Kashubian language#Phonological processes from Proto-Slavic

Kashubian is assumed to have evolved from the language spoken by some tribes of Pomeranians called Kashubians, in the region of Pomerania, on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea between the Vistula and Oder rivers. It first began to evolve separately in the period from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century as the Polish-Pomeranian linguistic area began to divide based around important linguistic developments centred in the western (Kashubian) part of the area.{{Cite book|title=A historical phonology of the Kashubian dialects of Polish|last=Topolinska|first=Zuzanna|publisher=Mouton|year=1974|location=The Hague|pages=48}}

In the 19th century Florian Ceynowa became Kashubian's first known activist. He undertook tremendous efforts to awaken Kashubian self-identity through the establishment of Kashubian language, customs, and traditions.{{Cite book |title= Historical Dictionary of Poland |last=Lerski |first=Jerzy Jan |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1996 |isbn=0-313-26007-9 |pages=62}} He felt strongly that Poles were born brothers and that Kashubia was a separate nation.{{Cite book|title=Historia Polski 1795-1918|last=Chwalba|first=Andrzej|pages=439}}

The Young Kashubian movement followed in 1912, led by author and doctor Aleksander Majkowski, who wrote for the paper Zrzësz Kaszëbskô as part of the Zrzëszincë group. The group contributed significantly to the development of the Kashubian literary language.

The earliest printed documents in Polish with Kashubian elements date from the end of the 16th century. The modern orthography was first proposed in 1879.

Many scholars and linguists debate whether Kashubian should be recognized as a Polish dialect or separate language. In terms of historical development, it is a separate Lechitic West Slavic language, but, in terms of modern influence, Polish is a prestige language.{{cite book |editor-last1=Barbour |editor-first1=Stephen |editor-last2=Carmichael |editor-first2=Cathie |title=Language and nationalism in Europe |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199250851 |page=199 |edition= Repr. }} Kashubian is closely related to Slovincian, and both of them are dialects of Pomeranian. Despite this, some linguists, in Poland and elsewhere, consider it a divergent dialect of Polish. Dialectal diversity is so great within Kashubian that a speaker of southern dialects has considerable difficulty in understanding a speaker of northern dialects. The spelling and the grammar of Polish words written in Kashubian, which is most of its vocabulary, are highly unusual, making it difficult for native Polish speakers to comprehend written text in Kashubian.[http://Finstytutkaszubski.republika.pl/pdfy_acta/Facta_2008_X_01-240.pdf Biuletin Radzëznë Kaszëbsczégò Jazëka rok 2007, Gduńsk.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160129162946/http://finstytutkaszubski.republika.pl/pdfy_acta/Facta_2008_X_01-240.pdf |date=2016-01-29 }} Bibiografiô.

Like Polish, Kashubian includes about 5% loanwords are from High German and Low German (such as {{lang|csb|kùńszt}} "art"). Unlike Polish, these are mostly from Low German and only occasionally from High German.Anna Gliszczyńska. Germanizmy leksykalne południowej kaszubszczyzny (Na materiale książki Bolesława Jażdżewskiego Wspomnienia kaszubskiego "gbura"). "LingVaria". 1 (3), s. 79–89, 2007. Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński. {{ISSN|1896-2122}}. Other sources of loanwords include the Baltic languages.

The number of speakers of Kashubian varies widely from source to source. In the 2021 census, approximately 87,600{{Cite web |title=Statistics Poland / National Census / National Population and Housing Census 2021 / Final results of the National Population and Housing Census 2021 |url=https://stat.gov.pl/en/national-census/national-population-and-housing-census-2021/final-results-of-the-national-population-and-housing-census-2021/ |access-date=2024-08-24 |website=stat.gov.pl}} people in Poland declared that they used Kashubian at home, a decrease from over 108,000{{cite web |title=Kaszubi w statystyce (cz. III), Tabela 3. (Table 3.) |url=http://kaszebsko.com/uploads/historia/Histori%C3%B4%20Kasz%C3%ABb%C3%B3w%20%2819%29III.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231052041/http://kaszebsko.com/uploads/historia/Histori%C3%B4%20Kasz%C3%ABb%C3%B3w%20(19)III.pdf |archive-date=2015-12-31 |access-date=2016-01-03 |page=7/10 |language=pl}} in the 2011 census. Of these, only 1,700 reported speaking exclusively in Kashubian within their homes, down from 3,800 in 2011. However, experts caution that changes in census methodology and the socio-political climate may have influenced these results. The number of people who can speak at least some Kashubian is higher, around 366,000.{{Cite journal|date=September 2011|title=Polen-Analysen. Die Kaschuben|url=http://www.laender-analysen.de/polen/pdf/PolenAnalysen95.pdf|journal=Länder-Analysen|language=de|volume=Polen NR. 95|pages=10–13|access-date=2018-04-26|archive-date=2022-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829061858/https://www.laender-analysen.de/polen/pdf/PolenAnalysen95.pdf|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://instytutkaszubski.republika.pl/pdfy/angielski.pdf|title=The Kashubs Today: Culture-Language-Identity|date=2007|pages=8–9|language=en|access-date=2016-01-03|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304134213/http://instytutkaszubski.republika.pl/pdfy/angielski.pdf|url-status=dead}}{{Cite web|url=http://docplayer.pl/57273906-Instytut-kaszubski-acta-cassubiana-tom-xvii.html|title=Acta Cassubiana. Vol. XVII (map on p. 122)|date=2015|website=Instytut Kaszubski|access-date=9 February 2018|archive-date=10 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180210002849/http://docplayer.pl/57273906-Instytut-kaszubski-acta-cassubiana-tom-xvii.html|url-status=live}} All Kashubian speakers are also fluent in Polish. A number of schools in Poland use Kashubian as a teaching language. It is an official alternative language for local administration purposes in Gmina Sierakowice, Gmina Linia, Gmina Parchowo, Gmina Luzino and Gmina Żukowo in the Pomeranian Voivodeship. Most respondents say that Kashubian is used in informal speech among family members and friends.{{Cite web|url=http://www.wilkuer.de/forschung/191-204_stanulewicz_final_js_wk_js.rtf|title=The Use of the Kashubian Language from the Perspective of Young People Aged 16–19: Settings and Participants|last=Stanulewicz|first=Danuta|date=2010|access-date=April 21, 2016|archive-date=June 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602040830/http://www.wilkuer.de/forschung/191-204_stanulewicz_final_js_wk_js.rtf|url-status=dead}} This is most likely because Polish is the official language and spoken in formal settings.

During the Kashubian diaspora of 1855–1900, 115,700 Kashubians emigrated to North America, with around 15,000 emigrating to Brazil.{{Cite book|title=Statystyka ludności kaszubskiej|last=Ramułt|first=Stefan|year=1899|location=Krakow|pages=243}} Among the Polish community of Renfrew County, Ontario, Kashubian is widely spoken to this day, despite the use of more formal Polish by parish priests.{{cite book |last1=Blank |first1=Joshua C. |title=Creating Kashubia: History, Memory and Identity in Canada's First Polish Community |date=2016 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=9780773547209 |url=https://www.mqup.ca/creating-kashubia-products-9780773547209.php |access-date=2019-12-12 |archive-date=2019-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212034412/https://www.mqup.ca/creating-kashubia-products-9780773547209.php |url-status=live }} In Winona, Minnesota, which Ramułt termed the "Kashubian Capital of America",{{Cite web |title=Kashubian Capital of America |url=http://bambenek.org/winona-2/kashubian-capital-of-america/ |access-date=2023-08-08 |website=bambenek.org |archive-date=2017-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809043153/http://bambenek.org/winona-2/kashubian-capital-of-america/ |url-status=live }} Kashubian was regarded as "poor Polish," as opposed to the "good Polish" of the parish priests and teaching sisters. Consequently, Kashubian failed to survive Polonization and died out shortly after the mid-20th century.{{Cite web|url=http://bambenek.org/winona-2/congregational-history-of-st-stans/|title=A Congregational History of Saint Stan's|last=Stolpa|first=James|date=2005|access-date=2017-08-08|archive-date=2017-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809043031/http://bambenek.org/winona-2/congregational-history-of-st-stans/|url-status=live}}

File:Kashubian language and nationality.png, Poland (2011 census)]]

{{main|Kashubian literature}}

Important for Kashubian literature was Xążeczka dlo Kaszebov by Florian Ceynowa (1817–1881).{{Cite web |last=Treder |first=Jerzy |title=Piotr Preis, Izmail Sreznevskii, and Kashubia |url=https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/slavic_eurasia_papers/no3/06_Treder.pdf |access-date=2023-08-08 |website=src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp |archive-date=2023-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810230724/https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/publictn/slavic_eurasia_papers/no3/06_Treder.pdf |url-status=live }} Hieronim Derdowski (1852–1902 in Winona, Minnesota) was another significant author who wrote in Kashubian, as was Aleksander Majkowski (1876–1938) from Kościerzyna, who wrote the Kashubian national epic The Life and Adventures of Remus. Jan Trepczyk was a poet who wrote in Kashubian, as was Stanisław Pestka. Kashubian literature has been translated into Czech, Polish, English, German, Belarusian, Slovene and Finnish. Aleksander Majkowski and Alojzy Nagel belong to the most commonly translated Kashubian authors of the 20th century. A considerable body of Christian literature has been translated into Kashubian, including the New Testament, much of it by Adam Ryszard Sikora (OFM).{{cite web |url= http://www.franciszkanie.net/artykul/156,291,o_prof_uam_dr_hab_adam_sikora_ofm/ |title= o. prof. dr hab. Adam Sikora OFM - Franciszkanie |access-date= 2011-03-15 |archive-date= 2011-07-23 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110723131804/http://www.franciszkanie.net/artykul/156,291,o_prof_uam_dr_hab_adam_sikora_ofm/ |url-status= dead }} Franciszek GruczaPeter Hauptmann, Günther Schulz, Kirche im Osten: Studien zur osteuropäischen Kirchengeschichte und Kirchenkunde, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000, pp.44ff, {{ISBN|3-525-56393-0}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=qHL3-GAJE-YC&dq=slowinzen&pg=PA45] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=qHL3-GAJE-YC&dq=slowinzen&pg=PA45|date=2023-03-26}} graduated from a Catholic seminary in Pelplin. He was the first priest to introduce Catholic liturgy in Kashubian.

The earliest recorded artifacts of Kashubian date back to the 15th century and include a book of spiritual psalms that were used to introduce Kashubian to the Lutheran church:

• 1586 Duchowne piesnie (Spiritual songs) D. Marcina Luthera y ynßich naboznich męzow. Zniemieckiego w Slawięsky ięzik wilozone Przes Szymana Krofea... w Gdainsku: przes Jacuba Rhode, Tetzner 1896: translated from pastorks. S. Krofeja, Słowińca (?) rodem z Dąbia.
• 1643 Mały Catechism (Little Catechism) D. Marciná Lutherá Niemiecko-Wándalski ábo Slowięski to jestá z Niemieckiego języká w Słowięski wystáwiony na jáwnosc wydan..., w Gdaińsku przes Jerzego Rhetá, Gdansk 1643. Pastor smołdziński ks. Mostnik, rodem ze Slupska.
• Perykopy smołdzinskie (Smoldzinski Pericope), published by Friedhelm Hinze, Berlin (East), 1967
• Śpiewnik starokaszubski (Old Kashubian songbook), published by Friedhelm Hinze, Berlin (East), 1967

Throughout the communist period in Poland (1948-1989), Kashubian greatly suffered in education and social status. Kashubian was represented as folklore and prevented from being taught in schools. Following the collapse of communism, attitudes on the status of Kashubian have been gradually changing.{{cite web |url=http://www.ies.ee/iesp/grabowska.pdf |title=The Institute for European Studies, Ethnological institute of UW |access-date=2014-10-21 |archive-date=2003-03-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030320014218/http://www.ies.ee/iesp/grabowska.pdf |url-status=live }} It has been included in the program of school education in Kashubia although not as a language of teaching or as a required subject for every child, but as a foreign language taught 3 hours per week at parents' explicit request. Since 1991, it is estimated that there have been around 17,000 students in over 400 schools who have learned Kashubian.{{Cite web|url=http://pl.languagesindanger.eu/book-of-knowledge/pakiet-dla-szkol-o-jezykach-mniejszosciowych/jezykowa-mozaika-ziem-polskich/jezyk-kaszubski/|title=język kaszubski {{!}} pl.languagesindanger.eu|website=pl.languagesindanger.eu|access-date=2016-05-02|archive-date=2016-06-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602110359/http://pl.languagesindanger.eu/book-of-knowledge/pakiet-dla-szkol-o-jezykach-mniejszosciowych/jezykowa-mozaika-ziem-polskich/jezyk-kaszubski/|url-status=live}} Kashubian has some limited usage on public radio and had on public television. Since 2005, Kashubian has enjoyed legal protection in Poland as an official regional language. It is the only language in Poland with that status, which was granted by the Act of 6 January 2005 on National and Ethnic Minorities and on the Regional Language of the Polish Parliament.{{cite web|url=http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/DetailsServlet?id=WDU20050170141|title=Internetowy System Aktów Prawnych|first=Kancelaria Sejmu|last=RP|access-date=2013-12-17|archive-date=2012-01-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118150023/http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/DetailsServlet?id=WDU20050170141|url-status=live}} The act provides for its use in official contexts in ten communes in which speakers are at least 20% of the population.G. Stone: Slav outposts in Central European history : the Wends, Sorbs and Kashubs, London, UK : Bloomsbury Academic, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2016, p. 348 The recognition means that heavily populated Kashubian localities have been able to have road signs and other amenities with Polish and Kashubian translations on them.

File:Kaszuby - dialekty wg F.Lorentza.png

Friedrich Lorentz wrote in the early 20th century that there were three main Kashubian dialects. These include the

• Northern Kashubian dialect
• Middle Kashubian dialect
• Southern Kashubian dialect

Other researches would argue that each tiny region of the Kaszuby has its own dialect, as in Dialects and Slang of Poland:{{Cite book|title=Dialekty i gwary polskie|last=Dubisz|first=Stanisław|publisher=Wiedza Powszechna|year=1995|isbn=978-8321409894|location=Warszawa|pages=67–70}}

• Bylacki dialect
• Slowinski dialect
• Kabatkow dialect
• Zaborski dialect
• Tucholski and Krajniacki dialect (although both dialects would be considered a transitional form of the Wielkopolski dialect and are included as official Wielkopolskie dialects)

The phonological system of the Kashubian language is similar in many ways to those of other Slavic languages. It is famous for Kaszëbienié (Kashubization) and has a large vowel inventory, with 9 oral vowels and 2 nasal vowels.

Friedrich Lorentz argued that northern dialects had contrastive vowel length, but later studies showed that any phonemic length distinctions had disappeared by 1900. Any other vowel length is used for expressive purposes or is the result of syllable stress.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=19}} All traces of vowel length can now be seen in vowel alterations.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=61}}

Kashubian features free placement of stress, and in some cases, mobile stress, and in northern dialects, unstressed syllables can result in vowel reduction.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=20}} An archaic word final stress is preserved in some two-syllable adjectives, adverbs, and regularly in the comparative degree of adverbs, in some infinitives and present and past tense forms, some nouns ending in -ô, in diminutives. ending in -ik/-yk, nouns formed with -c and -k, and some prepositional phrases with pronouns.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=20}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=38}}

Stress mobility can be observed in nouns, where in the singular the stress is initial, but in the plural it's on the final syllable of the stem, i.e. {{lang|csb|k'òlano}} but {{lang|csb|kòl'anami}}, and in some verb forms, i.e. {{lang|csb|k'ùpi}} vs {{lang|csb|kùp'ita}}. Some dialects have merged ë with e, making the distinction contrastive. Most of this mobility is limited to morphology and stress has largely stabilized in Kashubian.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=20}}

Northern and central dialects show a much more limited mobility, as northern dialects show stabilization on initial stress, and central shows constant distance between the stressed syllable and the initial syllable of the word.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=20—21}} Proclitics such as prepositions, pronouns, and grammatical particles such as {{lang|csb|nié}} may take initial stress.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=21}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=38}}

Eastern groups place accents on the penultimate syllable.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=24}}

The difference between southern and northern dialects dates as far back as the 14th—15th century and is the result of changes to the Proto-Slavic vowel length system.

1. Retention of softness before -ar-: Kashubian {{lang|csb|czwiôrtk}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|czwartek}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=22}}
2. Proto-Slavic *-ъl-/*-ьl- -> -ôł-: Kashubian {{lang|csb|kôłbasa}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|kiełbasa}}
3. This change is somewhat archaic or lexicalized, appearing more in the North.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=22}}
4. TelT -> TłoT: Kashubian {{lang|csb|młoc}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|mleć}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=23}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=37}}
5. Retention of TarT, especially in the North: Kashubian {{lang|csb|bardówka}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|brodawka}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=23—24}}
6. This feature is not regular and is somewhat archaic, even giving rise to archaizing neologisms such as Kashubian {{lang|csb|barń}} (from Kashubian {{lang|csb|bróń}}).
7. Labialization of initial o-: Kashubian {{lang|csb|òwca}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|owca}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=24}}
8. So-called Kaszëbienié (Kashubization), Proto-Slavic soft t/d/s/z initially to {{ipa|t͡ɕ, d͡ʑ, ɕ, ʑ}} and finally to {{ipa|t͡s, d͡z, s, z}}: Kashubian {{lang|csb|cëchò}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|cicho}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|chòdzëc}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|chodzić}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|swiat}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|świat}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|zëma}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|zima}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=24}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=30}}{{cite book |url= http://www.dialektologia.uw.edu.pl/index.php?l1=leksykon-kaszubski&lid=1150|title=Kaszubienie|last= Treder|first= Jerzy|editor=Małgorzata Klinkosz|year=2010 |website=Dialekty i gwary polskie |language=pl |trans-title=Kashubization |isbn=978-83-62844-10-4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130121258/http://www.dialektologia.uw.edu.pl/index.php?l1=leksykon-kaszubski&lid=1150 |archive-date=January 30, 2024 |url-status=live}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=26}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=29}}
9. This process occurred differently in the West, where soft ć/dź went to t/d{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=24}}
10. Initial ra- -> re- and ja- -> je-, however modern forms usually retain -a- Kashubian {{lang|csb|redło}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|radło}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|jerzmò}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|jarzmo}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=25}}
11. Irregular change of -ar- -> -er-, Kashubian {{lang|csb|żerlë}} alongside Kashubian {{lang|csb|żarła}} (from Kashubian {{lang|csb|żréc}}), vs Polish {{lang|pl|żarła}} (from Polish {{lang|pl|żreć}}).{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=25}}
12. Regional retention of medial -t- in the word Kashubian {{lang|csb|sétmë}} ("seven") vs Polish {{lang|pl|siedem}} (compare Masurian Polish {{lang|pl|sziétém}}).{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=25}}
13. Loss of mobile e through analysis of declined forms: Kashubian {{lang|csb|dómk}} (genitive singular Kashubian {{lang|csb|dómkù}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|domek}} (genitive singular Polish {{lang|pl|domku}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|matk}} (genitive plural of Kashubian {{lang|csb|matka}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|matek}} (genitive plural of Polish {{lang|pl|matka}}){{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=25—26}}
14. An ablaut of e:'o after a soft consonant but before hard dentals: Kashubian {{lang|csb|wiezc}} (first person present singular Kashubian {{lang|csb|wiozã}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|wieźć}} (first person present singular Polish {{lang|pl|wiozę}}).{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=26}}
15. This ablaut may occur also through analogy, i.e. Kashubian {{lang|csb|wiozlë}} (past virile l form of Kashubian {{lang|csb|wiezc}}), vs Polish {{lang|pl|wieźli}}.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=26}}
16. Proto-Slavic ř -> rz {{ipa|r̝}}: Kashubian {{lang|csb|mòrze}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|morze}} (where rz in Polish is pronounced as a fricative {{ipa|ʐ}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=27}})
17. -dz- -> -z-: Kashubian {{lang|csb|cëzy}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|cudzy}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=27}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=34—35}}
18. This feature is chiefly Northern, and often forms with -dz- dominate.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=27}}
19. Lengthening (now a qualitative change) vowels of word-final closed syllables ending with an etymologically voiced consonant: Kashubian {{lang|csb|bóg}} (genitive singular Kashubian {{lang|csb|boga}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|bóg}} (genitive singular Polish {{lang|pl|boga}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|miała}} but Kashubian {{lang|csb|miôł}} (past feminine and masculine l-forms of Kashubian {{lang|csb|miec}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|miała}}/Polish {{lang|pl|miał}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|pana}} (genitive singular of Kashubian {{lang|csb|pón}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|pana}}/Polish {{lang|pl|pan}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|gniewu}} (genitive singular of Kashubian {{lang|csb|gniéw}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|gniewu}} (genitive singular of Polish {{lang|pl|gniew}}), Kashubian {{lang|csb|dëmù}} (genitive singular of Kashubian {{lang|csb|dim}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|dymu}} (genitive singular of Polish {{lang|pl|dym}}), Kashubian {{lang|csb|cëdu}} (genitive singular of Kashubian {{lang|csb|cud}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|cudu}} (genitive singular of Polish {{lang|pl|cud}}). Compare Old Polish phonology.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=27}}
20. Proto-Slavic *ę -> Early Kashubian į -> i: Kashubian {{lang|csb|wzyc}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|wziąć}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=28}}
21. This change was also effected by the change causing i:ë ablaut
22. As a result of Kaszëbienié, short i -> ë after s, z, c, dz: Kashubian {{lang|csb|cëchò, chòdzëc, sëwi, zëma}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|cicho, chodzić, siwy, zima}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=28}}
23. Short y/i after hard consonants -> ë: Kashubian {{lang|csb|bëc, lëpa, przësc}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|być, lipa, prząść}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=30}}
24. Soft k/g -> cz/dż or sometimes ć/dź: Kashubian {{lang|csb|czedë}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|kiedy}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|nodżi}} (genitive singular or nominative/accusative plural of Kashubian {{lang|csb|noga}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|nogi}} (genitive singular or nominative/accusative plural of Polish {{lang|pl|noga}}){{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=31}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=31}}
25. Bëlaczenié in northern dialects, i.e. ł -> l: Kashubian {{lang|csb|jaskùlëczka}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|jaskółeczka}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=31}}
26. Hardening of ń -> n is southern Kashubian: Kashubian {{lang|csb|kónsczi}} (usually Kashubian {{lang|csb|kóńsczi}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|koński}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=32}}
27. Dissimilation of some consonant cluster such as kt -> cht or srz/zrz -> strz/zdrz: Kashubian {{lang|csb|chto}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|kto}} and Kashubian {{lang|csb|strzoda, zdrzódło}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|środa, źródło}}.{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=33—34}}
28. Reduction of some consonant clusters, especially in frequent words: Kashubian {{lang|csb|pierszi, baro}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|pierwszy, bardzo}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=34}}
29. Prothesis, particularly the insertion of j- before word initial i-: Kashubian {{lang|csb|jistniec}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|istnieć}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=35—36}}
30. Regional insertion of h- before word initial a-: Kashubian {{lang|csb|(h)arfa}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|arfa}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=36}}

• The exact phonetic realization of the close-mid vowels {{IPA|/e, o/}} depends on the dialect.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=43}}
• Apart from these, there are also nasal vowels {{IPA|/ã, õ/}}. Their exact phonetic realization depends on the dialect.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=54—59}}
• {{ipa|/ɔ, u/}} diphthongize to {{ipa|/wɛ/, /wu/}} after p, b, k, g, and ch.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=34}}

Kashubian has simple consonants with a secondary articulation along with complex ones with secondary articulation.

• {{IPA|/tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/}} are palato-alveolar.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=62}}
• {{IPA|/ɲ, tɕ, dʑ, ɕ, ʑ/}} are alveolo-palatal; the last four appear only in some dialects.{{which|date=June 2024}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=68}}
• The fricative trill {{IPA|/r̝/}} is now used only by some northern and northeastern speakers; other speakers realize it as flat postalveolar {{IPAblink|ʐ}}.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=67}}
• The labialized velar central approximant {{IPA|/w/}} is realized as a velarized denti-alveolar lateral approximant {{IPAblink|ɫ̪}} by older speakers of southeastern dialects.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=70}}

Kashubian features the same system of voicing assimilation as standard Polish.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=71}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=32—33}}

German has been the source for most loanwords in Kashubian, with an estimated 5% of the vocabulary, as opposed to 3% in Polish.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=87}}

Kashubian, like other Slavic languages, has a rich system of derivational morphology, with prefixes, suffixes, deverbals, compounds, among others.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=88—89}}

The following digraphs and trigraphs are used:

{{main|Kashubian grammar}}

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Kashubian:

:Wszëtczi lëdze rodzą sã wòlny ë równy w swòji czëstnoce ë swòjich prawach. Mają òni dostóne rozëm ë sëmienié ë nôlégô jima pòstãpòwac wobec drëdzich w dëchù bracënotë.

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|website=un.org|access-date=2023-03-01|archive-date=2021-03-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|url-status=live}}

:All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

file:Cassubia1238 Język Kaszubski 2002.png|Percentage of people that speak Kashubian at home (2002)

file:Garcz.jpg|Two bilingual signs in Garcz in Kashubia with the Polish name above and the Kashubian name below

file:Powiat Pucczi 2 ubt.jpeg|Bilingual sign in Polish and Kashubian in Pogórze, Puck County, Poland, on road from Gdynia to Rewa

file:Stefan_Ramult-Pomeranian_Dictionary.png|Page of Stefan Ramułt Pomeranian (Kashubian language) Dictionary 1893

file: Jezyk_kaszubski_w_gminach_NSP2011.png|Map showing regions in Poland where Kashubian is recognized as a regional language (orange) and where it could qualify in the upcoming years (yellow)

File:Jerozolëma, kòscel Pater noster, "Òjcze nasz" pò kaszëbskù.JPG|Church of the Pater Noster, Mount of Olives, Jerusalem. Lord's Prayer in Kashubian

{{Portal|Poland|Languages}}

• Ł–l merger
• Bilingual communes in Poland
• Gdańsk Pomerania
• Kashubia
• Kashubian alphabet
• Kashubian-Pomeranian Association
• Kashubian studies
• Masurian dialects
• Old Prussian language
• Pomerelia
• Pomeranian language
• Slovincian language

{{reflist}}

• Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville. G. (2002). The Slavonic Languages. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-28078-8}}
• [https://www.mqup.ca/creating-kashubia-products-9780773547209.php Blank, Joshua C. Creating Kashubia: History, Memory and Identity in Canada's First Polish Community. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2016.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212034412/https://www.mqup.ca/creating-kashubia-products-9780773547209.php |date=2019-12-12 }}
• Gyula Décsy, Die linguistische Struktur Europas, Vergangenheit — Gegenwart — Zukunft, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1973
• Friedhelm Hinze, Wörterbuch und Lautlehre der deutschen Lehnwörter im Pomoranischen (Kaschubischen), Berlin 1965
• Język kaszubski. Poradnik encyklopedyczny. ed. J. Treder, Rev. 2. corrected and expanded UG, Oficyna Czec, Gdańsk, 2006
• J. Borzyszkowski, J. Mordawski, J. Treder: Historia, geografia, język i piśmiennictwo Kaszubów; J. Bòrzëszkòwsczi, J. Mòrdawsczi, J. Tréder: Historia, geògrafia, jãzëk i pismienizna Kaszëbów, Wëdowizna M. Rôżok przë wespółrobòce z Institutã Kaszëbsczim, Gduńsk 1999, p. 128
• Aleksander Labuda, Słowôrz kaszëbsko-polsczi. Słownik polsko-kaszubski, Gdańsk 1982
• Friedrich Lorentz, Geschichte der Pomoranischen (Kaschubischen) Sprache, Berlin and Leipzig, 1925
• Nestor, N. & Hickey, T. (2009). Out of the Communist frying pan and into the EU fire? Exploring the case of Kashubian [https://rms.ucd.ie/ufrs/!W_VA_PUB_JOURNAL.EDIT?POPUP=TRUE&object_id=189186921] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011131839/https://rms.ucd.ie/ufrs/!W_VA_PUB_JOURNAL.EDIT?POPUP=TRUE&object_id=189186921 |date=2017-10-11 }}.
• Nomachi Motoki, On the recipient passive in the Kashubian Language: Annex to Milka Ivić's syntactic inventory for Slavonic dialectology [http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0350-185X/2008/0350-185X0864273N.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213165339/http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0350-185X/2008/0350-185X0864273N.pdf |date=2014-12-13 }}
• Stefan Ramułt, Słownik języka pomorskiego, czyli kaszubskiego, Kraków, 1893 i.e. "Dictionary of the Pomeranian (Seacoast) or Kashubian language" (Kraków, 1893)
• Stefan Ramułt, Słownik języka pomorskiego czyli kaszubskiego. Scalił i znormalizował Jerzy Treder, Gdańsk, 2003
• C. F. Voegelin and F. M. Voegelin, Classification and Index of the World's Languages. Elsevier, New York 1977

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite book |last1=Breza |first1=Edward |last2=Treder |first2=Jerzy |date=1981 |title=Gramatyka kaszubska: zarys popularny |language=pl |location=Gdańsk |editor=Maria Kowalewska |publisher=Zrzeszenie Kaszubsko-Pomorskie (Kaszëbskò-Pòmòrsczé Zrzeszenié) | isbn=83-00-00102-6}}
• {{cite book |last1=Makùrôt |first1=Hana |date=2016 |title=Gramatika kaszëbsczégò jãzëka |language=csb |location=Gdańsk |editor=Bożena Ugowska |publisher=Zrzeszenie Kaszubsko-Pomorskie (Kaszëbskò-Pòmòrsczé Zrzeszenié) |isbn=978-83-62137-97-8 |url=http://skarbnicakaszubska.pl/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/GRAMATYKA-hiperlacza.pdf |access-date=2024-02-02 |archive-date=2023-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230125061545/http://skarbnicakaszubska.pl/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/GRAMATYKA-hiperlacza.pdf |url-status=live }}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin}}

• Ager, S. (1998-2016). Kashubian (kaszëbsczi jãzëk). Retrieved February 12, 2016, from http://www.omniglot.com/writing/kashubian.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070805101425/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/kashubian.htm |date=2007-08-05 }}
• [https://www.mqup.ca/creating-kashubia-products-9780773547209.php Blank, Joshua C. Creating Kashubia: History, Memory and Identity in Canada's First Polish Community. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2016.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212034412/https://www.mqup.ca/creating-kashubia-products-9780773547209.php |date=2019-12-12 }}
• Grabowska A., Ladykowski P.. "[https://www.ies.ee/iesp/grabowska.pdf The Change of the Cashubian Identity before Entering the EU] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011131835/http://www.ies.ee/iesp/grabowska.pdf |date=2017-10-11 }}". In: Baltic Journal of European Studies 2002, no. 1.
• {{cite journal |last=KURCZEWSKI |first=JACEK |title=Self-Identification Structure in Opole Silesia and the Kashubia: A Comparative Analysis |journal=Polish Sociological Review |issue=157 |date=2007 |pages=87–104 |jstor=41275003}}
• {{cite journal |last=MacDonald |first=Gregory |date=1939 |title=The Kashubs on the Baltic |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |volume=19 |issue=53/54 |pages=265–275 |jstor=4203596}}
• {{cite journal |last=Perkowski |first=Jan L |title=The Kashubs: Origins and Emigration to the U. S. |journal=Polish American Studies |volume=23 |issue=1 |date=1966 |pages=1–7 |jstor=20147702}}
• W. (2016). Krótka historia języka kaszubskiego (Short History of the Kashubian Language). Retrieved February 12, 2016, from http://www.kaszubi.pl/o/reda/artykulmenu?id=395 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011132243/http://www.kaszubi.pl/o/reda/artykulmenu?id=395 |date=2017-10-11 }}
• Stanulewicz, D. (n.d.). The Use of the Kashubian Language from the Perspective of Young People Aged 16–19: Settings and Participants. 191–203. Retrieved February 12, 2016, from [http://www.wilkuer.de/forschung/191-204_stanulewicz_final_js_wk_js.rtf www.wilkuer.de/forschung/191-204_stanulewicz_final_js_wk_js.rtf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602040830/http://www.wilkuer.de/forschung/191-204_stanulewicz_final_js_wk_js.rtf |date=2016-06-02 }}.
• {{cite journal |last=Stone |first=Gerald |title=The Language of Cassubian Literature and the Question of a Literary Standard |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |volume=50 |issue=121 |date=1972 |pages=521–529 |jstor=4206617}}
• Szulest, David (2012). Kashubian Identity. Kashubs in Canada and Kashubia/Kaszebe Retrieved from http://kaszebsko.com/uploads/KASHUBIAN%20IDENTITY.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220181842/http://kaszebsko.com/uploads/KASHUBIAN%20IDENTITY.pdf |date=2016-12-20 }}
• Toops, G. H. (2007). [Review of Das Kaschubische: Sprachtod oder Revitalisierung? Empirische Studien zur ethnolinguistischen Vitalität einer Sprachminderheit in Polen. Slavistische Beiträge, 452].Canadian Slavonic Papers, 49(1/2), 160–162.
• Topolinska, Z. (1974). A Historical Phonology of the Kashubian Dialects of Polish. General Information on the Kashubians and Kashubian Dialects. Retrieved from [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZggAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 Google Books]. {{isbn|978-3-11-081338-8}}
• {{cite journal |last=ZIENIUKOWA |first=JADWIGA |title=THE KASHUBIAN LANGUAGE – A MINORITY LANGUAGE SPOKEN IN BORDERLANDS AS IT WAS AND AS IT IS TODAY |journal=Český Lid |volume=102 |issue=1 |date=2015 |pages=43–54 |jstor=24570454}}
• {{cite book |last1=Karłowicz |first1=Jan |date=1898 |title=Gwara kaszubska |language=pl |location=Warszawa |url=https://polona.pl/item/67861850/ |access-date=2024-02-02 |archive-date=2024-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202194841/https://polona.pl/item/67861850/ |url-status=live }}
• {{cite book |last1=Lorentz |first1=Friedrich |date=1927 |title=Gramatyka pomorska |language=pl |location=Poznań |url=https://pbc.gda.pl/dlibra/publication/2060/edition/1399/content |access-date=2024-02-02 |archive-date=2024-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202194949/https://pbc.gda.pl/dlibra/publication/2060/edition/1399/content |url-status=live }}
• {{cite book |last1=Lorentz |first1=Friedrich |date=1927 |title=Kaszube gramatik |language=pl |location=Gdańsk |url=https://pbc.gda.pl/dlibra/publication/2037/edition/900?language=en |access-date=2024-02-02 |archive-date=2024-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202194955/https://pbc.gda.pl/dlibra/publication/2037/edition/900?language=en |url-status=live }}

{{refend}}

{{Sister project links |auto=1|wikt=Category:Kashubian language |q=y|iw=csb}}

• {{Wiktionary-inline|Appendix:Kashubian Swadesh list}}
• {{Wiktionary-inline|Kashubian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words}}
• [http://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85071708.html LC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304054937/http://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85071708.html |date=2014-03-04 }}
• [http://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_ksu The World Atlas of Language Structures - WALS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813231948/http://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_ksu |date=2017-08-13 }}
• [http://data.bnf.fr/en/11993905/kachoube__langue_/ BnF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011133609/http://data.bnf.fr/en/11993905/kachoube__langue_/ |date=2017-10-11 }}
• [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/kashubian.htm Omniglot] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070805101425/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/kashubian.htm |date=2007-08-05 }}
• [http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-en.asp?fileid=18970&lang=EN COE 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150606175504/http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-en.asp?fileid=18970&lang=EN |date=2015-06-06 }}
• [http://ccfr.bnf.fr/portailccfr/jsp/query_direct.jsp?query=ccfr_menu_localisation_combine&INDEXES=MotSujet&VALUES=Kachoube%20%28langue%29&external=true&SOURCES=z3950_bnopale%2Cz3950_sudoc%2Cbmr Kashubian language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307014748/http://ccfr.bnf.fr/portailccfr/jsp/query_direct.jsp?query=ccfr_menu_localisation_combine&INDEXES=MotSujet&VALUES=Kachoube%20%28langue%29&external=true&SOURCES=z3950_bnopale%2Cz3950_sudoc%2Cbmr |date=2014-03-07 }}
• [http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001236/123609e.pdf UNESCO] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227134557/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001236/123609e.pdf |date=2014-12-27 }}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720171141/http://www.pomeraniapalace.eu/ Following the trail of manor houses and castles of the Northern Kashubian Region]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20171011131856/http://www.unilang.org/resources.php?mode=language&targetlang=csb Kashubian resources; include phrasebooks]
• [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kashubian dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719204749/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kashubian |date=2013-07-19 }}
• [http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/3454 Endangered languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610143621/http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/3454 |date=2016-06-10 }}
• [https://culture.pl/en/article/kaszebsko-mowa-freeing-the-kashubian-language Kaszëbskô Mowa: Freeing the Kashubian Language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621035532/https://culture.pl/en/article/kaszebsko-mowa-freeing-the-kashubian-language |date=2019-06-21 }}

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Category:Languages of Poland

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