |publisher= MIT Press |location= Cambridge, Mass. |oclc= 757296639 |page=852 |quote= After the proclamation of independence on 28 November 1912 and the establishment of the national government, the international relations of Albania began to be instrumentalized in a state form. The first diplomatic acts of the government were efforts for its recognition and the recognition of the Albanian state... European diplomacy did not regard the government of Vlora as an important element of the Albanian state... The legitimate requests of the new Albanian state were not taken in consideration.|doi=10.1080/10848779608579494 }} In December 1912, a delegation of Albania submitted a memorandum to the London Conference of 1913 insisting on the ethnic rights of Albanians and requested an international recognition of the independent Albania composed of Kosovo, western Macedonia including Skopje and Bitola and the whole territory of Epirus up to Arta.{{Citation |last=Petrović |first=Dragoljub S. |title=Heterogenost stanovništva determinanta složenosti rešenja političkog statusa albanskog prostora (Heterogamy of the population determining the complexity of solution of the political status of the territory of Albania) |url=http://www.rastko.rs/rastko-al/zbornik1990/dpetrovic-heterogenost_l.php |access-date=August 6, 2011 |quote= Albanska delegacija je konferenciji u Londonu u decembru dostavila memorandum u kome se insistira na etničkim pravima. Ta Velika Albanija bi zahvatala Metohiju, Kosovo, zapadnu Makedoniju sa Skopljem i Bitoljem, na jugu čitav Epir do Arte. .... Delegation of Albania submitted to the London conference in December a memo in which they insist on the rights of ethnic Albanians. That Great Albania would encompass Kosovo, western Macedonia with Skopje and Bitola, and on the south the whole Epirus up to Arta. }}

{{main|Islamization of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Ottoman Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

{{further|Bosnian uprising (1831–1832)|Kingdom of Bosnia}}

After the fall in 1463, herceg Stjepan Vukčić, lord of the Hum province in the south of the medieval Kingdom of Bosnia, lived for another three years, enough to see kingdom's complete demise, for which he blamed his eldest son Vladislav Hercegović. On 21 May 1466, old and terminally ill duke dictated his last words, recorded in a testament, and bypassing Vladislav he condemned him by saying that it was him who "brought the great Turk to Bosnia to the death and destruction of us all". The next day duke died.{{cite book |last1=Ćirković |first1=Sima M. |author1-link=Sima Ćirković |title=Istorija srednjovekovne bosanske države |date=1964b |publisher=Serbian Literary Guild |pages=starting with 336 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PO02AAAAMAAJ&q=editions:OQ9SR41mPXUC |access-date=21 March 2021 |language=sr |chapter=Chepter 7: Slom Bosanske države; Part 3: Pad Bosne}}

He was succeeded as herceg by his second and younger son Vlatko Hercegović, who struggled to retain as much of the territory he could. However, Blagaj, Kosača capital, fell in 1466, while Ključ fort between Nevesinje and Gacko was cut off from the main part of his territory, although Vlatko's actions against Ottomans were mostly concentrated around this fort with limited success. Počitelj fell in 1471, however, herceg Vlatko already in 1470 realized that only radical change in his politics could bring him some release, so he pursued and achieved a peace with the Ottomans. In the same year, the Ottomans excluded Hum from the Bosnian Sanjak, and established a new, separate sanjak with its seat in Foča, Sanjak of Herzegovina.

The very last remnants of Bosnian state territory were these stretches of land held by Vlatko in Hum, while he moved residence to his last capital, Novi.{{cite book |last1=Ćirković |first1=Sima M. |author1-link=Sima Ćirković |title=Istorija srednjovekovne bosanske države |date=1964b |publisher=Serbian Literary Guild |pages=340, 341 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PO02AAAAMAAJ&q=editions:OQ9SR41mPXUC |access-date=21 March 2021 |language=sr |chapter=Chepter 7: Slom Bosanske države; Part 3: Pad Bosne}}

He also gave up his agreement with Ottomans, after just a few years or so, just about the same time when his younger brother, Stjepan, assumed highest office of the Ottoman navy as Ahmed Pasha Hercegović (around 1473) in Istanbul. After his marriage in 1474, he reconciled with his older brother Vladislav.

Just before death of Sultan Mehmed II, Vlatko tried one more push to the heart of Bosnia, but abandoned by his allies his venture ended in disaster, after which he completely and finitely withdraws to his fortress in Novi. Meanwhile, all this, along with death of Mehmed II, prompted new sultan, Bayezid II, to overtake Novi and its harbor, along with whatever territory remained. In November 1481, Ajaz-Bey of the Sanjak of Herzegovina besieged Novi, however, just before 14 December 1481 Vlatko gave up resisting, and agreed with the Ottomans to move with his family to Istanbul. This signified the ultimate disappearance of what was the last remaining independent point of the Bosnian state.{{cite book |author=Jean W Sedlar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC&pg=PA23 |title=East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500 |date=1 March 2011 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-80064-6 |pages=23–}}{{Page range too broad|date=February 2020}}

So, the province endured for another fifteen years after Stjepan Vukčić's death, shrinking with time, before it was eventually swallowed by the Ottomans in December 1481, and incorporated into the empire as re-organized territory of already formed and renamed province, Sanjak of Herzegovina.

In November 1481, Ajaz-Bey of the Sanjak of Herzegovina besieged Vlatko's capital Novi but just before 14 December 1481, Vlatko ceased resisting and agreed with the Ottomans to move with his family to Istanbul. Now the entirety of Herzegovina was reorganized into the already established Sanjak of Herzegovina with the seat in Foča,{{sfn|Ćirković|1964|p=339|ps=: Chapter 7: Slom Bosanske države; Part 3: Pad Bosne}} and later, in 1580, would become one of the sanjaks of the Bosnia Eyalet.{{cite book |author=Istorisko društvo Bosne i Hercegovine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f04iAAAAMAAJ |title=Godišnjak |year=1952 |volume=4 |quote=(...) овоме су ејалету одмах припојени санџаци: херцеговачки, (...)}} This signified the disappearance of the last-remaining independent point of the medieval Bosnian state.{{sfn|Ćirković|1964|pp=340–341|ps=: Chapter 7: Slom Bosanske države; Part 3: Pad Bosne}}

Hungarian rulers perceived Bosnia as a country under their sovereignty during medieval time. Bosnian rulers acted completely independently in carrying out state and diplomatic affairs, governing the judicial system, granting towns and estates, minting coins, exploiting natural resources, and making trading agreements with other countries and independent cities.{{sfn|Vego|1982|p=|pp=93-125|loc=Chapter: Borbe za samostalnost srednjovjekovne bosanske države — Država — Teritorij}} As a main trading partner of the Bosnian state, the Ragusa referred to the Bosnian Kingdom as a separate state ("rusag"), for example in a charter issued to Sandalj Hranić in November 1405, where they articulated that the Ragusan merchants would be safe across the "Bosnian rusag",{{sfn|Vego|1982|p=119}} or 1451, during the war with Stjepan Vukčić, as a "Holy Kingdom".{{Sfn|Vego|1982|p=122}} Ragusans also paid Saint Demetrius an income of 2000 Ragusan perpera. Ladislaus of Naples acknowledged the territories of the kingdom on 26 August 1406 at the request of Tvrtko II.{{sfn|Vego|1982|p=119}}

{{main|Ottoman Bulgaria|Ottoman–Bulgarian alliance}}

{{further|April Uprising of 1876|Bulgarian–Ottoman wars}}

File:Battle of Nicopolis, 1396, Facsimile of a Miniature Conserved in the Topkapi Museum in Istanbul-.jpg in the year 1396]]

The Ottomans reorganised the Bulgarian territories, dividing them into several vilayets, each ruled by a Sanjakbey or Subasi accountable to the Beylerbey. Significant parts of the conquered land were parcelled out to the Sultan's followers, who held it as benefices or fiefs (small timar, medium zeamet and large hass) directly from him, or from the Beylerbeys.C. M. Woodhouse, Modern Greece: A Short History, p. 101.

This category of land could not be sold or inherited but reverted to the Sultan when the fiefholder died. The lands were organised as private possessions of the Sultan or Ottoman nobility, called "mülk", and also as an economic base for religious foundations, called vakιf, as well as other people. The system was meant to make the army self-sufficient and to continuously increase the number of Ottoman cavalry soldiers, thus both fuelling new conquests and bringing conquered countries under direct Ottoman control.{{cite journal|journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient|issue=42|last=Ozel|first=Oktay|title=Limits of the Almighty: Mehmed II's 'Land Reform' Revised|year=1992|pages=234}}

From the 14th century until the 19th century Sofia was an important administrative centre in the Ottoman Empire. It became the capital of the beylerbeylik of Rumelia (Rumelia Eyalet), the province that administered the Ottoman lands in Europe (the Balkans), one of the two together with the beylerbeylik of Anatolia. It was the capital of the important Sanjak of Sofia as well, including the whole of Thrace with Plovdiv and Edirne, and part of Macedonia with Thessaloniki and Skopje.{{cite book | title=Godisnjak | publisher=Drustvo Istoricara Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-4wxAQAAIAAJ | year=1950 | page=174 | quote=Санџак Софија Овај је санџак основан око г. 1393. (English:Sandžak Sofia This sandžak was founded around the year 1393.) | access-date=27 June 2019 | archive-date=18 August 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818181152/https://books.google.com/books?id=-4wxAQAAIAAJ | url-status=live }} The Danube Vilayet was a first-level administrative division (vilayet) of the Ottoman Empire from 1864 to 1878 with a capital in Ruse. In the late 19th century it reportedly had an area of 34,120 square miles (88,400 km²) and incorporated the Vidin Eyalet, Silistra Eyalet, and Niš Eyalet.

The April Uprising was an insurrection organised by the Bulgarians in the Ottoman Empire from April to May 1876. The rebellion was suppressed by irregular Ottoman bashi-bazouk units that engaged in indiscriminate slaughter of both rebels and non-combatants (see Batak massacre). The April uprising was not successful in itself, but its bloody suppression by the Ottomans caused such outrage across Europe that public opinion, even in Turcophile England, shifted, demanding a reform of the model of Ottoman governance.{{citation|last=Crampton|first=Richard|title=A Concise History of Bulgaria|chapter=The struggle for political independence and the liberation of 1878|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|year=2005|isbn=0-521-85085-1 |pages=75–85}} As a result, the Great Powers called the Constantinople Conference in December 1876, where they presented the Sultan with a combined proposal that envisaged the creation of two autonomous Bulgarian provinces, largely overlapping with the borders of the Bulgarian Exarchate. By splitting the autonomy in two and ensuring extensive international oversight of provincial affairs, the proposal reflected all of the British Empire's wishes and allayed its fears that the provinces would become Russian puppets.

Thus, the decades-long Bulgarian struggle for self-governance and freedom appeared to finally bear fruit. And this the Bulgarians had achieved entirely by themselves—through the efforts of both clergy and the young Bulgarian bourgeoisie, which had successfully argued before and succeeded in convincing Grand Vizier Âli Pasha in the need for a separate Bulgarian church and millet, thus initiating the Bulgarian nation-building process even under foreign rule,{{citation|last=Crampton|first=Richard|title=A Concise History of Bulgaria|chapter=The struggle for political independence and the liberation of 1878|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|year=2005|isbn=0-521-85085-1 |pages=65–75}} and through the blood shed by the hothead revolutionaries who had managed to cause a seismic shift in European public opinion. Bulgaria had been a widely autonomous principality since 13 July 1878 Congress of Berlin and the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78). Although it was still technically under the suzerainty of the Sublime Porte, this was a legal fiction that Bulgaria only acknowledged in a formal way. It acted largely as a de facto independent state with its own constitution, flag, anthem and currency, and conducted a separate foreign policy. On {{OldStyleDate|18 September|1885|6 September}}, it had unified with the Bulgarian-majority Ottoman autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia. The de jure independence of Bulgaria from the Ottoman Empire was proclaimed on {{OldStyleDate|5 October|1908|22 September}} in the old capital of Tarnovo by Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria, who afterwards took the title "Tsar".{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Bulgaria/History |volume= 4 |last= Bourchier |first= James David |author-link= James David Bourchier | pages = 778–784; see page 784; para 4 |quote=Declaration of Independence.....}}{{cite book|last1=Anderson|first1=Frank Maloy |author-link= Frank Maloy Anderson |first2=Amos Shartle |last2= Hershey |author2-link= Amos_Shartle_Hershey |title=Handbook for the Diplomatic History of Europe, Asia, and Africa 1870-1914|publisher=National Board for Historical Service, Government Printing Office|location=Washington, DC|year=1918|chapter=The Bulgarian Declaration of Independence, 1908.|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/handbookfordipl01hersgoog#page/n384 |pages= 380–382 |access-date= 22 September 2018 |via=Internet Archive}}

{{main|Ottoman Croatia}}

{{further|Croatia in personal union with Hungary|Croatian–Ottoman wars}}

File:Battle of Krbava Field.jpg, from {{circa}} 1515, depicts the Battle of Krbava Field between the army of Croatian nobility and Ottoman akinji.]]

Serious Ottoman attacks on Croatian lands began after the fall of Bosnia to the Ottoman Turks in 1463. At this point main Ottoman attacks were not yet directed towards Central Europe, with Vienna as its main objective, but towards renaissance Italy with Croatia standing on their way between.{{Cite web |title=Matica hrvatska - Hrvatska revija 2, 2015. - Croato-Turcica: pregled povijesne interakcije Globalni okvir |url=https://www.matica.hr/hr/459/croato-turcica-pregled-povijesne-interakcije-globalni-okvir-24928/ |access-date=2023-03-10 |website=www.matica.hr}} As the Ottomans launched expansion further into Europe, Croatian lands became a place of permanent warfare. This period of history is considered to be one of the direst for the people living in Croatia. Baroque poet Pavao Ritter Vitezović subsequently described this period of Croatian history as "two centuries of weeping Croatia".

Armies of Croatian nobility fought numerous battles to counter the Ottoman akinji and martolos raids.{{Cite book |last=Jurković |first=Ivan |title=Vrijeme sazrijevanja, vrijeme razaraja |publisher=Matica hrvatska |year=2019 |isbn=978-953-341-144-6 |location=Zagreb |pages=99–111 |language=Croatian |chapter=Migracije. Raseljenička kriza za osmanske ugroze: "U bašćini mojoj ne dadu mi priti"}} The Ottoman forces frequently raided the Croatian countryside, plundering towns and villages and captured the local inhabitants as slaves. These "scorched earth" tactics, also called "The Small War", were usually conducted once a year with intention to soften up the region's defenses, but didn't result in actual conquest of territory. According to historian James Tracy, the armies Croatian ban could muster proved too few to counter akinji raids along the long border with the Ottoman Empire. On the other hand, armies of Croatian nobility could never mobilize fast enough to intercept akinji raids "head on", instead, Croatians hoped to intercept Ottoman raiders on their return, as they were slowed down by their booty and hostages.Tracy, 43

{{Blockquote

|text=And after conquering Greece and Bulgaria, Bosnia and Albania, [Turks] flocked onto people of Croatia by sending many armies. Many warlords started frequent battles with Christian people fighting on the fields and in mountain passes and on river fords. That's when all Croatian and Slavonian lands were enslaved all the way to Sava river and Drava and even Mons Claudius, all settlements of Carniola all the way to sea, by enslaving, robbing, burning houses of Lord and crushing Lord's altars. They attacked old people using weapons, young women [...] widows and even squealing children; not only that they took people of God in violent sorrow, shackled in chains, but they also sold people on markets like it is accustomed to do with the cattle.

|source=The Record of Father Martinac, 15th century Croatian scribe{{Cite book |last=Mijatović |first=Anđelko |title=Bitka na Krbavskom polju 1493. godine |publisher=Školska knjiga |year=2005 |isbn=953-0-61429-2 |location=Zagreb |pages=118–119 |language=hr}}

}}

Meanwhile, after king Mathias Corvinus died in 1490, a succession war ensued, where supporters of Vladislaus Jagiellon prevailed over those of Maximilian Habsburg, another contester to the throne of Kingdom of Hungary-Croatia. Maximilian gained many supporters among Croatian nobility and a favourable peace treaty he concluded with Vladislaus enabled Croatians to increasingly turn towards Habsburgs when seeking protections from the Ottoman attacks, as their lawful king Vladislaus turned out unable to protect his subjects in Croatia.Klaić, Book IV, 219 On same year, the estates of Croatia also declined to recognize Vladislaus II as a ruler until he had taken an oath to respect their liberties and insisted that he strike from the constitution certain phrases which seemed to reduce Croatia to the rank of a mere province. The dispute was resolved in 1492{{cite web |title=R. W. SETON -WATSON:The southern Slav question and the Habsburg Monarchy page 18 |url=https://archive.org/stream/southernslavques00seto/southernslavques00seto_djvu.txt |access-date=24 April 2012}} when according to Lujo Margetić, king Vladislaus recognised the authonomy of both Croatia and Slavonia, whose nobility gave a separate confirmation to the succession agreement between Vladislaus and the house of Habsburg, enabling Croatians and Slavonians to have their say in future interregnum periods.Margetić, Zagreb i Slavonija, 98 - 101

{{main|Islam in Hungary|Ottoman Hungary}}

{{further|Ottoman–Hungarian wars}}

File:Jakováli Hasszán dzsámija.JPG in Pécs]]

Islam was practiced by a sizeable minority of the conquering Hungarians, who arrived in the territory of present-day Hungary at the end of the 9th century.{{Cite web |last=Pap |first=Nobert |last2=Reményi |first2=Péter |last3=Császár |first3=Zsusza |last4=Végh |first4=Andor |date=December 2014 |title=Islam and the Hungarians |url=https://austriaca.at/0xc1aa5572%200x0031e2ab.pdf |pages=193-196}}{{Cite web |last=Drobný |first=Jaroslav |date=April 2022 |title=Muslims in Medieval Hungary |url=https://jwadi.journals.ekb.eg/article_233796_1fc680439cf7b7bce845ebd9bc1c3717.pdf |pages=841-842}}{{Cite web |last=Semenov |first=Kirill |title=Boszormeny: A little-known history of Muslims of medieval Hungary |url=https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/boszormeny-a-little-known-history-of-muslims-of-medieval-hungary-60404 |access-date=2025-04-12 |website=TRT World |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Çoban |first=Erdal |date=2012 |title=Eastern Muslim Groups among Hungarians in the Middle Ages |url=https://bilig.yesevi.edu.tr/yonetim/icerik/makaleler/2457-published.pdf |format=PDF}} Muslims in early Hungary were known as Böszörmény, Khalyzians, Saracen and Ishmaelites.{{Cite web |last=Veszprémy |first=László |date=2023-01-14 |title=Medieval Hungary and the Islamic World |url=https://www.hungarianconservative.com/articles/culture_society/medieval-hungary-and-the-islamic-world/ |access-date=2025-04-12 |website=Hungarian Conservative |language=en-US}} The biggest Muslim settlement was near the town of present-day Orosháza in the central part of the Hungarian Kingdom. This settlement, entirely populated by Muslims, was likely one of the biggest settlements of the early Kingdom. This and several other Muslim settlements were all destroyed with their inhabitants massacred during the 1241 Mongol invasion of Hungary.

The country was reintroduced to Islam via the Ottoman Empire, particularly when it was under under Ottoman rule.

{{main|Seljuk Empire}}

{{further|Seljuk invasion of Anatolia}}

As a result of Babai revolt, in 1261, one of the Turkoman dervish Sari Saltuk was forced to take refuge in the Byzantine Empire, alongside 40 Turkoman clans. He was settled in Dobruja, whence he entered the service of the powerful Muslim Mongol emir, Nogai Khan. Sari Saltuk became the hero of an epic, as a dervish and ghazi spreading Islam into Europe.{{cite book|author=Halil Inalcik|year=1973|title=The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, 1300–1600 (The Ottoman Empire)|page=187}}

{{main|Byzantine–Ottoman wars|Ottoman wars in Europe}}

{{further|Bulgarian-Ottoman wars|Serbian–Ottoman wars|Albanian–Ottoman Wars (1432–1479)|Ottoman–Hungarian wars|Croatian-Ottoman wars|Ottoman–Habsburg wars|Polish–Ottoman Wars}}

File:Szulejmán a sátrában Buda alatt (1529).JPG Suleiman the Magnificent awaits the arrival of the Greek Muslim Grand Vizier Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha at Buda, in 1529.]]

The Ottoman Empire began its expansion into Europe by invading the European portions of the Byzantine Empire in the 14th and 15th centuries up until the capture of Constantinople in 1453, establishing Islam as the state religion of the newly-founded empire. The Ottoman Turks further expanded into Southeastern Europe and consolidated their political power by invading and conquering huge portions of the Serbian Empire, Bulgarian Empire, and the remaining territories of the Byzantine Empire in the 14th and 15th centuries. The empire reached its xenith of territorial expansion in Europe in the 16th century. The Ottoman Empire continued to stretch northwards, taking parts of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 16th century, and reaching as far north as the Podolia in the mid-17th century; by the signing of the Peace of Buczacz with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1672, most of the Balkans was under Ottoman control. Ottoman expansion in Europe ended with their defeat in the Great Turkish War in 1699. Over the centuries, the Ottoman Empire gradually lost almost all of its European territories, until it was defeated and eventually collapsed in 1922.

File:Chevalier Auguste de Henikstein - Jenisaires au service des Ministres Europeens a Const. Tharbadgi (Officier). Bairatdser (Enseigne). Ousta ( Caporal).jpg, particularly the city of Sofia, was the administrative centre of almost all Ottoman possessions in the Balkans, comprising a region known at the time as Rumelia.{{cite book|chapter-url=http://media.hoover.org/sites/default/files/documents/Macedonia_and_the_Macedonians_Andrew_Rossos_63.pdf|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians|last=Rossos|first=Andrew|year=2008|chapter=Ottoman Reform and Decline (c. 1800–1908)}}]]

Between 1354 (when the Ottoman Turks crossed into Europe at Gallipoli) and 1526, the Empire had conquered the territories of present-day Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, and Serbia. The Empire laid siege to Vienna in 1683. The intervention of the Polish King broke the siege, and from then afterwards the Ottomans battled the Habsburg Emperors until 1699, when the Treaty of Karlowitz forced them to surrender the region of Hungary under Ottoman control and portions of present-day Croatia, Romania, Slovakia, and Serbia to the Habsburg Empire, which pushed the Great Migrations of the Serbs to the southern regions of the Kingdom of Hungary (though as far in the north as the town of Szentendre, in which they formed the majority of the population in the 18th century, but to smaller extent also in the town of Komárom) and Habsburg-ruled Croatia.{{cite book |author-last=Pavlowitch |author-first=Stevan K. |year=2002 |chapter=Shifting Serbias — Kings, Tsars, Despots and Patriarchs: from the beginning to the eighteenth century |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_3Wt46vBv8C&pg=PA14 |title=Serbia: The History Behind the Name |location=Bloomsbury |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |pages=14–20 |isbn=1850654778}}

{{main|Islamization of Albania|Islamization of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

{{further|History of slavery in the Muslim world|Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|Turkish Abductions}}

File:Janissary Recruitment in the Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg for the tribute in blood. Ottoman miniature painting, 1558.{{cite web |first=Matrakci |last=Nasuh |url=http://warfare.netau.net/Ottoman/Suleymanname/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans.htm |title=Janissary Recruitment in the Balkans |year=1588 |work=Süleymanname, Topkapi Sarai Museum, Ms Hazine 1517 |access-date=2015-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203143244/http://warfare.netau.net/Ottoman/Suleymanname/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans.htm |archive-date=2018-12-03 |url-status=dead }}]]

The slave trade in the Ottoman Empire supplied the ranks of the Ottoman army between the 15th and 19th centuries.{{cite encyclopedia |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |year=2009 |editor1-last=Ágoston |editor1-first=Gábor |editor2-first=Bruce |editor2-last=Masters |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |chapter=Devşirme (Devshirme) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA183 |location=New York |publisher=Facts On File |pages=183–185 |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |lccn=2008020716 |access-date=16 September 2024}} They were useful in preventing both the slave rebellions and the breakup of the Empire itself, especially due to the rising tide of nationalism among European peoples in its Balkan provinces from the 17th century onwards. Along with the Balkans, the Black Sea Region remained a significant source of high-value slaves for the Ottomans.{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Fynn-Paul |author-first=Jeffrey |date=23 June 2023 |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade, 1350–1650 |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0515.xml |encyclopedia=Oxford Bibliographies Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford and New York |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195399301-0515 |isbn=978-0-19-539930-1 |access-date=18 September 2024}}

Apart from the effect of a lengthy period under Ottoman domination, many of the subject populations were periodically and forcefully converted to Islam{{cite journal |last=Wittek |first=Paul |date=1955 |title=Devs̱ẖirme and s̱ẖarī'a |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental & African Studies |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press on behalf of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=271–278 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00111735 |jstor=610423 |s2cid=153615285 |oclc=427969669}} as a result of a deliberate move by the Ottoman Turks as part of a policy of ensuring the loyalty of the population against a potential Venetian invasion. However, Islam was spread by force in the areas under the control of the Ottoman sultan through the devşirme system of child levy enslavement, by which indigenous European Christian boys from the Balkans (predominantly Albanians, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Romanians, Serbs, and Ukrainians) were taken, levied, subjected to forced circumcision and forced conversion to Islam, and incorporated into the Ottoman army,{{cite book |editor-last=Glassé |editor-first=Cyril |year=2008 |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |edition=3rd |page=129 |isbn=978-1-4422-2348-6}} and jizya taxes.Basgoz, I. & Wilson, H. E. (1989), The educational tradition of the Ottoman Empire and the development of the Turkish educational system of the republican era. Turkish Review 3(16), 15

{{Main|Early Middle Ages#Middle East}}

{{Further|Al-Andalus|Emirate of Córdoba|Emirate of Granada|Emirate of Sicily|Moors}}

File:Alhambra Löwenhof mit Löwenbrunnen 2014.jpg, located in the historic citadel of Alhambra in Granada, Spain.]]

File:Jaume I, Cantigas de Santa Maria, s.XIII.jpg request permission from King James I of Aragon (13th century)]]

Arab Muslim forays into Europe began shortly after the foundation of Islam in the 7th century CE. Soon after the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, his community needed to appoint a new leader, giving rise to the title of caliph ({{langx|ar|خَليفة|translit=khalīfa|lit=successor}}), which was claimed by some of Muhammad's closest companions (ṣaḥāba) and their descendants over the succession for the role of caliph throughout the centuries.{{cite book |last=Polk |first=William R. |author-link=William R. Polk |year=2018 |chapter=The Caliphate and the Conquests |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozFDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |title=Crusade and Jihad: The Thousand-Year War Between the Muslim World and the Global North |location=New Haven and London |publisher=Yale University Press |series=The Henry L. Stimson Lectures Series |pages=21–30 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv1bvnfdq.7 |isbn=978-0-300-22290-6 |jstor=j.ctv1bvnfdq.7 |lccn=2017942543}}{{cite book |author-last=van Ess |author-first=Josef |year=2017 |chapter=Setting the Seal on Prophecy |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=viRoDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |title=Theology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra, Volume 1: A History of Religious Thought in Early Islam |translator-last=O'Kane |translator-first=John |location=Leiden and Boston |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1: The Near and Middle East |volume=116/1 |pages=3–7 |doi=10.1163/9789004323384_002 |isbn=978-90-04-32338-4 |issn=0169-9423}}{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard Lewis |year=1995 |chapter=Part III: The Dawn and Noon of Islam – Origins |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CjAABdA9z18C&pg=PA51 |title=The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years |location=New York |publisher=Scribner |pages=51–58 |isbn=9780684832807 |oclc=34190629}} The four "rightly-guided" (rāshidūn) caliphs who succeeded him oversaw the initial phase of the early Muslim conquests, advancing through Persia, the Levant, Egypt, and North Africa.

The early Muslim conquests expanded westwards, and within less than a century encompassed parts of the European continent. Arab Muslim forces easily prevailed over the Byzantine army in the crucial battles of Ajnâdayn (634 CE) and Yarmûk (636 CE),{{Cite book|last=Tolan|first=John Victor|title=Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2002|isbn=0231123337|location=New York|pages=32}} and incorporated the former Byzantine province of Syria, pushing to the north and west. At the same time, consolidation of the hold of Islam by the Arab empires in North Africa and the Middle East was soon to be followed by incursions into what is now Europe, as Arab and Berber Muslim armies raided and eventually conquered territories leading to the establishment of Muslim-ruled states on the European continent.

A short-lived invasion of Byzantine Sicily by a small Arab and Berber contingent that landed in 652 was the prelude of a series of incursions; from the 8th to the 15th centuries, Muslim states ruled parts of the Iberian Peninsula,{{cite book |last=Deanesly |first=Margaret |author-link=Margaret Deanesly |year=2019 |title=A History of Early Medieval Europe: From 476–911 |chapter=The Later Merovingians |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=20ufDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT244 |location=London and New York City |publisher=Routledge |edition=1st |series=Routledge Library Editions: The Medieval World |pages=244–245 |isbn=9780367184582}} southern Italy,{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Gordon S. |year=2015 |orig-year=2003 |title=The Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily |chapter=Sicily |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7fbdYk0-gisC&pg=PA103 |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |publisher=McFarland |pages=103–113 |isbn=978-0-7864-5127-2 |lccn=2002153822}}{{cite book |last=Matthew |first=Donald |year=2012 |orig-year=1992 |chapter=Part I: The Normans and the monarchy – Southern Italy and the Normans before the creation of the monarchy |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQfub3l_ejkC&pg=PA9 |title=The Norman Kingdom of Sicily |location=Cambridge and New York City |publisher=Cambridge University Press |series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks |pages=9–19 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139167741.004 |isbn=9781139167741}} southern France, and several Mediterranean islands,{{Cite book|last1=Sofos|first1=Spyros|title=Islam in Europe: Public Spaces and Civic Networks|last2=Tsagarousianou|first2=Roza|publisher=Palgrave|year=2013|isbn=9781137357779|location=Basingstoke|pages=31}} while in the East, incursions into a much reduced in territory and weakened Byzantine Empire continued. In the 720s and 730s, Arab and Berber Muslim forces fought and raided north of the Pyrenees, well into what is now France, reaching as north as Tours, where they were eventually defeated and repelled by the Christian Franks in 732 to their Iberian and North African territories.

File:Arabo-NormanArchitecture.JPG art and architecture combined Occidental features (such as the Classical pillars and friezes) with typical Arabic decorations and calligraphy, following the Norman conquest of the former Emirate of Sicily and North Africa.{{cite book |author-last=Johnson |author-first=Mark J. |year=2021 |chapter=Acceptance and Adaptation of Byzantine Architectural Types in the “Byzantine Commonwealth” – Norman Italy |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u2dHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA383 |editor-last=Schwartz |editor-first=Ellen C. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Art and Architecture |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=383–386 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190277352.013.32 |isbn=9780190277376 |lccn=2020057004}}]]

Islam gained its first genuine foothold in continental Europe from 711 onward, with the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The Arabs renamed the land al-Andalus, which expanded to include the larger parts of what is now Portugal and Spain, excluding the northern highlands. Arab and Berber Muslim forces established various emirates in Europe after the invasion of southern Iberia and the foundation of al-Andalus. One notable emirate was the Emirate of Crete, a Muslim-ruled state and center of Muslim piratical activity that existed on the Mediterranean island of Crete from the late 820s until the Byzantine reconquest of the island in 961, when the Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas defeated and expelled the Muslim Arabs and Berbers from Crete for the Byzantine Empire, and made the island into a theme.{{cite book| last=Panagiotakis | first=Nikolaos M. | chapter= Εισαγωγικό Σημείωμα ("Introduction") | pages=XI–XX |editor-first=Nikolaos M. |editor-last=Panagiotakis | title=Crete, History and Civilization| volume=I | publisher=Vikelea Library, Association of Regional Associations of Regional Municipalities |year=1987|language=el}} The other was the Emirate of Sicily, which existed on the eponymous island from 831 to 1091; Muslim Arabs and Berbers held onto Sicily and other regions of southern Italy until they were eventually defeated and expelled by the Christian Normans in 1072 to their Iberian and North African territories.

The presence of a Muslim majority in North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula by the foundation of al-Andalus and other Muslim-ruled states in the Mediterranean Region between the 7th and 10th centuries CE is debated among scholars and historians; one author claims that al-Andalus had a Muslim majority after most of the local population allegedly converted to Islam on their own will,{{sfn|Hourani|2002|p=42}} whereas other historians remark how the Umayyad Caliphate persecuted many Berber Christians in the 7th and 8th centuries CE, who slowly converted to Islam.The Disappearance of Christianity from North Africa in the Wake of the Rise of Islam C. J. Speel, II Church History, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Dec. 1960), pp. 379–397 Modern historians further recognize that the Christian populations living in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslim armies between the 7th and 10th centuries CE suffered religious persecution, religious violence, and martyrdom multiple times at the hands of Arab Muslim officials and rulers;{{cite book |last=Sahner |first=Christian C. |year=2020 |orig-year=2018 |title=Christian Martyrs under Islam: Religious Violence and the Making of the Muslim World |chapter=Introduction: Christian Martyrs under Islam |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TZqzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |location=Princeton, New Jersey and Woodstock, Oxfordshire |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=1–28 |isbn=978-0-691-17910-0 |lccn=2017956010}}{{cite journal |author-last=Fierro |author-first=Maribel |date=January 2008 |title=Decapitation of Christians and Muslims in the Medieval Iberian Peninsula: Narratives, Images, Contemporary Perceptions |journal=Comparative Literature Studies |volume=45 |issue=2: Al-Andalus and Its Legacies |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |publisher=Penn State University Press |pages=137–164 |doi=10.2307/complitstudies.45.2.0137 |issn=1528-4212 |jstor=25659647 |s2cid=161217907|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |author-last=Trombley |author-first=Frank R. |date=Winter 1996 |title=The Martyrs of Córdoba: Community and Family Conflict in an Age of Mass Conversion (review) |journal=Journal of Early Christian Studies |volume=4 |issue=4 |location=Baltimore, Maryland |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |pages=581–582 |doi=10.1353/earl.1996.0079 |issn=1086-3184 |s2cid=170001371 }} many were executed under the Islamic death penalty for defending their Christian faith through dramatic acts of resistance such as refusing to convert to Islam, repudiation of the Islamic religion and subsequent reconversion to Christianity, and blasphemy towards Muslim beliefs. The martyrdom of forty-eight Iberian Christians that took place under the rule of Abd al-Rahman II and Muhammad I in the Emirate of Córdoba (between 850 and 859 CE) has been recorded in historical documents and treatises of the time.{{cite journal |author-last=Graves |author-first=Coburn V. |date=November 1964 |title=The Martyrs of Cordoba, 850–859. A Study of the Sources (review) |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=44 |issue=4 |location=Durham, North Carolina |publisher=Duke University Press on behalf of the Conference on Latin American History |page=644 |doi=10.1215/00182168-44.4.644 |doi-access=free |issn=1527-1900 |s2cid=227325750}}

File:Muslim troops leaving Narbonne to Pepin le Bref in 759.jpg after the Frankish conquest of Septimania in 759. Illustration by Émile Bayard, 1880.]]

This coincided with the La Convivencia period of the Iberian Peninsula as well as the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. In Francia, the Arab and Berber Muslim forces invaded the region of Septimania in 719 and deposed the local Visigothic Kingdom in 720;{{cite book |last=Collins |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Collins |year=1998 |title=Charlemagne |chapter=Italy and Spain, 773–801 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05IVoPSfb48C&pg=PA66 |location=Buffalo, London, and Toronto |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan/University of Toronto Press |pages=65–66 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-26924-2_4 |isbn=978-1-349-26924-2}} after the Frankish conquest of Narbonne in 759, the Muslim Arabs and Berbers were defeated by the Christian Franks and retreated to their Andalusian heartland after 40 years of occupation, and the Carolingian king Pepin the Short came up reinforced. The Iberian Christian counter-offensive known as the Reconquista began in the early 8th century, when Muslim forces managed to temporarily push into Aquitaine. Slowly, the Christian forces began a re-conquest of the fractured Taifa kingdoms in al-Andalus. There was still a Muslim presence north of Spain, especially in Fraxinet all the way into Switzerland until the 10th century.Manfred, W: "International Journal of Middle East Studies", pages 59-79, Vol. 12, No. 1. Middle East Studies Association of North America, Aug 1980. Muslim forces under the Aghlabids conquered Sicily after a series of expeditions spanning 827–902, and had notably raided Rome in 846. By 1236, practically all that remained of Muslim-ruled Iberia was the southern province of Granada.

Since they are considered "People of the Book" in the Islamic religion, Christians and Jews under Muslim rule were subjected to the status of dhimmi (along with Samaritans, Gnostics, Mandeans, and Zoroastrians in the Middle East), which was inferior to the status of Muslims.{{cite book |last=Stillman |first=Norman A. |author-link=Norman Stillman |year=1998 |orig-date=1979 |title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book |chapter=Under the New Order |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bFN2ismyhEYC&pg=PA22 |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Jewish Publication Society |pages=22–28 |isbn=978-0-8276-0198-7}}{{cite book |last=Runciman |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Runciman |year=1987 |orig-year=1951 |chapter=The Reign of Antichrist |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uDj9sNezWzEC&pg=PA20 |title=A History of the Crusades, Volume 1: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=20–37 |isbn=978-0-521-34770-9}} Arab Muslims imposed the Islamic law (sharīʿa) in these Muslim-ruled countries; thus, the Latin- and Greek-speaking European Christian populations, as well as the Jewish communities of Europe, faced religious discrimination and persecution due to being considered religious minorities; they were further banned from proselytising (for Christians, it was forbidden to evangelize or spread Christianity) in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslims on pain of death, they were banned from bearing arms, undertaking certain professions, and were obligated to dress differently in order to distinguish themselves from Arabs. Under the Islamic law (sharīʿa), Non-Muslims were obligated to pay the jizya and kharaj taxes, together with periodic heavy ransom levied upon Christian communities by Muslim rulers in order to fund military campaigns, all of which contributed a significant proportion of income to the Islamic states while conversely reducing many Christians to poverty, and these financial and social hardships forced many Christians to convert to Islam. Christians unable to pay these taxes were forced to surrender their children to the Muslim rulers as payment who would sell them as slaves to Muslim households where they were forced to convert to Islam.

{{Main|Arabization|Islamic Golden Age|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe}}

{{Further|Andalusi Arabic|Mozarabic art and architecture|Andalusi Romance|Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture}}

File:AverroesColor.jpg was influential on the rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy in the Middle Ages and the rise of secular thought in Latin Western Europe.{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hasse |first=Dag Nikolaus |date=Fall 2021 |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/ |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-link=Edward N. Zalta |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=The Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University |issn=1095-5054 |oclc=643092515 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127100602/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/ |archive-date=27 November 2022 |access-date=1 February 2023}}]]

Overthrown by the Abbasids, the deposed Umayyad caliph Abd al-Rahman I fled the city of Damascus in 756 and established an independent Emirate of Córdoba in al-Andalus. His dynasty consolidated the presence of Islam in al-Andalus. By the time of the reign of Abd al-Rahman II (822–852), Córdoba was becoming one of the biggest and most important cities in Europe. Umayyad Spain had become a centre of the Muslim world that rivaled the Muslim cities of Damascus and Baghdad. "The emirs of Córdoba built palaces reflecting the confidence and vitality of Andalusi Islam, minted coins, brought to Spain luxury items from the East, initiated ambitious projects of irrigation and transformed agriculture, reproduced the style and ceremony of the Abbasid court ruling in the East and welcomed famous scholars, poets and musicians from the rest of the Muslim world".{{Cite book|last1=Sofos|first1=Spyros|title=Islam in Europe: Public Spaces and Civic Networks|last2=Tsagarousianou|first2=Roza|publisher=Palgrave|year=2013|isbn=9781137357786|location=Basingstoke|pages=31–32}} But, the most significant impact of the Emirate was its cultural influence over the Non-Muslim local populations. An "elegant Arabic" became the preferred language of the educated—Muslim, Christian, and Jewish, the readership of Arabic books increased rapidly, and Arabic romance and poetry became extremely popular.{{Cite book|last=Southern|first=R.W.|title=Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2013|isbn=9780674435650|location=Cambridge, MA|pages=21–12}} The popularity of literary Arabic was just one aspect of the Arabization of the Christian and Jewish populations of the Iberian Peninsula, which led contemporaries to refer to the affected populations as "Mozarabs" (mozárabes in Spanish; moçárabes in Portuguese; derived from the Arabic musta’rib, translated as "like Arabs" or "Arabicized")."{{Cite book|last1=Sofos|first1=Spyros|title=Islam in Europe: Public Spaces and Civic Networks|last2=Tsagarousianou|first2=Roza|publisher=Palgrave|year=2013|isbn=9781137357786|location=Basingstoke|pages=32–33}}

Arabic-speaking Iberian Christian scholars preserved and studied influential pre-Christian and pre-Islamic Greco-Roman texts, and introduced aspects of medieval Islamic culture,Hill, Donald. Islamic Science and Engineering. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-7486-0455-3}}, p.4{{cite book|title=The Legend of the Middle Ages|author=Brague, Rémi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8YjEkLPXNYC|access-date=11 Feb 2014|isbn=9780226070803|page=164|date=2009-04-15|publisher=University of Chicago Press }}{{cite book|first=Kitty|last=Ferguson|title=Pythagoras: His Lives and the Legacy of a Rational Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trM7NJz011oC&pg=PT100|date=3 March 2011|publisher=Icon Books Limited|isbn=978-1-84831-250-0|pages=100–|quote=It was in the Near and Middle East and North Africa that the old traditions of teaching and learning continued, and where Christian scholars were carefully preserving ancient texts and knowledge of the ancient Greek language.}} including the arts,[http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?vendorId=FWNE.fw..is045900.a#FWNE.fw..is045900.a Islamic art and architecture] History.comCarole Hillenbrand. [https://books.google.com/books?id=UalnoF5MBHMC The Crusades: Islamic perspectives], Routledge, 2000, p. 386Hillenbrand, p. 388 economics,Savory; p. 195-8 science, and technology.Hyman and Walsh Philosophy in the Middle Ages Indianapolis, 3rd edition, p. 216Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach, Editors, Medieval Islamic Civilization Vol.1, A - K, Index, 2006, p. 451 (See also: Latin translations of the 12th century and Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe). Muslim rule endured in the Emirate of Granada, from 1238 as a vassal state of the Christian Kingdom of Castile until the completion of La Reconquista in 1492.{{sfn|Hourani|2002|p=41}} The Moriscos (Moorish in Spanish) were finally expelled from Spain between 1609 (Castile) and 1614 (rest of Iberia), by Philip III during the Spanish Inquisition.

File:Araż, herb szlachecki.jpg nobility. Tatar coats of arms often included motifs related to Islamic culture.]]

European kingdoms began establishing embassies and diplomatic missions to the Ottoman Empire between the 15th and 16th centuries in order to create closer, and more friendly, relationships with the Ottoman Turks (see also: Franco-Ottoman alliance).{{cite journal |author-last=Soykut |author-first=Mustafa |date=January 2013 |title=Review: "Permeable Borders of Faith and Politics: The Ottomans and Safavids in the Western Eye" |editor1-last=Brentjes |editor1-first=Sonja |editor2-last=Harper |editor2-first=James G. |editor3-last=Ricci |editor3-first=Giovanni |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |location=Leiden and Boston |publisher=Brill Publishers |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=503–513 |doi=10.1163/15685209-12341317 |issn=0022-4995 |jstor=43303561}} The fear of Ottoman expansion and its implications on religion in Europe finally dissipated by the 17th century. By this time in history, the Ottoman Empire was perceived by Western Europeans as a perplexing and exotic land that they referred to as "the Orient"; Orientalism, as it pertains to the Ottomans, was a method employed by Westerners to attempt to understand life in the Ottoman Empire.{{cite journal |author-last=Makdisi |author-first=Ussama |date=2002 |title=Ottoman Orientalism |url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/107/3/768/18839?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=The American Historical Review |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Historical Association |volume=107 |issue=3 |pages=768–796 |doi=10.1086/ahr/107.3.768 |issn=0002-8762}} The last hundred years of the Ottoman Empire brought about the period in which the rest of European countries looked upon it as the "Sick man of Europe", as it was widely held that the Ottoman Empire was a stagnant nation and incapable of modernizing.{{cite book |author-last=Huemer |author-first=Anna |year=2022 |chapter=Effeminate Rulers, Brave Soldiers? "Foreign" Masculinities in Selected Travelogues of Habsburg Diplomats in the Ottoman Empire |editor1-last=Gruber |editor1-first=Doris |editor2-last=Strohmeyer |editor2-first=Arno |title=On the Way to the "(Un)Known"?: The Ottoman Empire in Travelogues (c. 1450–1900) |location=Berlin and Heidelberg |publisher=De Gruyter |series=Studies on Modern Orient |volume=36 |pages=317–336 |doi=10.1515/9783110698046-016 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-3-11-069804-6}} This thesis was used throughout most of the 20th century as the basis of both Western and Republican TurkishSuraiya Faroqhi, The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It (I. B. Tauris, 2004; 2011), pp. 42–43.

• Virginia Aksan, "Ottoman to Turk: Continuity and Change," International Journal 61 (Winter 2005/6): 19–38. understanding of Ottoman history. However, by 1978, historians had begun to reexamine the fundamental assumptions of the Ottoman decline thesis.Howard, Douglas A. "Genre and myth in the Ottoman advice for kings literature," in Aksan, Virginia H. and Daniel Goffman eds. The Early Modern Ottomans: Remapping the Empire (Cambridge University Press, 2007; 2009), 143.

Throughout the 16th to 19th centuries, the Barbary States sent pirates to raid nearby parts of Europe in order to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in the Muslim world, primarily in North Africa and the Ottoman Empire, throughout the Renaissance and early modern period.{{cite news |last1=Davis |first1=Robert |title=BBC - History - British History in depth: British Slaves on the Barbary Coast |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml |access-date=18 July 2023 |work=www.bbc.co.uk |date=17 February 2011}} According to historian Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, Barbary pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves, although these numbers are disputed.{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/mar/11/highereducation.books|title=New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|date=2004-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-12-11|issn=0261-3077}} These slaves were captured mainly from the crews of captured vessels,Milton, G (2005) White Gold: The Extraordinary Story of Thomas Pellow And Islam's One Million White Slaves, Sceptre, London from coastal villages in Spain and Portugal, and from farther places like the Italian Peninsula, France, or England, the Netherlands, Ireland, the Azores Islands, and even Iceland. For a long time, until the early 18th century, the Crimean Khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East."[http://www2.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605131551/http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |date=2013-06-05 }}" (PDF). Eizo Matsuki, Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University. The Crimean Tatars frequently mounted raids into the Danubian Principalities, Poland–Lithuania, and Russia to enslave people whom they could capture."[https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 Historical survey > Slave societies]". Encyclopædia Britannica,

{{main|Byzantine–Ottoman wars|Ottoman wars in Europe}}

{{further|Ottoman–Habsburg wars|Ottoman–Hungarian wars|Polish–Ottoman Wars|Serbian–Ottoman wars|Russo–Turkish War}}

File:Szigetvar 1566.jpg for territorial expansion in Europe in 1566; Crimean Tatars were used as vanguard troops by the Ottoman army.]]

The Lipka Tatars in present-day Belarus, Lithuania, and Poland are a Turkic ethnic group who originally settled in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the beginning of the 14th century.{{cite news|url=http://www.rferl.org/content/poland-lipka-tatars-coexistence/25059637.html|title=Poland's Lipka Tatars: A Model For Muslims In Europe?|work=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|date=29 July 2013 |last1=Kates |first1=Glenn }}{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21664279-baltic-state-worried-about-arrival-muslims-overlooks-those-who-have-lived-there|title=The mosques of Lithuania|date=14 September 2015|newspaper=The Economist}}{{cite web|url=http://visegradinsight.eu/sarmatism-and-polands-national-consciousness26022015/|title="Sarmatism" and Poland's national consciousness - Visegrad Insight|date=26 February 2015}}{{cite web|url=http://visegradinsight.eu/2015/02/|title=February - 2015 - Visegrad Insight}}{{cite web|url=http://www.aquila-style.com/wief-marketplace-of-creative-arts/visual-arts/photographer-captures-the-essence-of-islam-in-europe/96711/|title=Photographer captures the essence of Islam in Europe|work=Aquila Style|date=4 June 2019}} Traditionally, the material of their mosques is wood.{{cite web|url=http://www.aquila-style.com/lifestyle/design-lifestyle/mosques-of-europe/105510/|title=Mosques of Europe: the social, theological and geographical aspects|work=Aquila Style|date=4 June 2019}} Lithuanian Tatars, who are descendants of immigrants from the Crimean Khanate, are considered an ethnic group of Crimean Tatars.{{Cite web |title=Шість століть разом. Сторінки історії забутого народу |url=https://crimea-is-ukraine.org/svitlytsa/lypka |access-date=2024-08-27 |website=crimea-is-ukraine.org |language=uk}}

The first Tatar settlers tried to preserve their Turco-Mongol shamanistic religion and sought asylum amongst the pre-Christian Lithuanians.{{in lang|lt}} [http://www.galve.lt/lt/numeriai/2007062225/Trakai%20ir%20pasaulio%20paveldas/koranas Lietuvos totoriai ir jų šventoji knyga – Koranas] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029035259/http://www.galve.lt/lt/numeriai/2007062225/Trakai%20ir%20pasaulio%20paveldas/koranas |date=29 October 2007 }} Towards the end of the 14th century, another wave of Tatars—this time, Islamized Turks, were invited into the Grand Duchy by Vytautas the Great. These Tatars first settled in Lithuania proper around Vilnius, Trakai, Hrodna, and Kaunas.

The Lipka Tatar origins can be traced back to the descendant states of the Golden Horde, the Crimean Khanate, and Kazan Khanate. They initially served as a noble military caste but later they became urban-dwellers known for their crafts, horses, and gardening skills. Throughout centuries, they resisted assimilation and kept their traditional lifestyle. While they remained very attached to their religion, over time they lost their original Tatar language, from the Kipchak group of the Turkic languages and for the most part adopted Belarusian, Lithuanian, and Polish.Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, "Polish or Lithuanian Tartars", Harvard University Press, pg. 990Leonard Drożdżewicz, Biographical Dictionary of Polish Tatars of the Twentieth Century, „Znad Wilii", nr 4 (68) z 2016 r., pp. 77–82, http://www.znadwiliiwilno.lt/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Znad-Wilii-68.pdf There are still small groups of Lipka Tatars living in Belarus, Lithuania, and Poland, as well as their communities in the United States.

The Finnish Tatars are a Tatar ethnic group and minority in Finland whose community has approximately 600–700 members. The community was formed between the late 1800s and the early 1900s, when Mishar Tatar merchants emigrated from the Nizhny Novgorod Governorate of the Russian Empire, and eventually settled in Finland. Tatars have the main building of their congregation in Helsinki. They have also founded cultural associations in different cities. They are the oldest Muslim community in Finland.

The identity of the Finnish Tatars has had different reference points throughout their history in the country. In the early days, they were known by their religious identity (Muslims). Starting from the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, local Turkic Tatars began associating themselves as "Turks".{{Efn|The Finnish word "turkkilainen" can mean either "Turkish" or "Turkic", but as an individual word usually refers to a Turkish person.}} During those times they were also influenced by Turkish culture and for example adopted the Latin alphabet, which replaced the previously used Arabic one. Nowadays, they once again identify as Tatars and are very connected to Tatarstan and especially its capital, Kazan.

{{main|Islam in Russia|Islam in Ukraine}}

File:Mošeja-Log pod Mangartom4.jpg, the only mosque ever built in Slovenia, constructed in the town of Log pod Mangartom during World War I.]]

In the mid-7th century AD, following the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam spread into areas that are today part of Russia as a result of the Russo-Persian Wars.{{cite book |quote= It is difficult to establish exactly when Islam first appeared in Russia because the lands that Islam penetrated early in its expansion were not part of Russia at the time, but were later incorporated into the expanding Russian Empire. Islam reached the Caucasus region in the middle of the seventh century as part of the Arab conquest of the Iranian Sassanian Empire. |title= Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security|first1= Shireen |last1= Hunter | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5QYDQAAQBAJ| publisher= Routledge | date = 2016 | orig-date=2004 |page= 3 |isbn= 9781315290119}} There are accounts of the trade connections between Muslims and the Rus', apparently people from the Baltic region who made their way towards the Black Sea through Central Russia.

The Mongols began their invasion of Rus', of Volga Bulgaria, and of the Cuman-Kipchak Confederation (parts of present-day Russia and Ukraine) in the 13th century. After the Mongol Empire fractured into four separate khanates, the eastern European section became known as the Golden Horde. Although not originally Muslim, the western Mongols adopted Islam as their religion in the early-14th century under Berke Khan, and later Uzbeg Khan established it as the official religion of the state. Much of the mostly Turkic-speaking population of the Horde, as well as the small Mongol aristocracy, became Islamized as well (if they were not already Muslim, like the Volga Bulgars), and were known to Russians and other Europeans as the "Tatars".

{{Further|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe|Reception of Islam in Early Modern Europe}}

Islam piqued interest among European scholars, setting off the movement of Orientalism. The founder of modern Islamic studies in Europe was Ignác Goldziher, who began studying Islam in the late 19th century. For instance, Sir Richard Francis Burton, 19th-century English explorer, scholar, and orientalist, and translator of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, disguised himself as a Pashtun and visited both Medina and Mecca during the Hajj, as described in his book A Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah.

Islamic architecture influenced European architecture in various ways (for example, the Türkischer Tempel synagogue in Vienna). During the 12th-century Renaissance in Europe, Latin translations of Arabic texts were introduced.

File:Mechet 25 prorokov.JPG in Ufa, Bashkortostan, Russia]]

File:Dvoriste Begove dzamije.jpg in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

File:Grande Mosquée de Paris.JPG, built after World War I.]]

The exact number of Muslims in Europe is unknown but according to estimates by the Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe (excluding Turkey) in 2010 was about 44 million (6% of the total population), including 19 million (3.8% of the population) in the European Union.{{sfn|Pew 2011}} A 2010 Pew Research Center study reported that 2.7% of the world's Muslim population live in Europe.{{cite web |author= |date=9 August 2012 |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity |url-status=live |title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation |work=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Pew Research Center |series=Religion & Public Life Project |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130193127/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/ |archive-date=30 January 2023 |access-date=18 February 2023}}

Turkish people form the largest ethnic group in the European border of present-day Turkey (as well as the Republic of Turkey as a whole) and Northern Cyprus. They also form centuries-old minority groups in other post-Ottoman nation states within the Balkans (i.e. the Balkan Turks), where they form the largest ethnic minority in Bulgaria and the second-largest minority in North Macedonia. Meanwhile, in the diaspora, the Turks form the largest ethnic minority group in Austria, Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands.{{citation |last1=Al-Shahi|first1=Ahmed|last2=Lawless|first2=Richard|year=2013|chapter=Introduction|title=Middle East and North African Immigrants in Europe: Current Impact; Local and National Responses|publisher=Routledge|page=13|isbn=978-1136872808}} In 1997, there was approximately 10 million Turks living in Western Europe and the Balkans (i.e. excluding Northern Cyprus and Turkey).{{citation|last1=Bayram|first1=Servet|last2=Seels|first2=Barbara|year=1997|title=The Utilization of Instructional Technology in Turkey|journal=Educational Technology Research and Development|volume=45|issue=1|page=112|publisher=Springer|doi=10.1007/BF02299617|s2cid=62176630|quote=There are about 10 million Turks living in the Balkan area of southeastern Europe and in Western Europe at present.}} By 2010, up to 15 million Turks were living in the European Union (i.e. excluding Turkey and several Balkan and Eastern European countries which are not in the EU).{{citation|year=2010|title=52% of Europeans say no to Turkey's EU membership|url=https://www.aysor.am/en/news/2010/02/02/turkey-europe/106730?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=5cadc325e9d6de274da7044b445bd172c7b2029e-1604753955-0-AVhYEz2aOybvH-qEPBsvvTpaib38A35FbqAgn6teGWuWeh48U9WebMfgeB7pDyti835gLNeS-jECj7JcmXfoYgHhsVqp5x66C2BKTSFGiVGxiw5PqhftOHz7nsSSjTFeaTP0PCXi7AWAmZmQvPS_UAXOWa5sA89tJ0mQObkZjZs3YvMe4mPkL3GRVgW7lkY67Wbd2ObEVwY8WkH8mjSEmlh2nN0XPKt9uF4ez2dmVArsQ-OEeET6EbYl19R6K6OB_o1zllMxypQhTFvwELlCScPf432jttv_ho4iUHZPKOqyXiG_TqKXWttoh6QAbveQgyOmNvsevk84nDkqw_NQhUo|publisher=Aysor|quote=This is not all of a sudden, says expert at the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies, Boris Kharkovsky. “These days, up to 15 million Turks live in the EU countries...|access-date=7 November 2020}} According to sociologist Araks Pashayan 10 million "Euro-Turks" alone were living in Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Belgium in 2012.{{citation |last=Pashayan|first=Araks|year=2012|chapter=Integration of Muslims in Europe and the Gülen|title=European Muslims, Civility and Public Life: Perspectives On and From the Gülen Movement|editor1-last=Weller|editor1-first=Paul|editor2-last=Ihsan|editor2-first=Yilmaz|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BtMmIs4NmqIC&q=There+are+around+10+million+Euro-Turks+living+in+the+European+Union+countries+of+Germany%2C+France%2C+the+Netherlands+and+Belgium.&pg=PA82|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-4411-0207-2|quote=There are around 10 million Euro-Turks living in the European Union countries of Germany, France, the Netherlands and Belgium.}} In addition, substantial Turkish communities have been formed in the United Kingdom, Austria, Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark, Italy, Liechtenstein, Finland, and Spain. Meanwhile, there are over one million Turks still living in the Balkans (especially in Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, North Macedonia, and Dobruja),{{citation |last=Dursun-Özkanca|first=Oya|year=2019|title=Turkey–West Relations: The Politics of Intra-alliance Opposition|page=40|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1108488624|quote=One-fifth of the Turkish population is estimated to have Balkan origins. Additionally, more than one million Turks live in Balkan countries, constituting a bridge between these countries and Turkey. }} and approximately 400,000 Meskhetian Turks in the Eastern European regions of the Post-Soviet states (i.e. Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Ukraine).{{cite web|author=Al Jazeera|title=Ahıska Türklerinin 70 yıllık sürgünü|url=http://www.aljazeera.com.tr/al-jazeera-ozel/ahiska-turklerinin-70-yillik-surgunu|work=Al Jazeera|date=2014|access-date=2016-07-05}}

Estimates of the percentage of Muslims in Russia (the biggest group of Muslims in Europe) vary from 5[http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/1997068 by example only 6% of the Russian population is Islamic] to 11.7%,{{sfn|Pew 2011}} depending on sources. It also depends on if only observant Muslims or all people of Muslim descent are counted.{{cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/les-decodeurs/article/2015/01/21/que-pese-l-islam-en-france_4559859_4355770.html|title=What is the weight of Islam in France ?|newspaper=Le Monde.fr|date=January 21, 2015|publisher= Les décodeurs (Le Monde)}} The city of Moscow is home to an estimated 1.5 million Muslims.[https://web.archive.org/web/20100525073556/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article551693.ece The rise of Russian Muslims worries Orthodox Church], The Times, 5 August 2005Don Melvin, [http://www.ajc.com/news/content/news/stories/1204/17muslims.html "Europe works to assimilate Muslims"]{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051030120751/http://www.ajc.com/news/content/news/stories/1204/17muslims.html |date=2005-10-30 }}, Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 2004-12-17[http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/40ffd2eb4.html Tolerance and fear collide in the Netherlands], UNHCR, Refugees Magazine, Issue 135 (New Europe)

50.7% of the population in Albania adheres to Islam, making it the largest religion in the country. The majority of Albanian Muslims are secular Sunnīs with a significant Bektashi Shīʿa minority.https://shqiptarja.com/uploads/ckeditor/667eb96647c4bcens-2023.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=August 2024}} The percentage of Muslims is 93.5% in Kosovo,{{cite web|last=Kettani |first=Houssain |url=http://www.ijesd.org/papers/29-D438.pdf |title=Muslim Population in Europe: 1950 – 2020 |publisher=International Journal of Environmental Science and Development vol. 1, no. 2, p. 156 |date=2010|access-date=17 November 2016}} 39.3% in North Macedonia[http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2010/percent/all/ "Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802041823/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2010/percent/all/ |date=2017-08-02 }} in: Pew Research Center, Retrieved 10 November 2016[http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/republic-of-macedonia#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010®ion_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2013 Republic of Macedonia], in: Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures, Retrieved 10 November 2016 (according to the 2002 Census, 46.5% of the children aged 0–4 were Muslim in Macedonia)[http://www.stat.gov.mk/publikacii/knigaIX.pdf Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Macedonia, 2002, p. 518] and 50.7% in Bosnia and Herzegovina.2013 Census, http://popis2013.ba/ In transcontinental countries such as Turkey and Azerbaijan, 99% and 93% of the populations from the respective countries are initially registered by the state as Muslims.{{cite web|url=http://www.kazembassy.org.uk/img/Country%20Profile%202007_1.pdf|title=Embassy of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the UK, Country Profile 2007, p.4|access-date=2007-06-21}} According to the 2011 census, 20% of the total population in Montenegro are Muslims.{{cite web | url=http://www.monstat.org/userfiles/file/popis2011/saopstenje/saopstenje(1).pdf | title=Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in Montenegro 2011 | work=Monstat | access-date=October 16, 2016 | pages=14, 15}} For the purpose of the chart, the categories 'Islam' and 'Muslims' were merged.

"Non-denominational Muslims" is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to a specific Islamic denomination, do not self-identify with any specific Islamic denomination, or cannot be readily classified under one of the identifiable Islamic schools and branches.{{cite news |last=Benakis |first=Theodoros |date=13 January 2014 |title=Islamophoobia in Europe! |url=http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |newspaper=New Europe |location=Brussels |access-date=20 October 2015 |quote=Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims – those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131145036/http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |archive-date=31 January 2016 |url-status=dead }}{{cite news |last=Longton |first=Gary G. |year=2014 |title=Isis Jihadist group made me wonder about non-denominational Muslims |url=http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/Isis-Jihadist-group-wonder-non-denominational/story-21340790-detail/story.html |location=Stoke-on-Trent |work=The Sentinel |quote=The appalling and catastrophic pictures of the so-called new extremist Isis Jihadist group made me think about someone who can say I am a Muslim of a non-denominational standpoint, and to my surprise/ignorance, such people exist. Online, I found something called the people's mosque, which makes itself clear that it's 100 per cent non-denominational and most importantly, 100 per cent non-judgmental. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326065118/http://www.stokesentinel.co.uk/isis-jihadist-group-wonder-non-denominational/story-21340790-detail/story.html |archive-date=26 March 2017 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all |access-date=21 October 2015}}{{cite book |author-last=Pollack |author-first=Kenneth |author-link=Kenneth M. Pollack |year=2014 |title=Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jQGZBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster |page=29 |isbn=9781476733937 |quote=Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims.}} A quarter of the world's Muslim population are non-denominational Muslims. Non-denominational Muslims constitute the majority of the Muslim population in eight countries, and a plurality in three others: Albania (65%), Kyrgyzstan (64%), Kosovo (58%), Indonesia (56%), Mali (55%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (54%), Uzbekistan (54%), Azerbaijan (45%), Russia (45%), and Nigeria (42%). They are found primarily in Central Asia. Kazakhstan has the largest number of non-denominational Muslims, who constitute about 74% of the population. Southeastern Europe also has a large number of non-denominational Muslims.

In 2015, Darren E. Sherkat questioned in Foreign Affairs whether some of the Muslim growth projections are accurate as they don't take into account the increasing number of non-religious Muslims.{{cite magazine |last=Sherkat |first=Darren E. |date=22 June 2015 |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/reviews/2015-06-22/losing-their-religion |url-status=live |title=Losing Their Religion: When Muslim Immigrants Leave Islam |magazine=Foreign Affairs |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |issn=0015-7120 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006184914/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/reviews/review-essay/2015-06-22/losing-their-religion |archive-date=6 October 2022 |access-date=26 November 2022}} Quantitative research is lacking, but he believes the European trend mirrors that from North America: statistical data from the General Social Survey in the United States show that 32% of those raised Muslim no longer embrace Islam in adulthood, and 18% hold no religious identification (see also: Ex-Muslims).

A survey conducted by Pew Research Center in 2016 found that Muslims make up 4.9% of all Europe's population.{{citation|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/|title=5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe|date=November 29, 2017|work=Pew Research Center|first=Conrad|last=Hackett}} According to the same study, conversion does not add significantly to the growth of the Muslim population in Europe, with roughly 160,000 more people leaving Islam than converting into Islam between 2010 and 2016.

File:Muslim pop Euro.JPG, Europe's population was 6% Muslim in 2010, and is projected to be 8% Muslim by 2030.{{sfn|Pew 2011}} (The data does not take into account population movements from the Middle East and Africa since the migration crisis.)]]

By 2010, an estimated 44 million Muslims were living in Europe (6%), with around 19 million in the European Union (3.8%).{{sfn|Pew 2011}} They are projected to increase to 58 million (8%) by 2030,{{sfn|Pew 2011}} in part due to a modest rise from conversions to Islam.{{cite web |title=The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010-2050 |url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf |website=Pew Research Center |access-date=September 5, 2024 |date=April 2, 2015 |archive-date=May 6, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506113049/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf |url-status=dead }} A Pew Research Center study, published in January 2011, forecast an increase of Muslims in European population from 6% in 2010 to 8% in 2030.{{sfn|Pew 2011}} The study also predicted that Muslim fertility rate in Europe would drop from 2.2 in 2010 to 2.0 in 2030. On the other hand, the non-Muslim fertility rate in Europe would increase from 1.5 in 2010 to 1.6 in 2030.{{sfn|Pew 2011}} Another Pew study published in 2017 projected that in 2050 Muslims will make 7.4% (if all migration into Europe were to immediately and permanently stop - a "zero migration" scenario) up to 14% (under a "high" migration scenario) of Europe's population.{{Cite web |date=2017-11-29 |title=Europe's Growing Muslim Population |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/11/29/europes-growing-muslim-population/ |access-date=2024-05-09 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}} Data from the 2000s for the rates of growth of Islam in Europe showed that the growing number of Muslims was due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide |work=BBC News |date=2005-12-23 |access-date=2010-04-01}}

In 2017, the Pew Research Center projected that the Muslim population of Europe would reach a level between 7% and 14% by 2050. The projections depend on the level of migration. With no net migration, the projected level was 7%; with high migration, it was 14%. The projections varied greatly by country. Under the high migration scenario, the highest projected level of any historically non-Muslim country was 30% in Sweden. By contrast, Poland was projected to remain below 1%.{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/12/04/europes-muslim-population-will-continue-to-grow-but-how-much-depends-on-migration/|title=Europe's Muslim population will continue to grow – but how much depends on migration|work=Pew Center|first=Michael|last=Lipka|date=December 4, 2017}}

In 2006, the conservative Christian historian Philip Jenkins, in an article for the Foreign Policy Research Institute thinktank, wrote that by 2100, a Muslim population of about 25% of Europe's population was "probable"; Jenkins stated this figure did not take account of growing birthrates amongst Europe's immigrant Christians, but did not give details of his methodology.Philip Jenkins, "[http://deathandreligion.plamienok.sk/files/21-Demographics_Religion_and_the_Future_of_Europe.pdf Demographics, Religion, and the Future of Europe]", Orbis: A Journal of World Affairs, vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 533, summer 2006 In 2010, Eric Kaufmann, professor of politics at Birkbeck, University of London said that "In our projections for Western Europe by 2050 we are looking at a range of 10-15 per cent Muslim population for most of the high immigration countries – Germany, France, the UK";{{cite web|url=https://newhumanist.org.uk/articles/2267/battle-of-the-babies|title=Battle of the Babies - New Humanist|date=22 March 2010 }} he argued that Islam was expanding, not because of conversion to Islam, but primarily due to the religion's "pro-natal" orientation, where Muslims tend to have more children.{{cite news|url=https://vancouversun.com/news/staff-blogs/think-religion-is-declining-look-at-who-is-going-forth-and-multiplying|title=Think religion is in decline? Look at who is 'going forth and multiplying'|newspaper=Vancouversun |date=12 October 2014}} Other analysts are skeptical about the accuracy of the claimed Muslim population growth, stating that because many European countries do not ask a person's religion on official forms or in censuses, it has been difficult to obtain accurate estimates, and arguing that there has been a decrease in Muslim fertility rates in Morocco, the Netherlands, and Turkey.Mary Mederios Kent, [http://www.prb.org/Articles/2008/muslimsineurope.aspx?p=1 Do Muslims have more children than other women in western Europe?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081108085143/http://www.prb.org/Articles/2008/muslimsineurope.aspx?p=1|date=2008-11-08}}[http://www.prb.org/Articles/2008/muslimsineurope.aspx] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407192723/http://www.prb.org/Articles/2008/muslimsineurope.aspx|date=2013-04-07}}[http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2008/muslimsineurope.aspx] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307220320/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2008/muslimsineurope.aspx|date=2018-03-07}}, Population Reference Bureau, February 2008, Simon Kuper, [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/123ade02-4e6f-11dc-85e7-0000779fd2ac,print=yes.html Head count belies vision of ‘Eurabia’], Financial Times, 19 August 2007, Doug Saunders, [https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20080920.wreckoning20/BNStory/International/home/ The 'Eurabia' myth deserves a debunking] [http://dougsaunders.net/2008/09/eurabia-debunking-steyn-bawer-melanie-phillips-geert-wilders/][http://dougsaunders.tumblr.com/post/7999134091/debunking-the-eurabia-myth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405005542/http://dougsaunders.tumblr.com/post/7999134091/debunking-the-eurabia-myth|date=2015-04-05}}, The Globe and Mail, 20 September 2008, [http://www.economist.com/node/18008022/print Islam and demography: A waxing crescent], The Economist, 27 January 2011

According to an article published on the German public broadcaster Deutsche Welle, communities of Muslim immigrants remain strongly religious in some Western-European countries, in a trend which continues across generations. In the United Kingdom, 64% identify as "highly religious", followed by 42% in Austria, 33% in France, and 26% in Switzerland.{{cite news |date=11 April 2018 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/islam-shouldnt-culturally-shape-germany-alexander-dobrindt-claims/a-43335131 |title='Islam shouldn't culturally shape Germany' - Alexander Dobrindt claims |work=Deutsche Welle |access-date=2019-10-13 |quote=Muslims from immigrant families maintain a strong religious commitment which continues across generations. Sixty-four percent of Muslims living in the UK describe themselves as highly religious. The share of devout Muslims stands at 42 percent in Austria, 39 percent in Germany, 33 percent in France and 26 percent in Switzerland.}}

A 2005 survey published by the Université Libre de Bruxelles estimated that only 10% of the Muslim population in Belgium are "practicing Muslims".{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71371.htm |title=US State Department, International Religious Freedom Report 2006, Belgium |publisher=State.gov |date=2 October 2005 |access-date=8 June 2012}} In 2009, only 24% of Muslims in the Netherlands attended mosque once a week according to another survey.{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/publicatie/2009/31/religie-aan-het-begin-van-de-21ste-eeuw|title=Religie aan het begin van de 21ste eeuw|last=CBS|website=www.cbs.nl|date=29 July 2009 |language=nl-NL|access-date=2017-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202234607/https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/publicatie/2009/31/religie-aan-het-begin-van-de-21ste-eeuw|archive-date=2017-02-02|url-status=live}}

According to the same 2004 survey, they found that the importance of Islam in the lives of Dutch Muslims, particularly of second-generation immigrants was decreasing. According to a survey, only 33% of French Muslims who were interviewed said they were religious believers. That figure is the same as that obtained by the INED/INSEE survey in October 2010.Michael Cosgrove, [http://plus.lefigaro.fr/note/how-does-france-count-its-muslim-population-20110407-435643 How does France count its Muslim population?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010074044/http://plus.lefigaro.fr/note/how-does-france-count-its-muslim-population-20110407-435643 |date=2017-10-10 }}, Le Figaro, April 2011.

File:Balkan highways mosque density.jpg

File:Moschea 00497.JPG, the largest in the European Union]]

File:East London Mosque - panoramio.jpg was one of the first in Britain to be allowed to use loudspeakers to broadcast the adhan.{{cite book|last1=Eade|first1=John|editor1-last=Metcalf|editor1-first=Barbara Daly|title=Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe|date=1996|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=0520204042|chapter-url=http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft2s2004p0&chunk.id=s1.12.69&toc.id=ch12&brand=ucpress|access-date=19 April 2015|chapter=Nationalism, Community, and the Islamization of Space in London|quote=As one of the few mosques in Britain permitted to broadcast calls to prayer (azan), the mosque soon found itself at the center of a public debate about "noise pollution" when local non-Muslim residents began to protest.|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/makingmuslimspac0000unse}}]]

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, large numbers of Muslims immigrated to Western Europe.{{cite journal |author-last=Hamming |author-first=Tore |date=October–November 2023 |url=https://ctc.westpoint.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/CTC-SENTINEL-102023.pdf |url-status=live |title=The Beginning of a New Wave? The Hamas-Israel War and the Terror Threat in the West |editor1-last=Cruickshank |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Hummel |editor2-first=Kristina |journal=CTC Sentinel |volume=16 |issue=10 |pages=27–33 |publisher=Combating Terrorism Center |location=West Point, New York |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240316092359/http://ctc.westpoint.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/CTC-SENTINEL-102023.pdf |archive-date=16 March 2024 |access-date=21 August 2024}} By 2010, an estimated 44 million Muslims were living in Europe (6%), including an estimated 19 million in the EU (3.8%).{{sfn|Pew 2011}} They are projected to comprise 8% or 58 million by 2030.{{sfn|Pew 2011}} Islam in Europe is often the subject of intense discussion and political controversies sparked by events such as Islamist terrorist attacks in European countries,{{cite encyclopedia|author=William E. Shepard |author2=FranÇois Burgat |author3=James Piscatori |author4=Armando Salvatore |title=Islamism |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009 |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0888 |url-access=subscription |quote=The term "Islamism/Islamist" has come into increasing use in recent years to denote the views of those Muslims who claim that Islam, or more specifically, the Islamic sharīʿah, provides guidance for all areas of human life, individual and social, and who therefore call for an "Islamic State" or an "Islamic Order." [...] Today it is one of the recognized alternatives to "fundamentalist", along with "political Islam" in particular. [...] Current terminology usually distinguishes between "Islam," [...] and "Islamism", referring to the ideology of those who tend to signal openly, in politics, their Muslim religion. [...] the term has often acquired a quasi-criminal connotation close to that of political extremism, religious sectarianism, or bigotry. In Western mainstream media, "Islamists" are those who want to establish, preferably through violent means, an "Islamic state" or impose sharīʿah (Islamic religious law)—goals that are often perceived merely as a series of violations of human rights or the rights of women. In the Muslim world, insiders use the term as a positive reference. In the academic sphere, although it is still debated, the term designates a more complex phenomenon. |isbn=9780195305135}}{{cite book |last1=Wainwright |first1=Rob |title=TE-SAT 2010 : EU terrorism situation and trend report |date=2010 |url=https://www.europol.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/tesat2010_1.pdf |publisher=Europol |access-date=January 14, 2024 |doi=10.2813/12525|isbn=978-92-95018-80-8 }}{{cite book |last=Aydınlı |first=Ersel |year=2018 |orig-date=2016 |chapter=The Jihadists after 9/11 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hq1TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 |title=Violent Non-State Actors: From Anarchists to Jihadists |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |edition=1st |series=Routledge Studies on Challenges, Crises, and Dissent in World Politics |pages=110–149 |isbn=978-1-315-56139-4 |lccn=2015050373}}{{cite book |author-last=Kallis |author-first=Aristotle |year=2018 |chapter=Part I: Ideology and Discourse – The Radical Right and Islamophobia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XD9FDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 |editor-last=Rydgren |editor-first=Jens |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Radical Right |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=42–60 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190274559.013.3 |isbn=9780190274559 |lccn=2017025436}} The Satanic Verses controversy,{{cite book |author-last=Allievi |author-first=Stefano |chapter=Relations and Negotiations: Issues and Debates on Islam |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0sVAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA331 |editor1-last=Allievi |editor1-first=Stefano |editor2-last=Maréchal |editor2-first=Brigitte |editor3-last=Dassetto |editor3-first=Felice |editor4-last=Nielsen |editor4-first=Jørgen S. |editor4-link=Jørgen S. Nielsen |year=2003 |title=Muslims in the Enlarged Europe: Religion and Society |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=Muslim Minorities |pages=331–368 |isbn=978-90-04-13201-6 |issn=1570-7571 |lccn=2003049569 |s2cid=142974009|url=http://swbplus.bsz-bw.de/bsz108964116inh.pdf }} the cartoons affair in Denmark, debates over Islamic dress, and growing support for right-wing populist movements and parties that view Muslims as a threat to European culture and liberal values. Such events have also fueled ongoing debates regarding the topics of globalization, multiculturalism, nativism, Islamophobia, relations between Muslims and other religious groups, and populist politics.{{cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Matthew J. |last2=Cutts |first2=David |last3=Jana-Lipinski |first3=Laurence |date=September 2014 |title=Economic Losers, Protestors, and Islamophobes or Xenophobes? Predicting Public Support for a Counter-Jihad Movement |journal=Political Studies |publisher=SAGE Publications on behalf of the Political Studies Association |volume=64 |pages=4–26 |doi=10.1111/1467-9248.12159 |issn=1467-9248 |lccn=2008233815 |oclc=1641383 |s2cid=145753701}}

{{category see also|Islamic organizations in Europe}}

In Europe, a variety of Islamic organizations serve to represent the diverse interests of Muslim communities and promote Islamic teachings, encourage Interfaith harmony and cultural contributions.

The Federation of Islamic Organizations in Europe (FIOE) an umbrella organization that represents more than 30 Muslim organizations in Europe. Its mission is to represent the interests of Muslims, and to foster dialogue and cooperation between Muslims and non-Muslims in Europe.{{cite book|last1=Jenkins|first1=J|last2=Farr|first2=C|title=Muslim Brotherhood Review: Main Findings (point 31)|date=2015|publisher=Government of UK|location=London|isbn=9781474127127|page=8|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/486932/Muslim_Brotherhood_Review_Main_Findings.pdf|access-date=16 February 2018|ref=c_farr_pt31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122132105/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/486932/Muslim_Brotherhood_Review_Main_Findings.pdf|archive-date=22 January 2018|quote=Muslim Brotherhood organisations in the UK –including charities –are connected to counterparts elsewhere in Europe. MAB are associated with the Federation of Islamic Organisations in Europe (FIOE), established by the Muslim Brotherhood in 1989. FIOE subsequently created the European Council for Fatwa and Research, another pan European Muslim Brotherhood body, intended to providereligious and social guidance to Muslims living in Europe.}} FIOE subsequently created the European Council for Fatwa and Research, a pan European Muslim Brotherhood organisation which provides guidance to Muslims in Europe. The Muslim Council for Cooperation in Europe (MCCE) is a representative body of European citizens of Muslim faith before the EU administration for advice, representation and intra-European collaboration.[http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/policy_advisers/archives/activities/dialogue_religions_humanisms/muslim_en.htm Muslim Council for Cooperation in Europe] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025224931/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/policy_advisers/archives/activities/dialogue_religions_humanisms/muslim_en.htm |date=2012-10-25 }} In 1997, the MCCE has joined the initiative "A Soul for Europe" in the framework of "Dialogue with religions, churches and humanism" as part of the Group of Policy Advisors in the European Commission.[http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/policy_advisers/archives/activities/dialogue_religions_humanisms/list_en.htm List of permanent missions and organizations]

{{main|List of mosques in Europe}}

{{main|Islamic dress in Europe}}

{{further|Hijab|Sex segregation in Islam}}

In the context of Islamic dress in Europe, there are diverse perspectives regarding the wearing of face-covering veils and other traditional clothing among Muslim communities. Various European countries have implemented laws and regulations that pertain to religious clothing, including face-covering veils such as the burka or the hijab. These laws have generated considerable debate and criticism within and outside Muslim communities.{{cite web |last1=Stuber |first1=Sophie |title=France's abaya ban risks isolating Muslim students, experts say |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/27/how-do-you-distinguish-between-an-abaya-and-a-maxi-dress |website=Al Jazeera |access-date=October 23, 2023 |date=September 27, 2023}}{{Cite web|last=Heider|first=Jennifer|title=UNVEILING THE TRUTH BEHIND THE FRENCH BURQA BAN: THE UNWARRANTED RESTRICTION OF THE RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF RELIGION AND THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS|url=https://mckinneylaw.iu.edu/iiclr/pdf/vol22p93.pdf|access-date=October 23, 2023}}{{cite web |last1=François |first1=Myriam |title='I felt violated by the demand to undress': three Muslim women on France's hostility to the hijab |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/27/i-felt-violated-by-the-demand-to-undress-three-muslim-women-on-frances-hostility-to-the-hijab |website=Guardian |access-date=October 23, 2023 |date=July 21, 2021}} Those who argue for the restrictions say they are in favor of security, or secularism. However, critics of such laws express concerns about infringements on individual freedom and religious expression, arguing that these restrictions have unintended consequences, including isolating and stigmatizing Muslim communities.{{Cite web|last=Heider|first=Jennifer|title=UNVEILING THE TRUTH BEHIND THE FRENCH BURQA BAN: THE UNWARRANTED RESTRICTION OF THE RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF RELIGION AND THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS|url=https://mckinneylaw.iu.edu/iiclr/pdf/vol22p93.pdf|access-date=October 23, 2023}} Additionally, it has been noted by some observers that these dress bans have raised concerns about fueling Islamophobia across Europe.{{cite journal |last1=Gohir |first1=Shaista |year= 2015|title=The Veil Ban in Europe: Gender Equality or Gendered Islamophobia ? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43773664 |journal=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=24–33 |jstor=43773664 |access-date=October 23, 2023}}{{cite web|title=European Parliament anti-Islamophobia event attendees slam France for abaya ban |url=https://brusselssignal.eu/2023/09/european-parliament-anti-islamophobia-event-attendees-slam-france-for-abaya-ban/ |website=Brussels Signal |access-date=October 23, 2023 |date=September 25, 2023}}{{cite web |last1=Picheta |first1=Rob | last2=Ataman |first2=Joseph |title=France to ban the wearing of abayas in schools, fueling accusations of Islamophobia |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/08/28/europe/france-abayas-schools-ban-intl/index.html#:~:text=France%20to%20ban%20the%20wearing,schools%2C%20fueling%20accusations%20of%20Islamophobia |website=CNN |access-date=August 28, 2023 |date=September 27, 2023}}

The prevailing perspective supports the right of Muslim women to wear religious clothing that does not cover their face, with a smaller proportion advocating for restrictions on all forms of religious clothing. On a regional average, around 25% hold a more permissive view, asserting that Muslim women should be allowed to wear the religious clothing of their choice according to Pew Research Center.{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/09/17/most-western-europeans-favor-at-least-some-restrictions-on-muslim-womens-religious-clothing/|title=Most Western Europeans favor restrictions on Muslim women's religious clothing {{!}} Pew Research Center|work=Pew Research Center|access-date=2018-09-30|language=en-US}}

The stance on clothing restrictions is not the same in every country. For example, about six-in-ten Portuguese adults who hold positive feelings toward Muslims support no restrictions on religious clothing. Overall, most people in Western Europe say they accept religious minorities – Muslims included. For example, a median of 66% of non-Muslim adults in the region say they would accept a Muslim as a member of their family, according to a separate question in a survey.

{{Main|Islamic terrorism in Europe}}

{{Further|Bosnian mujahideen|Mujahideen in Chechnya}}

A 2013 study conducted by Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung (WZB) found that Islamic fundamentalism was widespread among Muslims in Europe. The study conducted a poll among Turkish immigrants to six European countries: Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria, and Sweden. In the first four countries also Moroccan immigrants were interviewed.{{Cite book|url=https://bibliothek.wzb.eu/pdf/2014/vi14-101.pdf|title=Religious fundamentalism and out-group hostility among Muslims and Christians in Western Europe|last=Koopmans|first=Ruud|publisher=WZB Berlin Social Science Center|date=March 2014|pages=7, 11, 15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108011413/https://bibliothek.wzb.eu/pdf/2014/vi14-101.pdf|archive-date=8 January 2015}} Fundamentalism was defined as: the belief that believers should return to the eternal and unchangeable rules laid down in the past; that these rules allow only one interpretation and are binding for all believers; and that religious rules have priority over secular laws. Two thirds of Muslims the majority responded that religious rules are more important than civil laws and three quarters rejecting religious pluralism within Islam.{{cite web|url=http://www.wzb.eu/en/press-release/islamic-fundamentalism-is-widely-spread|title=Islamic fundamentalism is widely spread|date=December 9, 2013|publisher=Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung}} Of the respondents, 44% agreed to all three statements. Almost 60% responded that Muslims should return to the roots of Islam, 75% thought there was only one possible interpretation of the Quran.

The conclusion was that religious fundamentalism is much more prevalent among European Muslims than among Christian natives. Perceived discrimination is a marginal predictor of religious fundamentalism. The perception that Western governments are inherently hostile towards Islam as a source of identity is prevailing among some European Muslims. However, a recent study shows that this perception significantly declined after the emergence of ISIS, particularly among the youth, and highly educated European Muslims.{{Cite journal|last1=Hekmatpour|first1=Peyman|last2=Burns|first2=Thomas J.|title=Perception of Western governments' hostility to Islam among European Muslims before and after ISIS: the important roles of residential segregation and education|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|language=en|pages=2133–2165|doi=10.1111/1468-4446.12673|issn=1468-4446|year=2019|volume=70|issue=5|pmid=31004347|s2cid=125038730}} The difference between countries defies a "reactive religious fundamentalism", where fundamentalism is viewed as a reaction against lacking rights and privileges for Muslims. Instead, it was found that Belgium which has comparatively generous policies towards Muslims and immigrants in general also had a relatively high level of fundamentalism. France and Germany which have restrictive policies had lower levels of fundamentalism.

In 2017, the EU Counter-terrorism Coordinator Gilles de Kerchove stated in an interview that there were more than {{Val|50000}} radicals and jihadists in Europe.{{Cite news|url=http://www.elmundo.es/espana/2017/08/31/59a70a48ca4741f7588b45e4.html|title=El coordinador antiterrorista de la UE: "Lo de Barcelona volverá a pasar, hay 50.000 radicales en Europa"|work=ELMUNDO|access-date=2018-08-24|language=es}} In 2016, French authorities stated that {{Val|15000}} of the {{Val|20000}} individuals on the list of security threats belong to Islamist movements.{{Cite news|url=https://www.lemonde.fr/les-decodeurs/article/2016/09/12/qui-sont-les-15-000-personnes-suivies-pour-radicalisation_4996528_4355770.html|title=Qui sont les 15 000 personnes "suivies pour radicalisation" ?|work=Le Monde.fr|access-date=2018-08-24|language=fr-FR}} In the United Kingdom, authorities estimate that {{Val|23000}} jihadists reside in the country, of which about 3000 are actively monitored.{{cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/crime/article/huge-scale-of-terror-threat-revealed-uk-home-to-23-000-jihadists-3zvn58mhq|title=Huge scale of terror threat revealed: UK home to 23,000 jihadists |author1=Sean O’Neill |author2=Fiona Hamilton |author3=Fariha Karim |author4=Gabriella Swerling |date=2017-05-27|work=The Times |language=en|issn=0140-0460 |access-date=October 30, 2023}} In 2017, German authorities estimated that there were more than {{Val|10000}} militant salafists in the country.{{cite news|url=https://www.focus.de/politik/deutschland/gewaltbereite-islamisten-erstmals-mehr-als-10-000-salafisten-in-deutschland_id_6863813.html|title=Gewaltbereite Islamisten: Erstmals mehr als 10.000 Salafisten in Deutschland|work=FOCUS Online|access-date=2018-08-24|language=de}} European Muslims have also been criticized for new antisemitism.{{cite book |author-last=Fastenbauer |author-first=Raimund |year=2020 |editor1-last=Lange |editor1-first=Armin |editor2-last=Mayerhofer |editor2-first=Kerstin |editor3-last=Porat |editor3-first=Dina |editor4-last=Schiffman |editor4-first=Lawrence H. |title=An End to Antisemitism! – Volume 2: Confronting Antisemitism from the Perspectives of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism |chapter=Islamic Antisemitism: Jews in the Qur’an, Reflections of European Antisemitism, Political Anti-Zionism: Common Codes and Differences |location=Berlin and Boston |publisher=De Gruyter |pages=279–300 |doi=10.1515/9783110671773-018 |doi-access=free |isbn=9783110671773}}

{{Islamophobia}} {{see also|Islamophobia|Criticism of Islam}}

The extent of negative attitudes towards Muslims varies across different parts of Europe.

{{bar box

|title=Unfavorable views of Muslims, 2019{{cite news |title=European Public Opinion Three Decades After the Fall of Communism — 6. Minority groups |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/10/14/minority-groups/ |work=Pew Research Center |date=14 October 2019}}

|titlebar=#ddd

|left1=Country

|right1=Percent

|width=400px

|bars=

{{bar percent|Slovakia|peru|77}}

{{bar percent|Poland|peru|66}}

{{bar percent|Czech Republic|peru|64}}

{{bar percent|Hungary|peru|58}}

{{bar percent|Greece|peru|57}}

{{bar percent|Lithuania|peru|56}}

{{bar percent|Italy|peru|55}}

{{bar percent|Spain|darkorange|42}}

{{bar percent|Sweden|orange|28}}

{{bar percent|Netherlands|orange|28}}

{{bar percent|Germany|gold|24}}

{{bar percent|France|gold|22}}

{{bar percent|Ukraine|gold|21}}

{{bar percent|Russia|gold|19}}

{{bar percent|United Kingdom|gold|18}}

}}

The European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia reports that the Muslim population tends to suffer Islamophobia all over Europe, although the perceptions and views of Muslims may vary.European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (2006): [http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/156-Manifestations_EN.pdf Muslims in the European Union. Discrimination and Islamophobia] Retrieved September 25, 2012

In 2005 according to the Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau annual report, half the Dutch population and half the Moroccan and Turkish minorities stated that the Western lifestyle cannot be reconciled with that of Muslims.{{Cite web|url=https://www.scp.nl/Publicaties/Alle_publicaties/Publicaties_2005/Jaarrapport_Integratie_2005|title=Jaarrapport Integratie 2005 - SCP Summary|website=www.scp.nl|pages=1–2|language=nl|access-date=2018-09-15|archive-date=2018-09-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916022710/https://www.scp.nl/Publicaties/Alle_publicaties/Publicaties_2005/Jaarrapport_Integratie_2005|url-status=dead}}

A 2015 poll by the Polish Centre for Public Opinion Research found that 44% of Poles have a negative attitude towards Muslims, with only 23% having a positive attitude towards them. Furthermore, a majority agreed with statements like "Muslims are intolerant of customs and values other than their own." (64% agreed, 12% disagreed), "Muslims living in Western European countries generally do not acquire customs and values that are characteristic for the majority of the population of that country." (63% agreed, 14% disagreed), "Islam encourages violence more than other religions." (51% agreed, 24% disagreed).{{cite web|url=http://cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2015/K_037_15.PDF |title=Postawy wobec Islamu i Muzułmanów |date=March 2015 |publisher= CBOS |work=Michał Feliksiak|language=pl}}

A February 2017 poll of 10,000 people in 10 European countries by Chatham House found on average a majority were opposed to further Muslim immigration, with opposition especially pronounced in Austria, Poland, Hungary, France and Belgium. Of the respondents, 55% were opposed, 20% offered no opinion and 25% were in favour of further immigration from Muslim-majority countries. The authors of the study add that these countries, except Poland, had in the preceding years suffered jihadist terror attacks or been at the centre of a refugee crisis. They also mention that in most of the polled countries the radical right has political influence.{{Cite news|url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/expert/comment/what-do-europeans-think-about-muslim-immigration|title=What Do Europeans Think About Muslim Immigration?|work=Chatham House|access-date=2018-09-28|language=en|quote=With the exception of Poland, these countries have either been at the centre of the refugee crisis or experienced terrorist attacks in recent years.}}

According to a study in 2018 by Leipzig University, 56% of Germans sometimes thought the many Muslims made them feel like strangers in their own country, up from 43% in 2014. In 2018, 44% thought immigration by Muslims should be banned, up from 37% in 2014.{{Cite news|url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/auslaenderfeindlichkeit-muslime-studie-rechtsextremismus-1.4199261|title=Die Deutschen werden immer intoleranter|last1=Lipkowski|first1=Clara|date=2018-11-07|work=sueddeutsche.de|access-date=2018-11-17|last2=(Grafik)|first2=Markus C. Schulte von Drach|language=de|issn=0174-4917}}

Based off U.S. State Department records in 2013, there were about 226 Anti-Muslim attacks in France, which was more than an 11% increase from the year previous. Examples of the attacks included a bomb in an Arab restaurant, and grenades thrown at mosques. In more recent years, the aftermath of terrorist attacks in France have led to huge amounts of anti-Islamic rhetoric and increasing amounts of hate crimes.{{Cite journal |last=Abdelkader |first=Engy |date=2017 |title=A Comparative Analysis of European Islamophobia: France, UK, Germany, Netherlands, and Sweden |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/870099f4 |journal=UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law |volume=16 |pages=31–54|doi=10.5070/N4161038735 |doi-access=free }} The French government has also acted upon the Muslim population of France in recent years, with the lower house passing an anti-radicalism bill and increasing checks in places of worship.{{Cite web |date=2021-02-16 |title=France passes anti-radicalism bill that worries Muslims |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/france-passes-anti-radicalism-bill-that-worries-muslims |access-date=2022-04-01 |website=PBS NewsHour |language=en-us}}{{Cite web |last=Aslan |first=Dilara |date=2022-01-05 |title=France may spread Islamophobia at rotating helm of EU: Experts |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/news-analysis/france-may-spread-islamophobia-at-rotating-helm-of-eu-experts |access-date=2022-04-01 |website=Daily Sabah |language=en-US}}{{Cite magazine |title=France's Treatment of Its Muslim Citizens Is the True Measure of Its Republican Values |url=https://time.com/5918657/frances-muslim-citizens-republican-values/ |access-date=2022-04-01 |magazine=Time |language=en}}

As of October 2023, Slovakia is the only EU member state that does not have a mosque due legislation that has barred Islam from gaining state recognition.{{cite news |date=2023-10-01 |title=Anti-Islam, Pro-Putin firebrand Robert Fico's party wins Slovak elections |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/anti-islam-pro-putin-firebrand-robert-fico-wins-slovak-vote |work=The New Arab |access-date=2023-10-10}}

Research indicates that factors such as background, religiosity, and perceived discrimination among others, contribute to approximately 40% of the employment gap between Muslims and non-Muslims. Additionally, perceived group discrimination is closely linked to higher unemployment rates among second-generation Muslims.{{cite journal |last1=Connor |first1=Phillip |last2=Koenig |first2=Matthias |title=Explaining the Muslim employment gap in Western Europe: Individual-level effects and ethno-religious penalties |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0049089X14001562#:~:text=Muslims%20are%20less%20likely%20to,unemployment%20among%20second%2Dgeneration%20Muslims. |journal=Social Science Research |publisher=Pew Research Center, United States |access-date=September 5, 2024 |date=August 5, 2014|volume=49 |pages=191–201 |doi=10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.08.001 |pmid=25432613 }} According to a WZB report, Muslims in Europe generally have higher levels of unemployment due to language barriers, weak social ties, and restrictive gender roles. Discrimination from employers caused a small part of the unemployment.{{Cite web|url=https://www.wzb.eu/en/node/42814|title=Muslime auf dem Arbeitsmarkt {{!}} WZB|website=www.wzb.eu|date=21 March 2016 |language=en|access-date=2018-09-20}}

A recent study found that poor employment outcomes for Muslims in Britain are not due to sociocultural attitudes or religious practices but are linked to significant Islamophobic discrimination. The research, based on data from the UK Household Longitudinal Study, revealed that factors like religiosity and gender attitudes have minimal impact on the employment gap. Instead, perceived Muslimness and country of origin play a more significant role, highlighting the need to address multidimensional Islamophobia to reduce these disparities.{{cite web |date=July 17, 2024 |title=Muslims' high unemployment rate 'not due to cultural and religious practices' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2022/jul/17/muslims-high-unemployment-rates-not-due-to-cultural-and-religious-practices |access-date=September 5, 2024 |website=The Guardian}}{{cite web |last1=Sweida-Metwally |first1=Samir |title=Muslims' high unemployment rate 'not due to cultural and religious practices' |url=https://www.understandingsociety.ac.uk/research/publications/publication-547343/ |website=Understanding Society – The UK Household Longitudinal Study |access-date=September 5, 2024 |date=July 17, 2022}}

{{Portal|Islam|Europe}}

{{Islam by country}}

• A Common Word Between Us and You
• Antemurale Christianitatis
• Early Muslim conquests
• Eurabia conspiracy theory
• History of Islam
• Islam and other religions
• Islam by country
• Islamic culture
• Islamic dress in Europe
• Islamic extremism
• Islamic feminism
• Islamic fundamentalism
• Islamic terrorism
• Islamic terrorism in Europe
• Islamism
• Islamophobia
• List of mosques in Europe
• Ottoman wars in Europe
• Persecution of Muslims
• Turks in Europe
• Catholic–Muslim Forum
• European Council for Fatwa and Research
• Muslim Council for Cooperation in Europe

{{clear}}

{{notelist}}

{{Reflist|30em}}

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• [http://ssrn.com/abstract=1574982 For Muslim Minorities, it is Possible to Endorse Political Liberalism, But This is not Enough]
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{{Islam in Europe}}

{{European Muslims}}

Category:Religion in Europe