James Cook#Third voyage (1776–79)
{{Short description|British explorer and naval officer (1728–1779)}}
{{Redirect|Captain Cook|other uses|Captain Cook (disambiguation)|and|James Cook (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = James Cook
| honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|FRS|country=GBR|size=100%}}
| image = Captainjamescookportrait.jpg
| caption = Portrait of James Cook by Nathaniel Dance-Holland, {{circa|1775}}
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1728|11|7}}
| birth_place = Marton, Yorkshire, England
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|1779|2|14|1728|11|7}}
| death_place = Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii
| death_cause =
| education = Postgate School, Great Ayton
| occupation = Explorer, cartographer and naval officer
| spouse = {{marriage|Elizabeth Batts|21 December 1762}}
| children = 6
| signature = James Cook Signature.svg
| module = {{Infobox military person
| embed = yes
| branch_label = Branch
| branch = Royal Navy
| serviceyears_label = Service years
| serviceyears = 1755–1779
| rank = Captain (Post-captain)
| battles = {{tree list}}
{{tree list/end}}
}}
}}
Captain James Cook {{postnominals|FRS|country=GBR}} ({{OldStyleDate|7 November|1728|27 October}} – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, cartographer, and naval officer famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 to the Pacific and Southern Oceans. He completed the first recorded circumnavigation of the main islands of New Zealand and was the first known European to visit the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands.
Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755. He served during the Seven Years' War and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the St. Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. In the 1760s he mapped the coastline of Newfoundland and made astronomical observations there which brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and the Royal Society. This acclaim came at a crucial moment for the direction of British overseas exploration, and it led to his commission in 1768 as commander of {{ship|HMS|Endeavour}} for the first of three Pacific voyages.
In these voyages, Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped coastlines, islands and features from New Holland to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail and on a scale not previously charted by Western explorers. He made contact with numerous indigenous peoples and claimed various territories for Britain. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions.
In 1779, on his second visit to Hawaii, he was killed when a dispute with indigenous Hawaiians turned violent. Cook left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge that influenced his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. He remains controversial for his occasionally violent encounters with indigenous peoples and there is debate on whether he can be held responsible for paving the way for British imperialism and colonialism.
Early life and family
James Cook was born on {{OldStyleDate|7 November|1728|27 October}} in the village of Marton in the North Riding of Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November (N.S.) in the parish church of St Cuthbert where his name can be seen in the church register.{{harvnb|Robson|2009|p=2.}} He was the second of eight children of James Cook (1693–1779), a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, and his locally born wife, Grace Pace (1702–1765), from Thornaby-on-Tees.{{harvnb|Rigby|van der Merwe|2002|p=25.}}{{harvnb|Stamp|1978|p=1.}}{{Sfn|Collingridge|2003|pp=13–15}} In 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his father's employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years of schooling, he began work for his father who had been promoted to farm manager. Despite not being formally educated, he became capable in mathematics, astronomy and charting by the time of his Endeavour voyage.{{cite book |first=Alan |last=Frost |title=Mutiny, Mayhem, Mythology: Bounty's Enigmatic Voyage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nxBzDwAAQBAJ |date=19 October 2018 |publisher=Sydney University Press |isbn=978-1-74332-587-2 |page=255 |access-date=4 December 2018 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803163945/https://books.google.com/books?id=nxBzDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} For leisure, he would climb a nearby hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude.{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|p=15.}}
In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved {{convert|20|mi|km}} to the fishing village of Staithes to be apprenticed as a shop boy to grocer and haberdasher William Sanderson. Historian Vanessa Collingridge speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window.{{Sfn|Collingridge|2003|pp=31–33}}
File:Elizabeth Batts Cook.jpg, wife and for 56 years widow of James Cook, by William Henderson, 1830]]
After 18 months, not proving suited for shop work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to Sanderson's friends John and Henry Walker. The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade.{{sfn|Horwitz|2003|pp=305-309}}{{Sfn|Collingridge|2003|pp=33–35}} Their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum.{{cite web |title=Captain Cook Memorial Museum |url=https://artuk.org/visit/venues/captain-cook-memorial-museum-3247 |url-status= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104215753/https://artuk.org/visit/venues/captain-cook-memorial-museum-3247 |archive-date=4 January 2024 |access-date=28 December 2024 |website=Art UK}} Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels, plying coal along the English coast. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and astronomy – all skills he would need one day to command his own ship.{{Sfn|Collingridge|2003|pp=34–36}}
His three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on merchant ships in the Baltic Sea. After passing his examinations in 1752, he soon progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his promotion in that year to mate aboard the collier brig Friendship.{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=11.}} In 1755, within a month of being offered command of this vessel, he volunteered for service in the Royal Navy, when Britain was re-arming for what was to become the Seven Years' War. Despite the need to start back at the bottom of the naval hierarchy, Cook realised his career would advance more quickly in military service and entered the Navy at Wapping on 17 June 1755.{{harvnb|Rigby|van der Merwe|2002|p=27.}}
On 21 December 1762, Cook married Elizabeth Batts, the daughter of Samuel Batts{{snd}}keeper of the Bell Inn in Wapping and one of Cook's mentors{{snd}}at St Margaret's Church, Barking, Essex.{{harvnb|Robson|2009|pp=120–121.}}{{cite web |url=http://www.lbbd.gov.uk/MuseumsAndHeritage/LocalHistoryResources/Documents/Infosheet22JamesCookDickTurpin.pdf |title=Famous 18th century people in Barking and Dagenham: James Cook and Dick Turpin |publisher=London Borough of Barking and Dagenham |access-date=5 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605124552/http://www.lbbd.gov.uk/MuseumsAndHeritage/LocalHistoryResources/Documents/Infosheet22JamesCookDickTurpin.pdf |archive-date=5 June 2012}}{{efn|At time of the marriage, Cook was 34 and Elizabeth was 20.}} The couple had six children: James (1763–1794), Nathaniel (1764–1780, lost aboard {{HMS|Thunderer|1760|6}} which foundered with all hands in a hurricane in the West Indies), Elizabeth (1767–1771), Joseph (1768–1768), George (1772–1772) and Hugh (1776–1793, who died of scarlet fever while a student at Christ's College, Cambridge). When not at sea, Cook lived in the East End of London. He attended St Paul's Church, Shadwell, where his son James was baptised. Cook has no direct descendants – all of his children died before having children of their own.{{harvnb|Stamp|1978|p=138.}}
Sir Walter Besant, a biographer of Cook, described Cook as being "over six feet high" with "dark brown hair", "bushy eyebrows", and "small brown eyes".{{cite web |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/1966/cook-james/page-2 |title=Features and appearance of Cook |publisher=Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |access-date=31 July 2024}}
Start of Royal Navy career
{{Further|Great Britain in the Seven Years' War}}
Cook's first posting was with {{HMS|Eagle|1745|6}}, serving as able seaman and master's mate under Captain Joseph Hamar for his first year aboard, and Captain Hugh Palliser thereafter.{{harvnb|Robson|2009|pp=19–25.}} In October and November 1755, he took part in Eagle's capture of one French warship and the sinking of another, following which he was promoted to boatswain in addition to his other duties. His first temporary command was in March 1756 when he was briefly master of Cruizer, a small cutter attached to Eagle while on patrol.{{harvnb|McLynn|2011|p=21.}}
In June 1757, Cook formally passed his master's examinations at Trinity House, Deptford, qualifying him to navigate and handle a ship of the King's fleet.{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/captaincook_01.shtml |title=Captain Cook: Explorer, Navigator and Pioneer |first=Glyn |last=Williams |date=17 February 2011 |access-date=5 September 2011 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=19 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819202628/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/captaincook_01.shtml |url-status=live}} He then joined the frigate HMS Solebay as master under Captain Robert Craig.{{cite web |url=http://www.captaincooksociety.com/ccsu62.htm |work=Life in the Royal Navy (1755–1767) |title=The Captain Cook Society: Cook's Log |first=Paul |last=Capper |date=1985–1996 |access-date=22 September 2011 |archive-date=21 July 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120721084524/http://www.captaincooksociety.com/ccsu62.htm |url-status=dead}}
=Canada=
During the Seven Years' War, Cook served in North America as master aboard the fourth-rate Navy vessel {{HMS|Pembroke|1757|6}}.{{Harvnb|Kemp|Dear|2005}}{{Page needed|date=December 2024}} With others in Pembroke{{'}}s crew, he took part in the major amphibious assault that captured the Fortress of Louisbourg from the French in 1758, and in the siege of Quebec City in 1759. Throughout his service he demonstrated a talent for surveying and cartography and was responsible for mapping much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege, thus allowing General Wolfe to make his famous stealth attack during the 1759 Battle of the Plains of Abraham.{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=19.}}
Cook's surveying ability was also put to use in mapping the jagged coast of Newfoundland in the 1760s, aboard {{HMS|Grenville|1754|6}}. He surveyed the northwest stretch in 1763 and 1764, the south coast between the Burin Peninsula and Cape Ray in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767. At this time, Cook employed local pilots to point out the "rocks and hidden dangers" along the south and west coasts. During the 1765 season, four pilots were engaged at a daily pay of 4 shillings each: John Beck for the coast west of "Great St Lawrence", Morgan Snook for Fortune Bay, John Dawson for Connaigre and Hermitage Bay, and John Peck for the "Bay of Despair".{{cite web |url=http://collections.mun.ca/PDFs/cns/JamesCookInNewfoundland1762_1767.pdf |title=James Cook in Newfoundland 1762–1767 |first=William |last=Whiteley |year=1975 |access-date=27 August 2012 |work=Newfoundland Historical Society Pamphlet Number 3 |archive-date=13 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513194810/http://collections.mun.ca/PDFs/cns/JamesCookInNewfoundland1762_1767.pdf |url-status=dead}}
While in Newfoundland, Cook also conducted astronomical observations, in particular of the eclipse of the sun on 5 August 1766. By obtaining an accurate estimate of the time of the start and finish of the eclipse, and comparing these with the timings at a known position in England, it was possible to calculate the longitude of the observation site in Newfoundland. This result was communicated to the Royal Society in 1767.{{cite journal |first1=James |last1=Cook |first2=J. |last2=Bevis |title=An Observation of an Eclipse of the Sun at the Island of New-Found-Land, August 5, 1766, by Mr. James Cook, with the Longitude of the Place of Observation Deduced from It |date=1 January 1767 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |volume=57 |pages=215–216 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1767.0025 |url=https://archive.org/details/philtrans04718464 |doi-access=free |issn=0261-0523}}
His five seasons in Newfoundland produced the first large-scale and accurate maps of the island's coasts and were the first scientific, large-scale, hydrographic surveys to use precise triangulation to establish land outlines.{{cite web |url=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Captain_Cook_Monument_Corner_Brook.jpg |work=Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada |title=Captain James Cook R. N. |last=Government of Canada |year=2012 |access-date=2 November 2012 |archive-date=8 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108021300/http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Captain_Cook_Monument_Corner_Brook.jpg |url-status=live}} They also gave Cook his mastery of practical surveying, achieved under often adverse conditions, and brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society at a crucial moment both in his career and in the direction of British overseas discovery. Cook's maps were used into the 20th century, with copies being referenced by those sailing Newfoundland's waters for 200 years.{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=32.}}
First voyage (1768–1771)
{{Main|First voyage of James Cook}}
On 25 May 1768, the Admiralty commissioned Cook to command a scientific voyage to the Pacific Ocean.{{harvnb|Kippis|1788}}. Chapter 2: "Mr. Cook was appointed to the command of the expedition by the lords of the Admiralty; and, on this occasion, he was promoted to the rank of a lieutenant in the royal navy, his commission bearing date on the 25th of May, 1768." The purpose of the voyage was to observe and record the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun which, when combined with observations from other places, would help to determine the distance of the Earth from the Sun.{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|p=95.}} Cook, at age 39, was promoted to lieutenant to grant him sufficient status to take the command.{{harvnb|Rigby|van der Merwe|2002|p=30.}}{{Sfn|Beazley|1911|p=71}} For its part, the Royal Society agreed that Cook would receive a one hundred guinea gratuity, equivalent to {{GBP|{{Inflation|UK-GDP|{{£sd |g=100}}|1768|r=0}}|link=yes}} in {{Inflation/year|UK}}, in addition to his Naval pay.{{sfn|Beaglehole|1968|p=cix}}
The expedition sailed aboard {{HMS|Endeavour||6}}, departing England on 26 August 1768.{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article16774546 |title=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=2 May 1931 |access-date=4 September 2012 |page=12 |publisher=National Library of Australia |archive-date=12 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312061305/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/16774546 |url-status=live}} Cook and his crew rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific, arriving at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the observations of the transit were made.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/cook_captain_james.shtml |work=BBC |title=History – Captain James Cook |access-date=31 July 2017 |archive-date=16 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016100346/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/cook_captain_james.shtml |url-status=live}} However, the result of the observations was not as conclusive or accurate as had been hoped. Once the observations were completed, Cook opened the sealed orders, which were additional instructions from the Admiralty for the second part of his voyage: to search the south Pacific for signs of the postulated rich southern continent of Terra Australis Incognita.{{cite web |title=Secret Instructions to Captain Cook, 30 June 1768 |publisher=National Archives of Australia |url=http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/nsw1_doc_1768.pdf |access-date=3 September 2011 |archive-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200427203030/https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/nsw1_doc_1768.pdf |url-status=live}}
Cook then sailed to New Zealand where he mapped the complete coastline, making only some minor errors. With the aid of Tupaia, a Tahitian priest who had joined the expedition, Cook was the first European to communicate with the Māori.{{cite book |last=Salmond |first=Anne |title=Two worlds: first meetings between Māori and Europeans, 1642–1772 |date=1991 |publisher=Viking |isbn=0-670-83298-7 |location=Auckland, New Zealand |oclc=26545658}} However, at least eight Māori were killed in violent encounters.{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=198–200, 202, 205–207.}} Cook then voyaged west, reaching the southeastern coast of Australia near today's Point Hicks on 19 April 1770,{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|pp=226–228.}}{{efn|At this time, the International Date Line had yet to be established, so the dates in Cook's journal are a day earlier than those accepted today.}} and in doing so his expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline.{{cite web |date=18 July 2018 |title=Queensland's history—pre 1700s |url=https://www.qld.gov.au/about/about-queensland/history/timeline/pre-1700s |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615052433/https://www.qld.gov.au/about/about-queensland/history/timeline/pre-1700s |archive-date=15 June 2024 |access-date=29 December 2024 |website=Queensland Government}}File:Cook's landing at Botany Bay.jpg (Kamay)]]On 23 April, he made his first recorded direct observation of Aboriginal Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point, noting in his journal: "... and were so near the Shore as to distinguish several people upon the Sea beach they appear'd to be of a very dark or black Colour but whether this was the real colour of their skins or the C[l]othes they might have on I know not."{{cite web |url=http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700422.html |title=Cook's Journal: Daily Entries, 22 April 1770 |access-date=21 September 2011 |archive-date=27 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927080037/http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700422.html |url-status=live}}
Endeavour continued northwards along the coastline, keeping the land in sight with Cook charting and naming landmarks as he went. On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the continent at a beach now known as Silver Beach on Botany Bay (Kamay Botany Bay National Park). Two Gweagal men of the Dharawal / Eora nation opposed their landing and in the confrontation one of them was shot and wounded.{{cite web |title=Voices heard but not understood |url=https://www.gujaga.org.au/stories/voices-heard-but-not-understood |access-date=28 May 2022 |website=Gujaga Foundation |date=29 April 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308075129/https://www.gujaga.org.au/stories/voices-heard-but-not-understood |url-status=live}}{{cite web |title=Cook's Journal: Daily Entries, 29 April 1770 |url=http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700429.html |access-date=25 October 2019 |website=southseas.nla.gov.au |publisher=South Seas |archive-date=8 April 2011 |archive-url=https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20110408181719/http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700429.html |url-status=live}}{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=141–43.}}
Cook and his crew stayed at Botany Bay for a week, collecting water, timber, fodder and botanical specimens and exploring the surrounding area. Cook sought to establish relations with the Indigenous population without success.{{Cite book
|last=FitzSimons
|first=Peter
|title=James Cook: the story behind the man who mapped the world
|date=2019
|publisher=Hachette Australia
|isbn=978-0-7336-4127-5
|location=Sydney
|pages=304–306
|oclc=1109734011
}}{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=146–157.}} At first Cook named the inlet "Sting-Ray Harbour" after the many stingrays found there. This was later changed to "Botanist Bay" and finally "Botany Bay", after the unique specimens retrieved by the botanists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander.{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|p=230.}} This first landing site was later to be promoted (particularly by Joseph Banks) as a suitable candidate for situating a settlement and British colonial outpost.{{harvnb|Blainey |2020|p=287.}}File:Endeavour replica in Cooktown harbour.jpg in Cooktown, Queensland harbour – anchored where the original Endeavour was beached for seven weeks in 1770|204x204px]]After his departure from Botany Bay, he continued northwards. He stopped at Bustard Bay (now known as Seventeen Seventy) on 23 May 1770. On 24 May, Cook and Banks and others went ashore. Continuing north, on 11 June a mishap occurred when Endeavour ran aground on a shoal of the Great Barrier Reef, and then "nursed into a river mouth on 18 June 1770".{{harvnb|Robson|2004|p=81.}} The ship was badly damaged, and his voyage was delayed almost seven weeks while repairs were carried out on the beach (near the docks of modern Cooktown, Queensland, at the mouth of the Endeavour River).{{Harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=195-197, 227.}} The crew's encounters with the local Aboriginal people were mostly peaceful, although following a dispute over green turtles Cook ordered shots to be fired and one local was lightly wounded.{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|pp=220–221.}}
The voyage then continued and at about midday on 22 August 1770, they reached the northernmost tip of the coast and, without leaving the ship, Cook named it York Cape (now Cape York).{{Cite web |last=Cook |first=James |date=21 August 1770 |title=Cook's Journal: Daily Entries |url=http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700821.html |access-date=28 August 2020 |website=National Library of Australia |archive-date=31 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031092849/http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700821.html |url-status=live}} Leaving the east coast, Cook turned west and nursed his battered ship through the dangerously shallow waters of Torres Strait. Searching for a vantage point, Cook saw a steep hill on a nearby island from the top of which he hoped to see "a passage into the Indian Seas". Cook named the island Possession Island, where he claimed the entire coastline that he had just explored as British territory.Cook, James, Journal of the HMS Endeavour, 1768–1771, National Library of Australia, Manuscripts Collection, MS 1, 22 August 1770
=Return to England=
Cook returned to England via Batavia (modern Jakarta, Indonesia), where he put in for repairs. While in Batavia, seven of his crew died from malaria, and 40 were sickened.{{sfn|Edwards|2003|p=189}} From Batavia, he sailed to the Cape of Good Hope, then to the island of Saint Helena, arriving on 30 April 1771.{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1968|p=468.}} The ship finally returned to England on 12 July 1771, anchoring in the Downs, and Cook disembarked to go to the town of Deal in Kent.{{cite web |url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/home/detail/the-first-voyage-1768-1771 |title=The First Voyage (1768–1771) |publisher=The Captain Cook Society (CCS) |access-date=24 July 2019 |archive-date=3 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403121441/https://www.captaincooksociety.com/home/detail/the-first-voyage-1768-1771 |url-status=live}} They had been sailing for 1,050 days.{{efn|Departure 26 August 1768; return 12 July 1771.}}
=Interlude=
Cook's journals were published upon his return, and he became something of a hero among the scientific community. Among the general public, however, the aristocratic botanist Joseph Banks was a greater hero.{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003}}{{Page needed|date=December 2024}} Banks even attempted to take command of Cook's second voyage but removed himself from the voyage before it began, and Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Georg Forster were taken on as scientists for the voyage. Cook's son George was born five days before he left for his second voyage.{{cite web |url=http://britain.docuwat.ch/videos/empire/captain-cook-obsession-discovery-part-1-of-4 |title=Captain Cook: Obsession & Discovery. (Part 2 of 4) – Britain on DocuWatch – free streaming British history documentaries |year=2011 |access-date=5 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130407143428/http://britain.docuwat.ch/videos/empire/captain-cook-obsession-discovery-part-1-of-4 |archive-date=7 April 2013}}
Second voyage (1772–1775)
{{Main|Second voyage of James Cook}}
File:James Cook's portrait by William Hodges.jpg, who accompanied Cook on his second voyage]]
Shortly after his return from the first voyage, Cook was promoted in August 1771 to the rank of commander.{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=180.}}{{harvnb|McLynn|2011|p=167.}} In 1772, he was commissioned to lead another scientific expedition on behalf of the Royal Society, to search for the hypothetical Terra Australis. On his first voyage, Cook had demonstrated by circumnavigating New Zealand that it was not attached to a larger landmass to the south. Although he charted almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia, showing it to be continental in size, the Terra Australis was believed to lie further south. Despite this evidence to the contrary, Alexander Dalrymple and others of the Royal Society still believed that a massive southern continent should exist.{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=182.}}
Cook commanded {{HMS|Resolution|1771|6}} on this voyage, while Tobias Furneaux commanded its companion ship, {{HMS|Adventure|1771|6}}. Cook's expedition circumnavigated the globe at extreme southern latitudes, and on 17 January 1773 they became the first recorded Europeans to cross the Antarctic Circle.{{cite web
|title=Exploring Antarctica - a timeline
|publisher=Royal Museums Greenwich
|url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/maritime-history/history-antarctic-explorers
|access-date=23 May 2025
}} Despite his mission to find Terra Australis, Cook never saw Antarctica; but on 18 January{{snd}}unbeknownst to him{{snd}}his ships approached within 75 miles.{{sfn|Hough|1994|p=204}} In the Antarctic fog, Resolution and Adventure became separated. Furneaux made his way to New Zealand, where he lost some of his men during an encounter with Māori, and eventually sailed back to Britain.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=229-234, 249}} Cook continued to explore the Antarctic, reaching 71°10'S on 31 January 1774. When he reached that southernmost point, Cook wrote in his private diary: "I whose ambition leads me not only farther than any other man has been before me, but as far as I think it possible for man to go...".{{cite web
|url=https://diariesofnote.com/2023/01/30/farther-than-any-other-man-has-been-before-me/
|access-date=22 May 2025
|publisher=Diaries of Note
|title=James Cook: Farther than any other man has been before me
}} Diary entry 30 January 1774.
File:James Cook, English navigator, witnessing human sacrifice in Taihiti (Otaheite) c. 1773.jpg {{circa|1773}}]]
Although Cook had almost encountered the mainland of Antarctica, he was forced to turned towards Tahiti to resupply his ship. He then resumed his southward course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent. On this leg of the voyage, while on the island of Huahine, the expedition picked up a young Ra'iatean named Omai, who had asked Furneaux to take him to Britain.{{sfn|Hough|1994|p=226}} Omai proved to be somewhat less knowledgeable about the Pacific than Tupaia had been on the first voyage.{{cn|date=May 2025}} On his return voyage to New Zealand in 1774, Cook landed at the Friendly Islands, Easter Island, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and Vanuatu.{{sfn|Hough|1994|pp=227-242}}
=Return to England=
Before returning to England, Cook made a final sweep across the South Atlantic from Cape Horn and surveyed, mapped, and took possession for Britain of South Georgia, which had been explored by the English merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675. Cook also discovered and named Clerke Rocks and the South Sandwich Islands ("Sandwich Land"). He then turned north to South Africa and from there continued back to England. His reports upon his return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis.{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=263.}}
File:Cook-1777.jpg, which he named after King George III]]
Cook's second voyage marked a successful employment of Larcum Kendall's K1 copy of John Harrison's H4 marine chronometer, which enabled Cook to calculate his longitudinal position with much greater accuracy. Cook's log was full of praise for this time-piece which he used to make charts of the southern Pacific Ocean that were so remarkably accurate that copies of them were still in use in the mid-20th century.{{cite web |url=http://www.nmm.ac.uk/upload/package/30/links-cook.php |title=Captain James Cook: His voyages of exploration and the men that accompanied him |publisher=National Maritime Museum |access-date=10 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070421232853/http://www.nmm.ac.uk/upload/package/30/links-cook.php |archive-date=21 April 2007}}
=Interlude=
Upon his return, Cook was promoted to the rank of post-captain and given an honorary retirement from the Royal Navy, with a posting as an officer of the Greenwich Hospital. He reluctantly accepted, insisting that he be allowed to quit the post if an opportunity for active duty should arise.{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1974|p=444.}} His fame extended beyond the Admiralty; he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society and awarded the Copley Gold Medal for completing his second voyage without losing a man to scurvy.{{harvnb|Rigby|van der Merwe|2002|p=79.}} Nathaniel Dance-Holland painted his portrait; he dined with James Boswell; he was described in the House of Lords as "the first navigator in Europe". But he could not be kept away from the sea. A third voyage was planned, and Cook volunteered to find the Northwest Passage. He travelled to the Pacific and hoped to travel east to the Atlantic, while a simultaneous voyage travelled the opposite route.{{harvnb|Hough|1994|p=268.}}
Third voyage (1776–1779)
{{Main|Third voyage of James Cook}}
=Hawaii=
On his last voyage, Cook again commanded HMS Resolution, while Captain Charles Clerke commanded {{HMS|Discovery|1774|6}}. The voyage was ostensibly planned to return the Pacific Islander Omai to Tahiti, or so the public was led to believe. The trip's principal goal was to locate a Northwest Passage around the American continent.{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|p=327.}} After dropping Omai at Tahiti, Cook travelled north and in 1778 became the first European to begin formal contact with the Hawaiian Islands.{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|p=380.}} After his initial landfall in January 1778 at Waimea harbour, Kauai, Cook named the archipelago the "Sandwich Islands" after the fourth Earl of Sandwich—the acting First Lord of the Admiralty.
=North America=
From the Sandwich Islands, Cook sailed north and then northeast to explore the west coast of North America north of the Spanish settlements in Alta California. He sighted the Oregon coast at approximately 44°30′ north latitude, naming Cape Foulweather, after the bad weather which forced his ships south to about 43° north before they could begin their exploration of the coast northward.{{harvnb|Hayes|1999|pp=42–43.}} He unknowingly sailed past the Strait of Juan de Fuca and soon after entered Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island. He anchored near the First Nations village of Yuquot. Cook's two ships remained in Nootka Sound from 29 March to 26 April 1778, in what Cook called Ship Cove, now Resolution Cove,{{cite bcgnis|18990|Resolution Cove |access-date=6 March 2013}} at the south end of Bligh Island. Relations between Cook's crew and the people of Yuquot were cordial but sometimes strained. In trading, the people of Yuquot demanded much more valuable items than the usual trinkets that had been acceptable in Hawaii. Metal objects were much desired, but the lead, pewter, and tin traded at first soon fell into disrepute. The most valuable items which the British received in trade were sea otter pelts. During the stay, the Yuquot "hosts" essentially controlled the trade with the British vessels; the natives usually visited the British vessels at Resolution Cove instead of the British visiting the village of Yuquot at Friendly Cove.{{Harvnb|Fisher|1979}}
After leaving Nootka Sound in search of the Northwest Passage, Cook explored and mapped the coast all the way to the Bering Strait, on the way identifying what came to be known as Cook Inlet in Alaska. In a single visit, Cook charted the majority of the North American northwest coastline on world maps for the first time, determined the extent of Alaska, and closed the gaps in Russian (from the west) and Spanish (from the south) exploratory probes of the northern limits of the Pacific.
File:John Cleveley the Younger, Views of the South Seas (No. 3 of 4).jpg
By the second week of August 1778, Cook was through the Bering Strait, sailing into the Chukchi Sea. He headed northeast up the coast of Alaska until he was blocked by sea ice at a latitude of 70°44′ north. Cook then sailed west to the Siberian coast, and then southeast down the Siberian coast back to the Bering Strait. By early September 1778, he was back in the Bering Sea to begin the trip to the Sandwich (Hawaiian) Islands.{{harvnb|Beaglehole|1968|pp=615–623.}} He became increasingly frustrated on this voyage and perhaps began to suffer from a stomach ailment; it has been speculated that this led to irrational behaviour towards his crew, such as forcing them to eat walrus meat, which they had pronounced inedible.{{harvnb|Obeyesekere|1992|p=42.}}
=Return to Hawaii=
Cook returned to Hawaii in 1779. After sailing around the archipelago for some eight weeks, he made landfall at Kealakekua Bay on Hawai'i Island, the largest island in the Hawaiian Archipelago. Cook's arrival coincided with the Makahiki, a Hawaiian harvest festival of worship for the Polynesian god Lono. Coincidentally the form of Cook's ship, HMS Resolution, or more particularly the mast formation, sails and rigging, resembled certain significant artefacts that formed part of the season of worship.{{harvnb|Obeyesekere|1992|p=61.}} Similarly, Cook's clockwise route around the island of Hawaii before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals. It has been argued (most extensively by Marshall Sahlins) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook's (and to a limited extent, his crew's) initial deification by some Hawaiians who treated Cook as an incarnation of Lono.{{harvnb|Sahlins|1985}} Though this view was first suggested by members of Cook's expedition, the idea that any Hawaiians understood Cook to be Lono, and the evidence presented in support of it, was challenged in 1992 by Gananath Obeyesekere in the so-called Sahlins–Obeyesekere debate.{{harvnb|Obeyesekere|1992|pp=197-250.}}
=Death=
{{Main|Death of James Cook}}
After a month's stay, Cook attempted to resume his exploration of the northern Pacific. Shortly after leaving Hawaii Island, Resolution{{'}}s foremast broke, so the ships returned to Kealakekua Bay for repairs.{{cn|date=February 2024}}
Tensions rose, and quarrels broke out between the Europeans and Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay, including taking wood from a marae under Cook's orders.{{sfn|Sparks|1847|pp=135–139}} On 13 February 1779, an unknown group of Hawaiians stole one of Cook's cutters.{{Sfnm|1a1=Beazley|1y=1911|1p=72|2a1=Sahlins|2y=2012|2p=336}} By then the Hawaiian people had become "insolent", even with threats to fire upon them.{{harvnb|Obeyesekere|1992|p=177.}} Cook responded to the theft by attempting to kidnap and ransom the Aliʻi nui (King) of Hawaii, Kalaniʻōpuʻu.{{Sfnm|1a1=Beazley|1y=1911|1p=72|2a1=Sahlins|2y=2012|2p=336}}
The following day, 14 February 1779, Cook and a small party marched through the village to retrieve the king.{{sfnm|1a1=Obeyesekere|1y=1992|1p=107|2a1=Collingridge|2y=2003|2pp=408–409}} Cook led Kalaniʻōpuʻu away; as they got to the boats, one of Kalaniʻōpuʻu's favourite wives, Kānekapōlei, and two chiefs approached the group. They pleaded with the king not to go and a large crowd began to form at the shore.{{harvnb|Obeyesekere|1992|pp=110–111.}} News reached the Hawaiians that on the other side of the bay, high-ranking Hawaiian chief Kalimu had been shot whilst trying to break through a British blockade. This exacerbated the tense situation. As the Europeans launched the boats to leave, Cook was struck on the head by the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the surf.{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|pp=409–410.}} He was first struck on the head with a club by a chief named Kalaimanokahoʻowaha or Kanaʻina (namesake of Charles Kanaʻina) and then stabbed by one of the king's attendants, Nuaa.{{harvnb|Samwell|1791|p=16|ps=. "The principal actors were the other chiefs, many of them the king's relations and attendants: the man who stabbed him with the dagger was called Nooah (Nuaa)... The chief who first struck Captain Cook with the club, was called Karimano-craha (Kalaimanokahoowaha)..."}}; {{harvnb|Dibble|1843|p=61}}. "Among the soldiers sent by Keawemauhili was Kalanimanokahoowaba, the chief who slew Captain Cook."; {{harvnb|Fornander|Stokes|1880|p=193}}. fn. 1. "...from him the late Charles Kanaina, father of the late King Luaalilo, received his name." The Hawaiians carried his body away towards the back of the town, still visible to the ship through their spyglass. Four marines, Corporal James Thomas, Private Theophilus Hinks, Private Thomas Fatchett and Private John Allen, were also killed and two others wounded in the confrontation.{{sfn|Samwell|1791|p=16}}{{cite web |title=Muster for HMS Resolution during the third Pacific voyage, 1776–1780 |url=http://www.captaincooksociety.com/Portals/ccs/Files/Musters/3resolution3muster1.pdf |website=Captain Cook Society |access-date=27 October 2014 |page=20 |date=15 October 2012 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200409/http://www.captaincooksociety.com/Portals/ccs/Files/Musters/3resolution3muster1.pdf |url-status=live}}
=Aftermath=
The esteem which the islanders nevertheless held for Cook caused them to retain his body. Following their practice of the time, they prepared his body with funerary rituals usually reserved for the chiefs and highest elders of the society. The body was disembowelled and baked to facilitate removal of the flesh, and the bones were carefully cleaned for preservation as religious icons in a fashion somewhat reminiscent of the treatment of European saints in the Middle Ages. Some of Cook's remains, thus preserved, were eventually returned to his crew for a formal burial at sea.{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|p=413.}}
Clerke assumed leadership of the expedition and made a final attempt to pass through the Bering Strait.{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|p=412.}} He died of tuberculosis on 22 August 1779 and John Gore, a veteran of Cook's first voyage, took command of Resolution and of the expedition. James King replaced Gore in command of Discovery.{{harvnb|Collingridge|2003|p=423.}} The expedition returned home, reaching England in October 1780. After their arrival in England, King completed Cook's account of the voyage.{{Cite web
|first=Ian
|last=Boreham
|url=http://www.captaincooksociety.com/home/detail/better-conceiv-d-than-describ-d-the-life-and-times-of-captain-james-king-1750-84-captain-cook-s-friend-and-colleague-steve-ragnall-2013
|title=Better Conceiv'd than Describ'd: the life and times of Captain James King (1750–84), Captain Cook's Friend and Colleague. Steve Ragnall. 2013
|publisher=The Captain Cook Society
|access-date=10 October 2017
|archive-date=10 October 2017
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010155340/http://www.captaincooksociety.com/home/detail/better-conceiv-d-than-describ-d-the-life-and-times-of-captain-james-king-1750-84-captain-cook-s-friend-and-colleague-steve-ragnall-2013
|url-status=live}}{{cite book
| title=Better Conceiv'd Than Describ'd: The Life and Times of Captain James King (1750-84), Captain Cook's Friend and Colleague
| last=Ragnall
|first= Steve
| isbn=9781780883595
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EybXLq0w3MwC
| year=2012
| pages=190-195
| publisher=Kibworth Beauchamp
|access-date=23 May 2025
}}
Legacy
=Ethnographic collections=
{{Main|James Cook Collection: Australian Museum}}
File:H000104- Feather Cape.jpg (feather cloak) held by the Australian Museum]]The world's largest collection of artefacts from Cook's voyages is the Cook-Forster Collection held at the University of Göttingen.{{Cite web |last1=Hauser-Schäublin |first1=Brigitta |last2=Krüger |first2=Gundolf |title=Cook-Forster Collection: Pacific cultural heritage |url=https://www.nma.gov.au/explore/features/cook_forster/background/the_collection |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240612021052/https://www.nma.gov.au/explore/features/cook_forster/background/the_collection |archive-date=12 June 2024 |access-date=5 April 2025 |website=National Museum of Australia}}{{efn|The collection is managed by the Göttingen Institute of Cultural and Social Anthropology. [https://www.nma.gov.au/explore/features/cook_forster A photo gallery displaying some of the items].}}
The Australian Museum, Sydney holds over 250 objects associated with Cook's voyages. The objects are mostly from Polynesia although there are also artefacts from the Solomon Islands, North America and South America. Many of the artefacts were collected during first contact between Europeans and indigenous peoples of the Pacific.{{Cite web |last=Florek |first=Stan |date=29 October 2014 |title=Our Global Neighbours: Curious Cook Clubs |url=https://australian.museum/blog-archive/science/our-global-neighbours-curious-cook-clubs/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250404232411/https://australian.museum/blog-archive/science/our-global-neighbours-curious-cook-clubs/ |archive-date=4 April 2025 |access-date=5 April 2025 |website=Australian Museum}}{{cite web |last=Thomsett |first=Sue |title=Cook Collection, History of Acquisition |url=http://collections.australianmuseum.net.au/amweb/pages/am/NarrativeDisplay.php?irn=35&QueryPage=./NarrativeQuery.php |work=Electronic Museum Narrative |publisher=Australian Museum |access-date=9 November 2021 |archive-date=18 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218090450/http://collections.australianmuseum.net.au/amweb/pages/am/NarrativeDisplay.php?irn=35&QueryPage=.%2FNarrativeQuery.php |url-status=live}}
=Navigation and science=
File:Cooks Karte von Neufundland.jpg, made from James Cook's Seven Years' War surveyings]]
Cook's 12 years sailing around the Pacific Ocean contributed much to Europeans' knowledge of the area. Several islands, such as the Hawaiian group, were encountered for the first time by Europeans, and his more accurate navigational charting of large areas of the Pacific was a major achievement.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5AqNKtDqX0C&pg=PA222 |title=A voyage to the Pacific Ocean |via=Google Books |last1=Cook |first1=James |last2=Clerke |first2=Charles |author-link2=Charles Clerke |last3=Gore |first3=John |author-link3=John Gore (Royal Navy captain) |last4=King |first4=James |author-link4=James King (Royal Navy officer) |publisher=W. and A. Strahan |location=London |volume=2 |access-date=8 July 2014 |date=1784 |archive-date=29 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329031811/http://books.google.com/books?id=O5AqNKtDqX0C&pg=PA222 |url-status=live}} To create accurate maps, latitude and longitude must be accurately determined. Navigators had been able to work out latitude accurately for centuries by measuring the angle of the sun or a star above the horizon with an instrument such as a backstaff or quadrant. Longitude was more difficult to measure accurately because it requires precise knowledge of the time difference between points on the surface of the Earth. The Earth turns a full 360 degrees relative to the Sun each day. Thus longitude corresponds to time: 15 degrees every hour, or 1 degree every 4 minutes.{{cn|date=August 2022}} Cook gathered accurate longitude measurements during his first voyage from his navigational skills, with the help of astronomer Charles Green, and by using the newly published Nautical Almanac tables, via the lunar distance method – measuring the angular distance from the Moon to either the Sun during daytime or one of eight bright stars during night-time to determine the time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and comparing that to his local time determined via the altitude of the Sun, Moon, or stars.{{cn|date=February 2024}}
On his second voyage, Cook used the K1 chronometer made by Larcum Kendall, which was the shape of a large pocket watch, {{convert|5|in|cm}} in diameter. It was a copy of the H4 clock made by John Harrison, which proved to be the first to keep accurate time at sea when used on the ship Deptford{{'}}s journey to Jamaica in 1761–62.{{cite web |url=http://dl.nfsa.gov.au/module/1318/ |title=Captain Cook – Cook's Chronometer |work=English and Media Literacy, Documentaries |via=dl.nfsa.gov.au |year=2011 |access-date=8 August 2011 |archive-date=20 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220205340/http://dl.nfsa.gov.au/module/1318/ |url-status=live}} He succeeded in circumnavigating the world on his first voyage without losing a single man to scurvy, an unusual accomplishment at the time. He tested several preventive measures, most importantly the frequent replenishment of fresh food.{{Harvnb|Fernandez-Armesto|2006|p=297.}} For presenting a paper on this aspect of the voyage to the Royal Society he was presented with the Copley Medal in 1776.{{harvnb|Stamp|1978|p= 105.}}{{cite journal |url=https://archive.org/details/philtrans08393052 |title=The Method Taken for Preserving the Health of the Crew of His Majesty's Ship the Resolution during Her Late Voyage Round the World |volume=66 |pages=402–406 |first=Captain James |last=Cook |journal=Philosophical Transactions |year=1767 |access-date=10 April 2019 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1776.0023 |s2cid=186212653}} Cook became the first European to have extensive contact with various people of the Pacific. He correctly postulated a link among all the Pacific peoples, despite their being separated by great ocean stretches {{Crossreference|(see Malayo-Polynesian languages)}}. Cook theorised that Polynesians originated from Asia, which scientist Bryan Sykes later verified.{{Harvnb|Sykes|2001|pp=79-84.}} In New Zealand the coming of Cook is often used to signify the onset of the colonisation.{{sfn|Horwitz|2003|p=156}}
File:Hodges, Resolution and Adventure in Matavai Bay.jpg painting of HMS Resolution and HMS Adventure in Matavai Bay, Tahiti]]
Cook carried several scientists on his voyages; they made significant observations and discoveries. Two botanists, Joseph Banks and the Swede Daniel Solander, sailed on the first voyage. The two collected over 3,000 plant species.{{cite web |url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/endeavour-botanical/about2.dsml |title=The Endeavour Botanical Illustrations at the Natural History Museum |publisher=Natural History Museum |year=2011 |access-date=8 August 2011 |archive-date=5 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705011718/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/endeavour-botanical/about2.dsml |url-status=live}} Banks subsequently strongly promoted British settlement of Australia,{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/banks_sir_joseph.shtml |title=Sir Joseph Banks |publisher=BBC |year=2011 |access-date=8 August 2011 |archive-date=25 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125072305/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/banks_sir_joseph.shtml |url-status=live}}{{cite book |chapter-url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/solander-daniel-2677 |chapter=Solander, Daniel (1733–1782) |title=Australian Dictionary of Biography |publisher=National Centre of Biography, Australian National University |first=L. A. |last=Gilbert |access-date=22 September 2011 |archive-date=19 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919080043/http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/solander-daniel-2677 |url-status=live}} leading to the establishment of New South Wales as a penal settlement in 1788. Artists also sailed on Cook's first voyage. Sydney Parkinson was heavily involved in documenting the botanists' findings, completing 264 drawings before his death near the end of the voyage. They were of immense scientific value to British botanists.{{cite web |url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/endeavour-botanical/people.dsml |title=The Endeavour Botanical Illustrations at the Natural History Museum |publisher=Natural History Museum |year=2011 |access-date=8 August 2011 |archive-date=5 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705011619/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/endeavour-botanical/people.dsml |url-status=live}} Cook's second expedition included William Hodges, who produced notable landscape paintings of Tahiti, Easter Island, and other locations. Several officers who served under Cook went on to distinctive accomplishments. William Bligh, Cook's sailing master, was given command of {{HMS|Bounty||6}} in 1787 to sail to Tahiti and return with breadfruit. Bligh became known for the mutiny of his crew, which resulted in his being set adrift in 1789. He later became Governor of New South Wales, where he was the subject of another mutiny—the 1808 Rum Rebellion.{{cite web |url=http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheets_william_bligh.htm |title=Biography: William Bligh |work=Royal Naval Museum at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard |year=2011 |access-date=7 August 2011 |archive-date=9 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209022850/http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheets_william_bligh.htm |url-status=live}} George Vancouver, one of Cook's midshipmen, led a voyage of exploration to the Pacific Coast of North America from 1791 to 1794.{{cite book |chapter-url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/vancouver-george-2755 |chapter=Vancouver, George (1757–1798) |title=Australian Dictionary of Biography |publisher=National Centre of Biography, Australian National University |first=Nan |last=Phillips |access-date=22 September 2011 |archive-date=15 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815203650/http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/vancouver-george-2755 |url-status=live}} In honour of Vancouver's former commander, his ship was named {{HMS|Discovery|1789|2}}. George Dixon, who sailed under Cook on his third expedition, later commanded his own.{{cite DCB
|first=Barry M.
|last=Gough
|title=Dixon, George
|volume=4
|url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/dixon_george_1776_91_4E.html
|access-date=7 August 2011
}}
Cook's contributions to knowledge gained international recognition during his lifetime. In 1779, while the American colonies were fighting Britain for their independence, Benjamin Franklin wrote to captains of colonial warships at sea, recommending that if they came into contact with Cook's vessel, they were to "not consider her an enemy, nor suffer any plunder to be made of the effects contained in her, nor obstruct her immediate return to England by detaining her or sending her into any other part of Europe or to America; but that you treat the said Captain Cook and his people with all civility and kindness ... as common friends to mankind."{{cite book |last=Franklin |first=Benjamin |author-link=Benjamin Franklin |title=The works of Benjamin Franklin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vVc-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA124 |access-date=22 September 2011 |date=1837 |publisher=Tappan, Whittemore, and Mason |pages=123–124 |archive-date=28 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528054931/http://books.google.com/books?id=vVc-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA124 |url-status=live}}
=Memorials=
==United Kingdom==
File:Memorial tablet – Captain James Cook and his family, Church of St Andrew the Great, Cambridge.jpg, Cambridge]]
One of the earliest monuments to Cook in the United Kingdom is located at The Vache, erected in 1780 by Admiral Hugh Palliser, a contemporary of Cook and one-time owner of the estate.{{cite web |url=http://www.captaincooksociety.com/ccsu4166.htm |title=CCS – Cook Monument at the Vache, Chalfont St Giles – Access Restored |access-date=22 September 2011 |archive-date=5 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205214655/http://www.captaincooksociety.com/ccsu4166.htm |url-status=live}} A large obelisk was built in 1827 as a monument to Cook on Easby Moor overlooking his boyhood village of Great Ayton,{{cite web |url=http://www.great-ayton.org.uk/tourism/cook/cook_monument/ |title=Great Ayton – Captain Cook's Monument |access-date=20 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027202118/http://www.great-ayton.org.uk/tourism/cook/cook_monument/ |archive-date=27 October 2011 |url-status=dead}} along with a smaller monument at the former location of Cook's cottage.{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article17137751 |title=Captain Cook |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |location=NSW |date=26 January 1935 |access-date=27 September 2013 |page=16 |publisher=National Library of Australia |archive-date=9 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109015431/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/17137751 |url-status=live}} There is also a monument to Cook in the church of St Andrew the Great, St Andrew's Street, Cambridge, where his sons Hugh, a student at Christ's College, and James were buried. Cook's widow Elizabeth was also buried in the church and in her will left money for the memorial's upkeep. The 250th anniversary of Cook's birth was marked at the site of his birthplace in Marton by the opening of the Captain Cook Birthplace Museum, located within Stewart Park (1978). A granite vase just to the south of the museum marks the approximate spot where he was born.{{cite web |url=http://www.captcook-ne.co.uk/ccbm/index.htm |title=The Captain Cook Birthplace Museum, Marton, Middlesbrough |work=captcook-ne.co.uk |year=2011 |access-date=8 August 2011 |archive-date=20 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720010546/http://www.captcook-ne.co.uk/ccbm/index.htm |url-status=live}} Tributes also abound in post-industrial Middlesbrough, including a primary school,{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/education/04/school_tables/primary_schools/html/806_2370.stm |title=Captain Cook Primary School |publisher=BBC |date=2 December 2004 |access-date=21 September 2011 |archive-date=9 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109015533/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/education/04/school_tables/primary_schools/html/806_2370.stm |url-status=live}} shopping square{{cite web |url=http://www.captaincookshopping.com/ |title=Captain Cook Shopping Square |publisher=Captaincookshopping.com |access-date=8 March 2010 |archive-date=28 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328130339/http://www.captaincookshopping.com/ |url-status=live}} and the Bottle 'O Notes, a public artwork by Claes Oldenburg, that was erected in the town's Central Gardens in 1993. Also named after Cook is James Cook University Hospital, a major teaching hospital which opened in 2003 with a railway station serving it called James Cook opening in 2014.{{cite web |url=http://www.glendalehouse.co.uk/pages/captainCook.html |title=Captain Cook and the Captain Cook Trail |access-date=22 September 2011 |archive-date=6 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906040659/http://www.glendalehouse.co.uk/pages/captainCook.html |url-status=live}} The Royal Research Ship RRS James Cook was built in 2006 to replace the RRS Charles Darwin in the UK's Royal Research Fleet,{{cite web |url=http://www.nerc.ac.uk/research/sites/facilities/marine/jamescook.asp |title=RRS James Cook |publisher=Nautical Environment Research Council |year=2011 |access-date=5 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703104025/http://www.nerc.ac.uk/research/sites/facilities/marine/jamescook.asp |archive-date=3 July 2012 |url-status=dead}} and Stepney Historical Trust placed a plaque on Free Trade Wharf in the Highway, Shadwell to commemorate his life in the East End of London. A statue erected in his honour can be viewed near Admiralty Arch on the south side of The Mall in London. In 2002, Cook was placed at number 12 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/greatbritons/list.shtml/ |title=BBC – Great Britons – Top 100 |access-date=19 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021204214727/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/greatbritons/list.shtml/ |archive-date=4 December 2002 |work=Internet Archive}}
==Australia==
Cooks' Cottage, his parents' last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, Australia, having been moved from England at the behest of the Australian philanthropist Sir Russell Grimwade in 1934.{{cite web |title=Cooks' Cottage |url=https://whatson.melbourne.vic.gov.au/PlacesToGo/CooksCottage/Pages/CooksCottage.aspx |access-date=6 August 2017 |publisher=City of Melbourne |archive-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131055807/https://whatson.melbourne.vic.gov.au/PlacesToGo/CooksCottage/Pages/CooksCottage.aspx |url-status=dead}}{{cite news |date=1 July 1933 |title=CAPTAIN COOK'S COTTAGE. :ANOTHER CENTENARY GIFT.:Mr. Russell Grimwade's Generosity. |page=21 |newspaper=The Argus |issue=((27,105)) |location=Melbourne |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article4746055 |access-date=6 September 2017 |via=National Library of Australia |archive-date=12 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312061306/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/4746055 |url-status=live}}{{sfn|Horwitz|2003|p=292}} The first institution of higher education in North Queensland, Australia, was named after him, with James Cook University opening in Townsville in 1970.{{cite web |url=http://www.jcu.edu.au/about |title=About James Cook University |publisher=James Cook University |year=2011 |access-date=7 January 2014 |archive-date=20 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220112811/http://www.jcu.edu.au/about/ |url-status=live}}
There are statues of Cook in Hyde Park in Sydney, and at St Kilda in Melbourne.{{cite news |last1=Sum |first1=Eliza |last2=Carey |first2=Adam |date=25 January 2024 |title=Second statue targeted after vandals hack off Captain Cook sculpture on eve of Australia Day |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/victoria/captain-cook-statue-sawn-off-in-pre-australia-day-attack-20240125-p5ezw4.html |access-date=25 January 2024 |work=Sydney Morning Herald |archive-date=25 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125001101/https://www.smh.com.au/national/victoria/captain-cook-statue-sawn-off-in-pre-australia-day-attack-20240125-p5ezw4.html |url-status=live}}
File:Annual_re-enactment.of_Cook's_visit._Cooktown_1999.jpg, Queensland]]
In 1959, the Cooktown Re-enactment Association first performed a re-enactment of Cook's 1770 landing at the site of modern Cooktown, Australia, and have continued the tradition each year, with the support and participation of many of the local Guugu Yimithirr people. They celebrate the first act of reconciliation between Indigenous Australians and non-Indigenous people, when a Guugu Yimithirr elder stepped in after some of Cook's men had violated custom by taking green turtles from the river and not sharing with the local people. He presented Cook with a broken-tipped spear as a peace offering, thus preventing possible bloodshed. Cook recorded the incident in his journal.{{cite web |last1=Kim |first1=Sharnie |last2=Stephen |first2=Adam |date=19 June 2020 |title=Cooktown's Indigenous people help commemorate 250 years since Captain Cook's landing with re-enactment |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-06-19/cooktown-indigenous-commemorate-captain-cook-250th-anniversary/12363526 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706200313/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-06-19/cooktown-indigenous-commemorate-captain-cook-250th-anniversary/12363526 |archive-date=6 July 2020 |access-date=6 July 2020 |publisher=ABC News |location=Australia}}
==U.S.A.==
A U.S. coin, the 1928 Hawaii Sesquicentennial half-dollar, carries Cook's image. Minted for the 150th anniversary of his discovery of the islands, its low mintage (10,008) has made this example of an early United States commemorative coin both scarce and expensive.{{cite web |url=http://www.coinsite.com/content/commemoratives/Hawaii.asp |title=Hawaii Sesquicentennial Half Dollar |work=coinsite.com |year=2011 |access-date=8 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814135925/http://www.coinsite.com/content/Commemoratives/Hawaii.asp |archive-date=14 August 2011}} The site where he was killed in Hawaii was marked in 1874 by a white obelisk. This land, although in Hawaii, was deeded to the United Kingdom by Princess Likelike and her husband, Archibald Scott Cleghorn, to the British Consul to Hawaii, James Hay Wodehouse, in 1877.{{cite news |last1=Gray |first1=Chris |title=Captain Cook's little corner of Hawaii under threat from new golf |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/captain-cooks-little-corner-of-hawaii-under-threat-from-new-golf-course-623120.html |access-date=12 January 2018 |work=The Independent |date=11 November 2000 |archive-date=6 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180506175006/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/captain-cooks-little-corner-of-hawaii-under-threat-from-new-golf-course-623120.html |url-status=live}}{{cite journal |last=Coulter |first=John Wesley |date=June 1964 |title=Great Britain in Hawaii: The Captain Cook Monument |journal=The Geographical Journal |publisher=The Royal Geographical Society |location=London |volume=130 |issue=2 |pages=256–261 |doi=10.2307/1794586 |jstor=1794586 |bibcode=1964GeogJ.130..256C}}{{Failed verification|reason=article says land was bought by British consul general, and its status is unclear, not that it was deeded to the UK |date=April 2020}} A nearby town is named Captain Cook, Hawaii; several Hawaiian businesses also carry his name. The Apollo 15 Command/Service Module Endeavour,{{cite web |title=Call Signs |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-17_Call_Signs.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228032512/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-17_Call_Signs.htm |archive-date=28 February 2020 |access-date=21 May 2011 |publisher=NASA}} the {{ship|Space Shuttle|Endeavour||6}},{{cite web |url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/resources/orbiters/Endeavour.html |work=John F. Kennedy Space Center website |title=Space Shuttle Endeavour |publisher=NASA |access-date=21 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521101826/http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/resources/orbiters/endeavour.html |archive-date=21 May 2011}} and the Crew Dragon Endeavour;{{cite web |url=http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-053020a-spacex-crew-dragon-name-endeavour.html |title=Astronauts name SpaceX spaceship 'Endeavour' after retired shuttle |date=30 May 2020 |access-date=2 June 2020 |archive-date=3 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603035942/http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-053020a-spacex-crew-dragon-name-endeavour.html |url-status=live}} are named after Cook's ship. Another Space Shuttle, Discovery, was named after Cook's {{HMS|Discovery|1774|6}}.{{cite web |url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/resources/orbiters/Discovery.html |work=John F. Kennedy Space Center website |title=Space Shuttle Discovery |publisher=NASA |access-date=21 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610033909/http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/resources/orbiters/Discovery.html |archive-date=10 June 2011}} There is also a statue of Cook at Resolution Park in Anchorage, Alaska.
==Canada==
A statue of James Cook in Victoria, BC, Canada was constructed in 1976. The statue was destroyed by protestors in 2021.{{cite news |last=Dickson |first=Courtney |title=Protesters toss statue of explorer James Cook into Victoria harbour; totem pole later burned |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/victoria-captain-cook-statue-vandalized-1.6088828 |date=2 July 2021 |publisher=CBC News |access-date=3 July 2021 |archive-date=3 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210703024735/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/victoria-captain-cook-statue-vandalized-1.6088828 |url-status=live}}
=Places named after Cook=
Cook's name has been given to the Cook Islands, Cook Strait, Cook Inlet and the Cook crater on the Moon.{{cite web |url=http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/1292 |title=Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Cook on Moon |work=Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature |publisher=USGS/NASA |access-date=21 September 2011 |archive-date=17 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117182806/http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/1292 |url-status=live}} Aoraki / Mount Cook, the highest summit in New Zealand, is named for him.{{cite web
|url=http://www.mtcooknz.com/mackenzie/Mount_Cook/
|title=Aoraki Mount Cook National Park & Mt Cook Village, New Zealand |access-date=21 September 2011
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001060533/http://www.mtcooknz.com/mackenzie/Mount_Cook/
|archive-date=1 October 2011
}} Another Mount Cook is on the border between the U.S. state of Alaska and the Canadian Yukon territory, and is designated Boundary Peak 182 as one of the official Boundary Peaks of the Hay–Herbert Treaty.{{cite web |url=http://www.geodata.us/canada_names_maps/maps.php?featureid=KABJR&f=311 |title=Map of Mount Cook, Yukon, Mountain – Canada Geographical Names Maps |access-date=21 September 2011 |archive-date=18 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118224628/http://www.geodata.us/canada_names_maps/maps.php?featureid=KABJR&f=311 |url-status=live}}
=Culture=
Cook has been a subject in many literary creations. Letitia Elizabeth Landon, a popular poet known for her sentimental romantic poetry,{{cite web |last=Jacolbe |first=Jessica |date=23 May 2019 |title=Life of Forgotten Poet Letitia Elizabeth Landon |url=https://daily.jstor.org/on-the-life-of-forgotten-poet-letitia-elizabeth-landon/ |access-date=9 October 2022 |website=Jstor Daily |archive-date=9 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009122415/https://daily.jstor.org/on-the-life-of-forgotten-poet-letitia-elizabeth-landon/ |url-status=live}} published a poetical illustration to a portrait of Captain Cook in 1837.{{cite book |last=Landon |first=Letitia Elizabeth |title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838 |url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA68 |year=1837 |publisher=Fisher, Son & Co. |section=portrait |access-date=10 October 2022 |archive-date=10 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221010033952/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA68 |url-status=live}}{{cite book |last=Landon |first=Letitia Elizabeth |title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838 |url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA70 |year=1837 |publisher=Fisher, Son & Co. |section=poetical illustration |page=23 |access-date=9 October 2022 |archive-date=9 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009104117/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA71 |url-status=live}} In 1931, Kenneth Slessor's poem "Five Visions of Captain Cook" was the "most dramatic break-through" in Australian poetry of the 20th century according to poet Douglas Stewart.Herbert C. Jaffa, Kenneth Slessor: A Critical Study, Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1977, p. 20.
Cook appears as a symbolic and generic figure in several Aboriginal myths, often from regions where Cook did not encounter Aboriginal people. Maddock states that Cook is usually portrayed as the bringer of Western colonialism to Australia and is presented as a villain who brings immense social change.{{cite book |last=Maddock |first=K. |chapter=Myth, History and a Sense of Oneself |editor-last=Beckett |editor-first=J. R. |title=Past and Present: The Construction of Aboriginality |location=Canberra |publisher=Aboriginal Studies Press |year=1988 |pages=11–30 |isbn=0-85575-190-8}}
Cook has been depicted in numerous films, documentaries and dramas.{{cite web |url=https://www.nfsa.gov.au/sites/default/files/05-2017/captain_cook_obsesson_and_discovery_tn.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126131107/https://www.nfsa.gov.au/sites/default/files/05-2017/captain_cook_obsesson_and_discovery_tn.pdf |archive-date=26 January 2024 |url-status=live |title=Teacher's Notes: Captain Cook – Obession and Discovery |publisher=National Film and Sound Archive of Australia |access-date=13 April 2024}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.thefutoncritic.com/reviews/2009/12/10/the-futons-first-look-captain-cooks-extraordinary-atlas-abc-33808/20091210_captaincooksextraordinaryatlas/ |title=Rants & Reviews - The Futon's First Look: "Captain Cook's Extraordinary Atlas" (ABC) | TheFutonCritic.com |website=www.thefutoncritic.com |access-date=26 January 2024 |archive-date=12 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312061805/http://www.thefutoncritic.com/reviews/2009/12/10/the-futons-first-look-captain-cooks-extraordinary-atlas-abc-33808/20091210_captaincooksextraordinaryatlas/ |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.creativespirits.info/resources/movies/cooked |title=Cooked (Film) |first=Jens |last=Korff |date=17 July 2022 |website=Creative Spirits |access-date=26 January 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126131106/https://www.creativespirits.info/resources/movies/cooked |url-status=live}} The Australian slang phrase "Have a Captain Cook" means to have a look or conduct a brief inspection.{{cite web |last=Khoury |first=Matt |date=12 July 2017 |title=Australian slang: 33 phrases to help you talk like an Aussie |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/australian-slang-phrases/index.html |access-date=9 December 2021 |website=CNN |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209103345/https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/australian-slang-phrases/index.html |url-status=live}}
=Controversy=
File:Hyde_Park Captain Cook.JPG, Hyde Park, Sydney. The rear inscription reads: "Discovered this territory, 1770".]]
The period 2018 to 2021 marked the 250th anniversary of Cook's first voyage of exploration. Several countries, including Australia and New Zealand, arranged official events to commemorate the voyage,{{Cite web |title=250th anniversary of Captain Cook's voyage to Australia |url=https://www.arts.gov.au/what-we-do/cultural-heritage/250th-anniversary-captain-cooks-voyage-australia |access-date=15 March 2021 |website=Australian Government, Office for the Arts |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308172046/https://www.arts.gov.au/what-we-do/cultural-heritage/250th-anniversary-captain-cooks-voyage-australia |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |title=Tuia Enounters 250 |url=https://mch.govt.nz/tuia250 |access-date=15 March 2021 |archive-date=6 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306135019/https://mch.govt.nz/tuia250 |url-status=live}} leading to widespread public debate about Cook's legacy and the violence associated with his contacts with Indigenous peoples.{{Cite web |last=Daley |first=Paul |date=29 April 2020 |title=Commemorating Captain James Cook's arrival, Australia should not omit his role in the suffering that followed |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/postcolonial-blog/2020/apr/29/commemorating-james-cooks-arrival-australia-should-not-omit-his-role-in-the-suffering-that-followed |access-date=16 March 2021 |website=The Guardian |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308230636/https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/postcolonial-blog/2020/apr/29/commemorating-james-cooks-arrival-australia-should-not-omit-his-role-in-the-suffering-that-followed |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |last=Roy |first=Eleanor Ainge |date=8 October 2019 |title=New Zealand wrestles with 250th anniversary of James Cook's arrival |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/08/new-zealand-wrestles-with-250th-anniversary-of-james-cooks-arrival |access-date=15 March 2021 |website=The Guardian |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414030255/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/08/new-zealand-wrestles-with-250th-anniversary-of-james-cooks-arrival |url-status=live}} In the lead-up to the commemorations, various memorials to Cook in Australia and New Zealand were vandalised, and there were public calls for their removal or modification due to their alleged promotion of colonialist narratives.{{Cite web |date=23 August 2017 |title=Australia debates Captain Cook 'discovery' statue |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-41020363 |access-date=15 March 2021 |website=BBC News |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414030114/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-41020363 |url-status=live}}{{Cite web
|date=13 June 2020 |title=Captain James Cook statue defaced in Gisborne
|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/captain-james-cook-statue-defaced-in-gisborne/RH3B2TD2CNMR6D2AP3QWSBX2F4/
|access-date=16 March 2021
|website=The New Zealand Herald
|archive-date=9 March 2021
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309004905/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/captain-james-cook-statue-defaced-in-gisborne/RH3B2TD2CNMR6D2AP3QWSBX2F4/
|url-status=live
}} There were also campaigns for the return of Indigenous artefacts taken during Cook's voyages.{{cite web
|date=13 November 2020
|title=Shots Fired
|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/stuff-the-british-stole/shots-fired/12868096
|url-status=live
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307042709/https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/stuff-the-british-stole/shots-fired/12868096
|archive-date=7 March 2021
|access-date=12 March 2021
|website=ABC Radio National
}}{{efn|An example of an artefact that has been the subject of requests for return is the Gweagal shield.{{Cite journal
|last=Thomas|first=Nicholas
|date=2018
|title=A Case of Identity: The Artifacts of the 1770 Kamay (Botany Bay) Encounter|url=
|journal=Australian Historical Studies
|volume=49
|issue=1
|pages=4–27
|doi=10.1080/1031461X.2017.1414862
|via=Taylor and Francis Online
}}}}
In July 2021, a statue of Cook in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, was torn down in protests about the deaths of Indigenous residential school children in Canada.{{Cite web |date=3 July 2021 |title=Capt. James Cook statue recovered from Victoria Harbour; what's next is undecided |url=https://www.timescolonist.com/news/local/capt-james-cook-statue-recovered-from-victoria-harbour-what-s-next-is-undecided-1.24337872 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210703145332/https://www.timescolonist.com/news/local/capt-james-cook-statue-recovered-from-victoria-harbour-what-s-next-is-undecided-1.24337872 |archive-date=3 July 2021 |access-date=4 July 2021 |website=Times Colonist}} In January 2024, a statue of Cook in St Kilda, Melbourne was cut down in a protest against colonialism; the premier of Victoria pledged to work with the local council to repair the statue.{{cite news |url=https://www.heraldsun.com.au/truecrimeaustralia/police-courts-victoria/captain-cook-statue-cut-down-on-eve-of-australia-day/news-story/aa6aa1f84cf25bc70dab5765d42a9031?amp&nk=89c859e6bc39eb7b8000c7309289cfd8-1706162324 |last=Ellis |first=Fergus |title=Captain Cook statue cut down on eve of Australia Day, vandals brazenly share footage |work=Herald Sun |date=25 January 2024 |access-date=26 January 2024}}{{cite news |date=25 January 2024 |title=Melbourne statues of Queen Victoria and Captain Cook vandalised on Australia Day eve |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-01-25/melbourne-captain-cook-queen-victoria-statues-vandalised/103386996 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125000119/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-01-25/melbourne-captain-cook-queen-victoria-statues-vandalised/103386996 |archive-date=25 January 2024 |access-date=25 January 2024 |work=ABC News Online}}
Alice Proctor argues that the controversies over public representations of Cook and the display of Indigenous artefacts from his voyages are part of a broader debate over the decolonisation of museums and public spaces and resistance to colonialist narratives.Proctor, Alice (2020) Chs 11, 21; pp. 255–62 and passim While a number of commentators argue that Cook enabled British imperialism and colonialism in the Pacific,{{cite book |last=Proctor |first=Alice |title=The Whole Picture: The colonial story of the art in our museums and why we need to talk about it |publisher=Cassell |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-78840-155-5 |location=London |page=243.}}{{Cite web |last=Gapps |first=Stephen |date=28 April 2020 |title=Make no mistake: Cook's voyages were part of a military mission to conquer and expand |url=https://theconversation.com/make-no-mistake-cooks-voyages-were-part-of-a-military-mission-to-conquer-and-expand-134404 |access-date=8 April 2024 |website=The Conversation}}{{sfn|Thomas|2003|p=xxxiii}} Geoffrey Blainey, among others, notes that Banks promoted Botany Bay as a site for colonisation after Cook's death.{{harvnb|Blainey|2020|p=287.}} Robert Tombs has defended Cook, arguing: "He epitomized the Age of Enlightenment in which he lived" and in conducting his first voyage "was carrying out an enlightened mission, with instructions from the Royal Society to show 'patience and forbearance' towards native peoples".{{cite news
|last=Tombs
|first=Robert
|author-link=Robert Tombs
|date=4 February 2021
|title=Captain Cook wasn't a 'genocidal' villain. He was a true Enlightenment man
|work=The Telegraph
|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/2021/02/04/captain-cook-wasnt-genocidal-villain-true-enlightenment-man/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/2021/02/04/captain-cook-wasnt-genocidal-villain-true-enlightenment-man/ |archive-date=10 January 2022
|url-access=subscription
|url-status=live
|access-date=9 December 2021 |issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}
Arms
{{Infobox COA wide
| image = James_Cook_Coat_of_Arms.svg
| year_adopted = 3 September 1785
| crest = On a Wreath of the Colours, An Arm embowed, vested in the Uniform of a Captain of the Royal Navy, in the Hand the Union-Jack on a Staff proper; the Arm encircled by a Wreath of Palm and Laurel.
| escutcheon = Azure, between the two Polar Stars Or, a Sphere on the plane of the Meridian, North Pole elevated, Circles of Latitude for every ten degrees and of Longitude for fifteen, showing the Pacific Ocean between fifty and two hundred and forty West, bounded on one side by America, on the other by Asia and New Holland, in memory of his having explored and made Discoveries in that Ocean so very far beyond all former Navigators; His Track thereon marked with red Lines.{{Cite web
|publisher=The State Library of New South Wales
|url=https://collection.sl.nsw.gov.au/record/n88ElePn
|access-date=29 January 2023
|title=Grant of arms made to Mrs Cook and to Cook's descendants in 1785
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129163800/https://collection.sl.nsw.gov.au/record/n88ElePn |archive-date=29 January 2023
}} Includes a photograph of the original grant of arms, as well as a full description.
| motto = Nil Intentatum Reliquit (He left nothing unattempted) and Circa Orbem (Around the world).
| notes = Cook's coat of arms was granted to his widowed wife, the only known example of a posthumous grant.{{Cite web |url=https://www.npg.org.uk/whatson/makingamark/teaching-resources/objects/cook-coat-of-arms
|access-date=29 January 2023
|title=Cook coat of arms
|publisher=National Portrait Gallery
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129164549/https://www.npg.org.uk/whatson/makingamark/teaching-resources/objects/cook-coat-of-arms
|archive-date=29 January 2023
}}
The Letters Patent further detail that Elizabeth Batts Cook petitioned for the grant six years after his death to preserve the memory of her late husband and to be placed on any monuments and memorials.{{Cite web
|url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/home/detail/cook-s-coat-of-arms
|access-date=29 January 2023
|publisher= Captain Cook Society
|title=Cook's Coat of Arms
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630202740/https://www.captaincooksociety.com/home/detail/cook-s-coat-of-arms
|archive-date=30 June 2022
}}
}}
See also
{{Portal|British Empire|Biography}}
{{Div col}}
- {{Annotated link|List of Australian places named by James Cook}}
- Death of Cook{{snd}}Paintings depicting Cook's death
- {{Annotated link|European and American voyages of scientific exploration}}
- {{Annotated link|List of places named after Captain James Cook}}
- {{Annotated link|New Zealand places named by James Cook}}
{{div col end}}
References
=Notes=
{{notelist|colwidth=30em}}
=Citations=
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
=Sources=
{{div col }}
- {{cite book
|title=The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery
|volume=I: The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768–1771
|editor-last=Beaglehole
|editor-first=John
|editor-link=John Cawte Beaglehole
|year=1968
|via=Hakluyt Society
|orig-year=1955
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|oclc=223185477
|url=https://archive.org/details/journalsofcaptai0001jcbe
|access-date=23 May 2025
}}
- {{cite book
|last=Beaglehole
|first=John
|title=The Life of Captain James Cook
|author-link=John Beaglehole
|publisher=Stanford University Pres
|year=1974
|isbn=978-0-7136-1382-7
|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Life_of_Captain_James_Cook/qe0FMQAACAAJ
|access-date=23 May 2025
}} Sometimes titled The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery Vol. IV: The Life of Captain James Cook.
- {{cite EB1911|last=Beazley|first=Charles Raymond|wstitle=Cook, James|author-link=Charles Raymond Beazley|volume=7|pages=71–72|short=1}}
- {{cite book
|last=Blainey
|first=Geoffrey
|author-link=Geoffrey Blainey
|title=Captain Cook's Epic Voyage: the strange quest for a missing continent |publisher=Viking
|year=2020
|isbn=978-1-76089-509-9 |location=Australia}}
- {{cite book |last=Dibble |first=Sheldon |author-link=Sheldon Dibble |url=https://archive.org/details/historysandwich00dibbgoog/page/n74 |title=History of the Sandwich Islands |date=1843 |publisher=Press of the Mission Seminary |location=Lahainaluna}}
- {{cite book
|last=Collingridge
|first=Vanessa |author-link=Vanessa Collingridge |url=https://archive.org/details/captaincooklifed0000coll/ |title=Captain Cook: The Life, Death and Legacy of History's Greatest Explorer |year=2003 |publisher=Ebury Press |isbn=978-0-09-188898-5}}
- {{Cite book
|editor-last=Edwards
|editor-first=Philip
|title=The Journals of Captain Cook
|url=https://archive.org/details/journalsofcaptai00jame
|date=2003
|publisher=Penguin Books
|location=London
|isbn=978-0-14-043647-1
}} Abridged version of the journals, based on the original three volumes of manuscripts by John Beaglehole 1955–67.
- {{cite book
|last=Fernandez-Armesto
|first=Felipe
|author-link=Felipe Fernández-Armesto
|title=Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration
|date=2006
|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company
|isbn=978-0-393-06259-5
|url=https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba00fern
|access-date=23 May 2025
}}
- {{cite book
|last=Fisher
|first=Robin
|author-link=Robin Fisher (historian)
|title=Captain James Cook and his times
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dhsOAAAAQAAJ
|date=1979
|isbn=978-0-7099-0050-4 |publisher=Taylor & Francis}}
- {{Cite book
|last1=Fornander
|first1=Abraham
|author-link1=Abraham Fornander
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tcQNAAAAQAAJ&q=An+Account+of+the+Polynesian+Race%3A+Its+Origins+and+Migrations
|title=An Account of the Polynesian Race: Its Origins and Migrations, and the Ancient History of the Hawaiian people up to the time of Kamehameha I
|last2=Stokes
|first2=John F. G.
|location=London
|publisher=Trubner
|year=1880
|volume=II
|oclc=4888555
}}
- {{cite book
|last=Hayes
|first=Derek
|title=Historical Atlas of the Pacific Northwest: Maps of Exploration and Discovery
|date=1999
|publisher=Sasquatch Books
|isbn=978-1-57061-215-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sl57oHrVXGoC}}
- {{cite book
|last=Horwitz
|first=Tony
|author-link=Tony Horwitz
|title=Blue Latitudes: Boldly Going Where Captain Cook Has Gone Before
|date=October 2003 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-7475-6455-3}}
- {{cite book
|title=Captain James Cook
|first=Richard
|last=Hough
|date=1994
|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton
|author-link=Richard Hough |isbn=978-0-340-82556-3}}
- {{cite book
|title=The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea
|last1=Kemp
|first1=Peter
|first2=I. C. B. |last2=Dear |date=2005 |publisher=OUP |isbn=978-0-19-860616-1}}
- {{cite book
|title=Narrative of the voyages round the world, performed by Captain James Cook; with an account of his life during the previous and intervening periods |first=Andrew
|last=Kippis
|author-link=Andrew Kippis
|date=1788
|url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/c/cook/james/c77n/complete.html |access-date=16 July 2012
|archive-date=22 March 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322140625/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/c/cook/james/c77n/complete.html
|url-status=dead
}}
- {{cite book
|author-link=Frank McLynn
|last=McLynn |first=Frank |date=2011 |title=Captain Cook: Master of the Seas |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-11421-8}}
- {{cite book
|title=The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific
|publisher=Princeton University Press
|last=Obeyesekere
|first=Gananath
|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Apotheosis_of_Captain_Cook/PfwqEAAAQBAJ
|access-date=22 May 2025
|author-link=Gananath Obeyesekere
|date=1992
|isbn=978-0-691-05680-7}} Originally published in 1992, with a new Afterword (pp. 197-250) called "De-Sahlinization" added in the 1997 reprint, which discusses the Sahlins controversy.
- {{cite book |title=Captain Cook in the Pacific |first1=Nigel |last1=Rigby |last2=van der Merwe |first2=Pieter |date=2002 |publisher=National Maritime Museum, London |isbn=978-0-948065-43-9}}
- {{cite book |last=Robson |first=John |date=2004 |title=The Captain Cook Encyclopædia |publisher=Random House Australia |isbn=978-0-7593-1011-7}}
- {{cite book
|title=Captain Cook's War and Peace: The Royal Navy Years 1755–1768 |first=John |last=Robson
|date=2009
|publisher=University of New South Wales Press
|isbn=978-1-74223-109-9
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWKCAwAAQBAJ
|access-date=23 May 2025
}}
- {{cite book |title=Islands of history
|url=https://archive.org/details/islandsofhistory00sahl
|url-access=registration
|publisher=University of Chicago Press
|first=Marshall David
|last=Sahlins
|author-link=Marshall David Sahlins
|date=1985
|isbn=978-0-226-73358-6}}
- {{cite book
|first=Marshall
|last=Sahlins
|author-link=Marshall David Sahlins
|editor-last=Moore
|editor-first=Jerry D.
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=We4N11-IrB4C&pg=PA336
|title=Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists
|chapter=Culture Matters
|date=2012
|pages=327-345
|publisher=Rowman Altamira
|isbn=978-0-7591-2219-2
}}
- {{cite book |publisher=Legographic |location=London |author-link=David Samwell |last=Samwell |first=David |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USMOAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA76 |title=A narrative of the death of Captain James Cook, to which are added some particulars, concerning his life and character and observations respecting the introduction of the venereal disease into the Sandwich Islands |editor-last=Cartwright |editor-first=Bruce |others=Reprinted by the Hawaiian Historical Society |year=1791 |page= |chapter=Narrative of the Death of Captain Cook |access-date=9 November 2015 |orig-year=1786 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518181233/https://books.google.com/books?id=USMOAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA76 |archive-date=18 May 2016 |url-status=live}}
- {{cite book
|author=Sparks
|first=Jared
|author-link=Jared Sparks
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ftw5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA136
|title=Life of John Ledyard, American Traveller
|publisher=Charles C. Little and James Brown
|year=1847
|location=Boston |access-date=12 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414030149/https://books.google.com/books?id=ftw5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA136 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |url-status=live}}
- {{cite book
|title=James Cook Maritime Scientist
|publisher=Caedmon of Whitby Press
|last=Stamp |first=Tom and Cordelia
|date=1978
|location=Whitby |isbn=978-0-905355-04-7}}
- {{cite book
|last=Sykes
|first=Bryan
|author-link =Bryan Sykes
|title=The Seven Daughters of Eve
|publisher=Norton |location=New York City and London
|isbn=978-0-393-02018-2 |date=2001
|title-link=The Seven Daughters of Eve}}
- {{Cite book
|url=https://archive.org/details/cookextraordinar0000thom_b8f2
|last=Thomas
|first=Nicholas
|author-link=Nicholas Thomas (anthropologist)
|year=2003
|title=The Extraordinary Voyages of Captain James Cook
|location=New York
|publisher=Walker & Co.
|isbn=0-8027-1412-9
|oclc=1030721339
}}
{{div col end}}
Further reading
{{Further|Exploration of the Pacific#Bibliography}}
{{div col}}
- {{Cite book
| ref=none
|last=Aughton
|first=Peter
|title=Endeavour: The Story of Captain Cook's First Great Epic Voyage
|date=2002
|location=London
|publisher=Cassell & Co.
|isbn=978-0-304-36236-3
}}
- {{cite book
| title=The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery
|volume= II: The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure 1772-1775
| editor-last=Beaglehole
| editor-first = John
| editor-link = John Beaglehole
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JzorDwAAQBAJ
|access-date=23 May 2025
| year=1961
| publisher= Cambridge University Press
|via=Hakluyt Society
| ref=none
}} Reprinted in 2017 by Taylor & Francis.
- {{cite book
| title=The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery
| volume= III Part I: The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery 1776-1780
| editor-last=Beaglehole
| editor-first = John
| editor-link = John Beaglehole
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty4rDwAAQBAJ
|access-date=23 May 2025
| year=1967
| publisher= Cambridge University Press
|via=Hakluyt Society
| ref=none
}} Reprinted in 2017 by Taylor & Francis.
- {{Cite book
| ref=none
|editor-last=Forster
|editor-first=Georg
|title=A Voyage Round the World
|editor-link=Georg Forster
|year=1986
|orig-year=1777
|publisher=Wiley-VCH
|isbn=978-3-05-000180-7}} Published first 1777 as: A Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5
- {{Cite book
| ref=none
|last1=Hawkesworth
|first1=John
|author-link1=John Hawkesworth (book editor)
|last2=Byron
|first2=John
|author-link2=John Byron
|last3=Wallis |first3=Samuel
|author-link3=Samuel Wallis
|last4=Carteret
|first4=Philip
|author-link4=Philip Carteret
|last5=Cook |first5=James
|author-link5=James Cook
|last6=Banks
|first6=Joseph
|author-link6=Joseph Banks
|date=1773
|title=An account of the voyages undertaken by the order of His present Majesty for making discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere, and successively performed by Commodore Byron, Captain Wallis, Captain Carteret, and Captain Cook, in the Dolphin, the Swallow, and the Endeavour drawn up from the journals which were kept by the several commanders, and from the papers of Joseph Banks, esq
|title-link=An Account of the Voyages
|location=London
|publisher=Printed for W. Strahan and T. Cadell
|oclc=9299044
}} [http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/hv01/contents.html Volume I]; [http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/hv23/contents.html Volume II–III].
- {{Cite book
| ref=none
|last=Igler
|first=David
|author-link=David Igler
|date=2013
|title=The Great Ocean: Pacific Worlds from Captain Cook to the Gold Rush |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199914951 |oclc=811599695}}
- {{Cite book
| ref=none
|last=Kippis
|first=Andrew
|author-link=Andrew Kippis
|date=1904
|title=The Life and Voyages of Captain James Cook
|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeandvoyagesc00kippgoog
|location=London; New York
|publisher=George Newnes Ltd.; Charles Scribner's Sons |oclc=1836297
}}
- {{cite book
| ref=none
|last=Moorehead
|first=Alan
|author-link=Alan Moorehead
|date=1966
|title=Fatal Impact: An Account of the Invasion of the South Pacific, 1767–1840 |url=https://archive.org/details/fatalimpactaccou0000moor |url-access=registration
|publisher=H Hamilton
|isbn=978-0-241-90757-3}}
- {{cite book
| ref=none
|author-link=Rob Mundle
|last=Mundle |first=Rob
|title=Cook: from Sailor to Legend
|year=2013
|publisher=ABC Books |isbn=978-1-4607-0061-7}}
- {{Cite book
| ref=none
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GZ_AAAAMAAJ
|last=Richardson
|first=Brian
|year=2005
|title=Longitude and Empire: How Captain Cook's Voyages Changed the World
|location=Vancouver
|publisher=University of British Columbia Press
|isbn=0-7748-1190-0 |oclc=58930493}}
- {{cite book
| ref=none
|title=How "Natives" Think: About Captain Cook, for example
|publisher=University of Chicago Press
|last=Sahlins
|first=Marshall David
|author-link=Marshall Sahlins
|date=1995
|isbn=978-0-226-73368-5
}}
- {{Cite book
| ref=none
|last=Sides
|first=Hampton
|author-link=Hampton Sides
|year=2024
|title=The Wide Wide Sea: Imperial Ambition, First Contact, and the Fateful Final Voyage of Captain James Cook
|location=New York
|publisher=Doubleday
|isbn=9780385544764
|oclc=1416012934
|access-date=}}
- {{cite book
| ref=none
|title=The Australian Language: An Examination of the English Language and English Speech as Used in Australia, from Convict Days to the Present
|last=Sidney
|first=John Baker
|location=Melbourne
|publisher=Sun Books
|date=1981
|isbn=978-0-7251-0382-8}}
- {{Cite book
| ref=none
|title=The Daily Telegraph Portfolio of Original Works by Artists Who Sailed with Captain Cook
|url=https://archive.org/details/captaincookhisar0000unse/page/n3/mode/2up
|url-access=registration
|location=Sydney
|publisher=Australian Consolidated Press
|year=1970
|oclc=896726172}}
- {{Cite magazine
| ref=none
|last=Uglow |first=Jenny
|author-link=Jenny Uglow
|date=7 February 2019
|title=Island Hopping; Reviewed: Captain James Cook: The Journals, selected and edited by Philip Edwards, London, Folio Society, three volumes and a chart of the voyages, 1,309 pp.; and William Frame with Laura Walker, James Cook: The Voyages McGill-Queen University Press 224 pp.
|url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/02/07/captain-cook-island-hopping/ |magazine=The New York Review of Books
|pages=18–20
|volume=LXVI
|issue=2
|access-date=4 April 2024}}
- {{Cite journal
| ref=none
|last=Villiers |first=Alan
|author-link=Alan Villiers
|date=Summer 1956–57
|title=James Cook, Seaman |url=https://quadrant.org.au/magazine/1956/ |url-access=subscription
|journal=Quadrant
|volume=1
|issue=1
|pages=7–16
|issn=0033-5002}}
- {{Cite book
| ref=none
|last=Withey
|first=Lynne
|year=1987
|title=Voyages of Discovery: Captain Cook and the Exploration of the Pacific
|url=https://archive.org/details/voyagesofdiscove0000with/page/n7/mode/2up |url-access=registration
|location=New York
|publisher=William Morrow and Company
|isbn=0688051154
|oclc=15488483}}
- {{cite book
| ref=none
|title=Captain Cook's Journal during his first voyage round the world made in H.M. Bark "Endeavour" 1768–71
|first=W. J. L.
|last=Wharton
|author-link=William Wharton (Royal Navy officer)
|date=1893 |url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/c/cook/james/c77j/complete.html |access-date=16 July 2012
|archive-date=22 March 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322055659/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/c/cook/james/c77j/
|url-status=dead}}
{{div col end}}
External links
- [http://www.captaincooksociety.com/ Captain Cook Society]
- [http://ns1763.ca/hfxrm/cookjmon.html Captain Cook historic plaque, Halifax]
- {{cite web |url=https://theconversation.com/explorer-navigator-coloniser-revisit-captain-cooks-legacy-with-the-click-of-a-mouse-137390 |title=Explorer, navigator, coloniser: revisit Captain Cook's legacy with the click of a mouse |work=The Conversation |date=29 April 2020 |access-date=29 April 2020}}
- {{cite web |url=https://theconversation.com/au/topics/captain-cook-43377 |title=Articles on Captain Cook |website=The Conversation |date=2017–2020 |access-date=23 December 2020}}
- {{ws|Captain Cook}}, a poetical illustration to Sherwin's engraving of Nathaniel Dance's portrait by Letitia Elizabeth Landon in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838.
- [https://www.google.com/maps/d/view?mid=1aCgWHxt6Lbic-tMXhVS39EOnVJop4HA&ll=-29.451594269458518%2C162.7671631965635&z=4 Map showing locations of Cook landings and Cook monuments in Australia and New Zealand]
=Biographical dictionaries=
- {{cite encyclopedia
| ref=none
|title=Cook, James (1728–1779)
|encyclopedia=Australian Dictionary of Biography |publisher=National Centre of Biography, Australian National University
|url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/cook-james-1917/text2279 |access-date=8 January 2016
|year=1966
|edition=online}}
- {{cite DCB |first=Glyndwr |last=Williams |title=Cook, James |volume=4 | ref=none | url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/cook_james_4E.html}}
- {{DNZB |Mackay |David |1C25 |Cook, James| ref=none}}
=Journals=
- [http://nla.gov.au/nla.ms-ms1 The Endeavour journal (1)] and [http://www.nla.gov.au/pub/endeavour/ The Endeavour journal (2)], as kept by James Cook – digitised and held by the National Library of Australia
- [http://southseas.nla.gov.au/ The South Seas Project]: maps and online editions of the Journals of James Cook's First Pacific Voyage, 1768–1771. Includes full text of journals kept by Cook, Joseph Banks and Sydney Parkinson, as well as the complete text of John Hawkesworth's 1773 Account of Cook's first voyage.
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20110606103401/http://badc.nerc.ac.uk/data/corral/adm55/adm55_index.html Digitised copies of log books from James Cook's voyages] at the [http://badc.nerc.ac.uk British Atmospheric Data Centre]
- {{Gutenberg author |id=Cook,+James|name=James Cook}}
- {{Internet Archive author |sname=James Cook}}
- {{Librivox author |id=1650}}
- [http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-RGO-00014-00058/1 Log book of Cook's second voyage]: high-resolution digitised version in Cambridge Digital Library
- [http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/dbtw-wpd/virt-exhib/TapaCloth/index.htm Digitised Tapa cloth catalogue] held at Auckland Libraries
=Collections and museums=
- [http://www.nma.gov.au/cook/ Cook's Pacific Encounters: Cook-Forster Collection online] Images and descriptions of more than 300 artefacts collected during the three Pacific voyages of James Cook.
- [https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/agent/10800 Images and descriptions of items associated with James Cook at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa]
- {{UK National Archives ID}}
- [http://www.captcook-ne.co.uk/ccbm/index.htm Captain Cook Birthplace Museum Marton] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720010546/http://www.captcook-ne.co.uk/ccbm/index.htm |date=20 July 2011 }}
- [http://www.cookmuseumwhitby.co.uk/ Captain Cook Memorial Museum Whitby]
- [http://uwm.edu/libraries/agsl/cook-maps/ Cook's manuscript maps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150201032617/http://uwm.edu/libraries/agsl/cook-maps/ |date=1 February 2015 }} of the south-east coast of Australia, held at the American Geographical Society Library at UW Milwaukee.
- {{PM20|FID=pe/003445}}
{{Subject bar |auto=y}}
{{Captain James Cook}}
{{Copley Medallists 1751–1800}}
{{His Majesty's Naval Service}}
{{Polar exploration|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cook, James}}
Category:18th-century English explorers
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Category:Explorers of British Columbia
Category:Explorers of New Zealand
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Category:Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)