Left-libertarianism#Steiner–Vallentyne school

{{see also|Definition of anarchism and libertarianism}}

Libertarianism is a philosophy that advocates for freedom, whether political, economical or metaphysical.{{Sfn|Long|2021|p=30}} Although older political movements have been identified as libertarian (for example, Marxist historian E.P. Thompson argued in 1979 that "the English left-libertarian tradition can be traced back to the Levellers, Diggers and the Chartists"{{cite journal | last=Stevenson | first=Nick | title=Orwell as Public Intellectual: Anarchism, Communism and the New Left | journal=Anarchist Studies | date=March 2021 | publisher=Lawrence Wishart | volume=29 | issue=1 | pages=19–38 | url=https://journals.lwbooks.co.uk/anarchiststudies/vol-29-issue-1/abstract-9385/ | access-date=13 September 2024}}), the political definition of the term "libertarian" (from the {{langx|fr|libertaire}}) was coined by the French anarchist communist Joseph Déjacque in 1857, whereafter libertarianism became synonymous with anarchism.{{Sfnm|1a1=Long|1y=2021|1p=30|2a1=Marshall|2y=2008|2p=641}} The term was widely used by anarchists until the 1970s, when libertarianism first started to be associated with a radical free market philosophy, particularly in the United States.{{Sfnm|1a1=Long|1y=2021|1p=30|2a1=Marshall|2y=2008|2pp=641-642}}{{cite web | last=Berman | first=Paul | title=The Last of the Anarchists | website=Slate Magazine | date=25 September 1996 | url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/1996/09/the-last-of-the-anarchists.html | access-date=12 September 2024|quote=The word "libertarian" began as a left-wing synonym for "anarchist," and was taken over by the right-wing free-marketers of the Libertarian Party only in recent decades.}}

The oldest, traditional, definition of "left-libertarianism" used it synonymously with social anarchism.{{Sfnm|1a1=Goodway|1y=2006|1pp=1-4|2a1=Long|2y=2012|2p=227}} Seeking to distinguish themselves from the new generation of free-market libertarians, social anarchists began referring to themselves as "left-libertarians",{{Sfnm|1a1=Goodway|1y=2006|1p=4|2a1=Long|2y=2017|2p=308n104|3a1=Long|3y=2021|3p=30}} while the new adoptees of the term became known as "right-libertarians".{{Sfnm|1a1=Goodway|1y=2006|1p=4|2a1=Long|2y=2021|2p=30}} This usage is also applied to libertarian socialists such as William Morris or Fenner Brockway{{cite web | author=George Woodcock|title=The crystal spirit: A study of George Orwell | website=Internet Archive | date=23 October 2016 | url=https://archive.org/details/crystalspiritst00wood/ | access-date=11 September 2024|quote=[George] Orwell appeared on the platform with Herbert Read, Fenner Brockway and a few other leaders of the libertarian Left.[p.18]... Julian Symons was substantially correct when he said, in his London Magazine article, that Orwell retained his faith in libertarian socialism until his death, but that in the end this belief "was expressed for him more sympathetically in the personalities of unpractical Anarchists than in the slide rule Socialists who made up the bulk of the British Parliamentary Labor Party.[p.27]... Orwell's affinities were in fact less with Lawrence and Yeats than with William Morris, another libertarian Socialist who distrusted doctrinaires [p.83]}}Historians Evan Smith and Matthew Worley describe "left libertarianism" as discussed by David Goodway as "the space between anarchism and socialist humanism."{{cite book | last1=Smith | first1=Evan | last2=Worley | first2=Matthew | title=Against the grain: The British far left from 1956 | chapter=Introduction: The far left in Britain from 1956 | publisher=Manchester University Press | year=2014 | isbn=978-0-7190-9590-0 | jstor=j.ctt18mvmsj.6 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt18mvmsj.6 | access-date=12 September 2024 | page=1–22}} and libertarian Marxists such as Cornelius Castoriadis.Benoît Challand, "Socialisme ou Barbarie or the Partial Encounters Between Anarchism and Critical Marxism", in: Alex Prichard, Ruth Kinna, Dave Berry, Saku Pinta (eds.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=3PQv7y7zMBsC Libertarian Socialism: Politics in Black and Red], Palgrave Macmillan, 2012, pp. 210–231, esp. 210, "... Castoriadis's evident legacy to Left-libertarian thinking and his radical break with orthodox Marxist-Leninism ..."

At the same time as social anarchists began using the term to distinguish themselves from free-market libertarians, some of the advocates of free market economics that were associated with the New Left, including Roy Childs and Samuel Konkin, also began referring to themselves as "left-libertarians" in order to highlight themselves as the left-wing of the new free-market libertarian movement.{{Sfn|Long|2021|p=30}} As anti-capitalist advocates of free-market economics, they used the term "left-libertarian" in order to distinguish themselves from the right-wing advocates of libertarian capitalism.{{Sfn|Long|2017|p=308n104}}

Left libertarianism is defined a little differently by many European political scientists, in a usage introduced by Herbert Kitschelt in 1989.Kitschelt, Herbert (1989) The Logics of Party Formation. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.{{cite journal | last1=Gunther | first1=Richard | last2=Diamond | first2=Larry | title=Species of Political Parties: A New Typology | journal=Party Politics | volume=9 | issue=2 | date=2003 | issn=1354-0688 | doi=10.1177/13540688030092003 | pages=167–199|quote=Herbert Kitschelt (1989) differentiates parties that emphasize the ‘logic of electoral competition’ from those (such as the ‘left-libertarian’ type that he introduces) that place much greater stress on the ‘logic of constituency representation’...}} Left libertarian parties emphasise notions of internal party democracy and bottom-up participation.Kitschelt, H. (1988) 'Left-libertarian parties: explaining innovation in competitive party systems', World Politics, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 194 –234.{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/13608746.2012.757455 | title=The Radical Left's Turn towards Civil Society in Greece: One Strategy, Two Paths | date=2013 | last1=Tsakatika | first1=Myrto | last2=Eleftheriou | first2=Costas | journal=South European Society and Politics | volume=18 | pages=81–99 }} Green parties and radical left parties are often grouped together as "left-libertarian" parties by political scientists.{{cite journal | last=Lourenço | first=Pedro | title=Studying European Radical Left Parties since the Fall of the Berlin Wall (1990–2019): A Scoping Review | journal=Swiss Political Science Review | volume=27 | issue=4 | date=2021 | issn=1424-7755 | doi=10.1111/spsr.12478 | pages=754–777}} March, L., & Mudde, C. (2005). What's left of the radical left? The European radical left after 1989: Decline and mutation. Comparative European Politics, 3(1), 23–49. Redding, K., & Viterna, J. S. (1999). Political demands, political opportunities: Explaining the differential success of left-libertarian parties. Social Forces, 78(2), 491–510.

For political scientists Jan Jämte and Adrienne Sörbom,

The term radical left-libertarianism is used as an umbrella concept, gathering different strands of anti-authoritarian forms of socialism, stressing both anti-capitalist and anti-statist views, as well as the need to build a society based on voluntary forms of cooperation. Presently, such movements also often articulate strong criticism of what are seen as other forms of oppression, such as sexism, racism and homophobia, thus making the movements potential allies to a wider section of movement cultures. The anarchist ideology and movement are firmly rooted within this broad ideational category, together with other branches of left-libertarianism such as council communism, anarcho-syndicalism or autonomism.Jan Jämte and Adrienne Sörbom, [https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-137-56570-9_7 Why Did It Not Happen Here? The Gradual Radicalization of the Anarchist Movement in Sweden 1980–90], in: [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-137-56570-9 A European Youth Revolt European Perspectives on Youth Protest and Social Movements in the 1980s], Palgrave, 2016, p.98

File:Murray_Bookchin,_Burlington_Vermont,_1990.jpg, a left-libertarian (formerly) of the social anarchist school]]

{{Main|social anarchism}}

In its oldest form, "left-libertarianism" was used synonymously with social anarchism.{{Sfnm|1a1=Goodway|1y=2006|1pp=1-4|2a1=Long|2y=2012|2p=227}} Although social anarchism and other forms of left-libertarianism share similar roots and concerns, social anarchism has distinguished itself as a distinct ideological tradition,{{Sfn|Marshall|2008|p=642}} due to its fundamental rejection of the state.{{Sfnm|1a1=Bookchin|1y=1995|1p=60|2a1=Marshall|2y=2008|2p=642}} In contrast to individualist tendencies, social anarchism rejects private property and market relations,{{Sfnm|1a1=Long|1y=2012|1p=219|2a1=Marshall|2y=2008|2pp=498-499}} which they believe will be eliminated with the abolition of the state.{{Sfn|Long|2012|p=219}}

Social anarchism, originally associated with the libertarianism of Joseph Déjacque, has historically encompassed collectivist anarchism, anarchist communism and anarcho-syndicalism; each of which became influential tendencies in the Russian and Spanish Revolutions.{{Sfn|Long|2012|pp=223-224}}

The contemporary left-libertarian Murray Bookchin advocated for the replacement of the state with a libertarian communist society, which he saw as a decentralized confederation of municipalities, in which decisions would be made by direct democracy.{{Sfn|Bookchin|1995|p=60}} Bookchin was also harshly critical of individualist anarchism, which he held responsible for the failure of left-libertarianism to take a prominent place in public discourse.{{Sfn|Bookchin|1995|pp=51-59}}

{{main|New social movements}}

In 1960s Germany, the libertarian left was a dominant current in the extra-parliamentary opposition, "Außerparlamentarische Opposition" (ApO).{{cite thesis | last=Confesson | first=Alan | title=Une nouvelle gauche radicale : analyse comparative des transformations de la famille partisane de la gauche radicale européenne au XXIème siècle: (2000-2017) | publisher=Université Grenoble Alpes | date=8 February 2019 | url=https://theses.hal.science/tel-02361130 | access-date=22 August 2024}}

The punk scene provoked an expansion of the libertarian left: "a broader 'libertarian left' influence can be discerned in punk and post-punk's engagement with gender relations, sexuality, consumerism, imperialism and so forth".Matthew Worley, [https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-137-56570-9_15 Riotous Assembly: British Punk's Cultural Diaspora in the Summer of '81], in: [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-137-56570-9 A European Youth Revolt European Perspectives on Youth Protest and Social Movements in the 1980s], Palgrave, 2016, p.224-25

Northern Europe saw an upsurge in radical left-libertarian activism, squatting and urban unrest at the turn of the 1980s.Jan Jämte and Adrienne Sörbom, Why Did It Not Happen Here? The Gradual Radicalization of the Anarchist Movement in Sweden 1980–90, p.97 From this point until the late 2010s, "the main tendency in radical left activism shifted from party-based Marxism-Leninism to network-based, direct-action activism based on libertarian socialist ideals… shifting [in this period] from direct-action networks that engaged in a variety of political issue—anti-fascism, anti-imperialism, feminism, animal rights, etc.—to more 'conventional' networks of organizations and initiatives through which activists intervened in local politics and neighborhood and workplace conflicts. The same period also saw the [radical left libertarian movements] become less disruptive and violent, in favor of tactical pragmatism and conventional forms of protest".{{cite book | last1=Jämte | first1=Jan | last2=Lundstedt | first2=Måns | last3=Wennerhag | first3=Magnus | title=The Palgrave Handbook of Left-Wing Extremism, Volume 1 | chapter=Radical Left Movements in Scandinavia, 1980–2020: Straddling Militant Counterculture and Popular Movements | publisher=Springer International Publishing | publication-place=Cham | date=2023 | isbn=978-3-031-30896-3 | doi=10.1007/978-3-031-30897-0_16 | pages=281–304}}

File:Gary_Chartier_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg, a left-libertarian of the free-market anti-capitalist school]]

{{Main|Market anarchism}}

Alongside social anarchists, left-wing proponents of free-market economics have associated themselves with left-libertarianism,{{Sfn|Long|2021|p=30}} also partly influenced by the New Left. This post-classical definition has been used synonymously with the free-market anti-capitalism ({{aka}} left-wing market anarchism) advocated by Kevin Carson, Gary Chartier, and Charles W. Johnson,{{Sfnm|1a1=Long|1y=2012|1p=227|2a1=Long|2y=2017|2p=308|3a1=Long|3y=2021|3pp=31-32}} who together formed the Alliance of the Libertarian Left and the subsequent Center for a Stateless Society.{{Sfn|Long|2017|p=308}} Drawing from the views of American individualist anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker and Lysander Spooner, left-wing market anarchists defend the use of free markets and private property, which they consider to have an "essential coordinating role" in society.{{Sfn|Long|2021|pp=31-32}} Free-market anti-capitalists hold market intervention responsible for capitalist control of the means of production, a situation they believe will be solved by the introduction of free competition. Building on Tucker's ideas, Kevin Carson has also defended the labor theory of value and occupancy-and-use land ownership, although not all free-market anti-capitalists agree with these positions.{{Sfn|Long|2017|p=308}} Like social anarchists and unlike many right-libertarians, left-wing market anarchists are opposed to capitalism and other forms of oppression such as racism and sexism; they consider this anti-oppression politics to be an integral part of left-libertarianism.{{Sfn|Long|2021|p=32}}

{{main|Green politics}}

The green movement, especially its more left-wing factions, is often described by political scientists as left-libertarian.{{Cite journal|last=Kitschelt|first=Herbert|date=1988|title=The Life Expectancy of Left-Libertarian Parties. Does Structural Transformation or Economic Decline Explain Party Innovation? A Response to Wilhelm P. Bürklin|journal=European Sociological Review|volume=4|issue=2|pages=155–160|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.esr.a036474|jstor=522545|issn=0266-7215}}{{Cite journal|last1=Redding|first1=Kent|last2=Viterna|first2=Jocelyn S.|date=1999|title=Political Demands, Political Opportunities: Explaining the Differential Success of Left-Libertarian Parties|journal=Social Forces|volume=78|issue=2|pages=491–510|doi=10.2307/3005565|jstor=3005565|issn=0037-7732}}{{Cite journal|last=Neumayer|first=Eric|date=June 2003|title=Are left-wing party strength and corporatism good for the environment? Evidence from panel analysis of air pollution in OECD countries|url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/631/|journal=Ecological Economics|language=en|volume=45|issue=2|pages=203–220|doi=10.1016/S0921-8009(03)00012-0|bibcode=2003EcoEc..45..203N |issn=0921-8009|access-date=2019-11-29|archive-date=2019-05-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511010944/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/631/|url-status=live}}

In the wake of the new social movements (especially the ecology and anti-nuclear movements) of the 1970s and 1980s, many left libertarian parties (sometimes called movement parties) were formed, including green parties, which maintained a relationship with these social movements.{{cite book | last1=Porta | first1=Donatella della | last2=Fernández | first2=Joseba | last3=Kouki | first3=Hara | last4=Mosca | first4=Lorenzo | title=Movement Parties Against Austerity | publisher=Polity | publication-place=Cambridge Malden (Mass.) | date=2017-05-01 | isbn=978-1-5095-1145-7 | page=21}}{{cite journal | last=Kim | first=Seongcheol | title=Movement parties of the left, right, and center: A discursive-organizational approach | journal=Constellations | date=15 August 2023 | volume=31 | issue=3 | pages=399–413 | issn=1351-0487 | doi=10.1111/1467-8675.12705 |quote= an earlier wave of interest in movement–party interactions that emerged in the late 1980s and 1990s in relation to newly emerging Green and "left-libertarian" political parties in the wake of anti-nuclear and environmental protest movements (Kitschelt, 1989; Kitschelt & Hellemans, 1990; Mayer & Ely, 1998; Richardson & Rootes, 1994).| doi-access=free }} Political scientists Santos and Mercea argue that, in recent years, "the rise of movement parties across Europe has disrupted traditional notions of party politics and opened up new avenues for citizen engagement and political mobilisation. Movement parties are the reflection of a wider socio-political transformation of increasing interconnection between electoral and non-electoral politics". For them, green/left-libertarian movement parties "embody a generational gap in political participation, as they utilise both electoral and non-electoral engagement to express their post-industrial demands... [Their] voters tend to be younger and more educated and engage more in online political activities."{{cite journal | last1=Santos | first1=Felipe G. | last2=Mercea | first2=Dan | title=Young democrats, critical citizens and protest voters: studying the profiles of movement party supporters | journal=Acta Politica | date=20 January 2024 | issn=0001-6810 | doi=10.1057/s41269-023-00321-7 | page=| doi-access=free }}

According to Herbert Kitschelt, left libertarian parties are "post-materialist" in that they reject the primary status of economic issues, and argue that "the predominance of markets and bureaucracies must be rolled back in favor of social solidarity relations and participatory institutions".Kitschelt, 1989:64, cited by Gunther and Diamond 2003:188 He posits that the strong commitment to direct participation leads to the weakness (or even absence) of formal structurel, centralized organization, leadership and hierarchy, and "a sometimes chaotic ‘assembly’ organizational style (as best illustrated by the water-balloon attack on Foreign Minister Joshka Fischer at the 1999 congress of the German Greens)."Kitschelt, 1989:66, cited by Gunther and Diamond 2003:189

For example, between 1984 and 1986, ecologists worked together with anarchists and libertarians in Greece's Green Alternative Movement.Gregor Kritidis, The Rise and Crisis of the Anarchist and Libertarian Movement in Greece, 1973–2012, in: The City Is Ours: Squatting and Autonomous Movements in Europe from the 1970s to the Present, 2014, p.75 while the Dutch GroenLinks moved from socialism to left libertarianism in the early 1990s.{{cite book | last=March | first=Luke | title=Radical Left Parties in Europe | publisher=Routledge Studies in Extremism | publication-place=London | date=2013 | isbn=978-0-415-84323-2 | page=159}} Political scientists see European political parties such as Ecolo and Groen in Belgium, Alliance 90/The Greens in Germany, or the Green Progressive Accord and GroenLinks in the Netherlands as coming out of the New Left and emphasizing spontaneous self-organisation, participatory democracy, decentralization and voluntarism, being contrasted to the bureaucratic or statist approach. Similarly, political scientist Ariadne Vromen has described the Australian Greens as having a "clear left-libertarian ideological base."{{cite journal|last=Vromen|first=Ariadne|year=2005|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228463695|title=Who are the Australian Greens? Surveying the membership|journal=Ethnographic Praxis in Industry|access-date=15 July 2020}} Examples of left libertarian parties given by Kitschelt and Hellemans in 1990 were Agalev and Ecolo;{{cite journal | last1=Kitschelt | first1=Herbert | last2=Hellemans | first2=Staf | title=The Left-Right Semantics and the New Politics Cleavage | journal=Comparative Political Studies | volume=23 | issue=2 | date=1990 | issn=0010-4140 | doi=10.1177/0010414090023002003 | pages=210–238|quote=The general distribution of opinions on the issues fully justifies calling Agalev and Ecolo left-libertarian parties, the attributes we used at the beginning of this article to characterize the entire cohort of new politics parties. In many ways, ecology party activists constitute a "second left (Sainteny, 1987, p. 28), which blends anticapitalist with ecological, postmaterialist, and libertarian demands. The marketplace should not be the central institution of economic governance, yet militants are more inclined to support decentralized, communitarian institutions with direct democratic participation than to support traditional statist and collectivist socialism. Moreover, they put less emphasis on redistributive concerns that have figured so prominently on the conventional socialist policy agenda. Anticapitalism shows that ideological components of traditional left thinking are still alive in left-libertarian politics... At the same time, however, they are combined with noneconomic themes that are hard to reconcile with socialist leftism.}} Kittschelt's term was applied to the Green Party of England and Wales in 2008;{{cite journal | last=Carter | first=Neil | title=The Green Party: Emerging from the Political Wilderness? | journal=British Politics | volume=3 | issue=2 | date=2008 | issn=1746-918X | doi=10.1057/bp.2008.5 | pages=223–240}} examples given by Santos and Mercea more recently are Denmark's Alternativet, Germany's Bündis 90/Die Grünen, in Hungary LMP – Hungary's Green Party and Dialogue – The Greens' Party, and the UK's Green Party, Scottish Greens and Sinn Fein.

Such parties attempt to apply left-libertarian ideas to a more pragmatic system of democratic governance as opposed to contemporary individualist or socialist libertarianism.{{cite book | last=Sharlamanov | first=Kire | title=The Left Libertarianism of the Greens | chapter=Environment Protection in a Left-Libertarian Political Philosophy | publisher=Springer Nature Switzerland | publication-place=Cham | date=2023 | isbn=978-3-031-39262-7 | doi=10.1007/978-3-031-39263-4_2 | pages=33–63}} Typically, there is a tension between the left-libertarian inheritance and demands of pragmatism. For example, Margit Mayer and John Ely describe the German Greens as "remain[ing] connected to the left-libertarian movement milieus in the topics it addresses, its political style, and the omnipresence of movement discourse" while also pursuing practical strategies for party power.{{cite book | last1=Mayer | first1=Margit | last2=Ely | first2=John | title=The German Greens | publisher=Temple University Press | publication-place=Philadelphia | date=1998 | isbn=978-1-56639-515-1 | page=7}}

A new wave of left libertarian movement parties emerged from the alterglobalisation and anti-austerity movements from the late 1990s. In Portugal, the Left Bloc emerged in the late 1990s from the anti-austerity movement, and is inspired by the libertarian left.{{cite thesis | last=Confesson | first=Alan | title=Une nouvelle gauche radicale : analyse comparative des transformations de la famille partisane de la gauche radicale européenne au XXIème siècle : (2000-2017) | publisher=Université Grenoble Alpes | date=8 February 2019 | url=https://theses.hal.science/tel-02361130 | access-date=22 August 2024|quote=Although heavily dependent on its leaders to ensure its progress at the polls, the Portuguese Left Bloc has retained an internal organisation that is fairly faithful to the left-libertarian party model, with in particular "participative" mechanisms granting relatively significant powers to members, and significant internal division… Although the role of the charismatic leader was decisive in the rise of the BE, first with Francisco Louçã and then with Catarina Martins, the internal mode of operation of the party, largely inspired by the traditions of the libertarian left, saw few changes between 1999 and 2017.}} Greece’s Synaspismos and its successor Syriza came from a similar background.{{cite thesis | last=Confesson | first=Alan | title=Une nouvelle gauche radicale : analyse comparative des transformations de la famille partisane de la gauche radicale européenne au XXIème siècle : (2000-2017) | publisher=Université Grenoble Alpes | date=8 February 2019 | url=https://theses.hal.science/tel-02361130 | access-date=22 August 2024|quote=Syriza is an excellent example, which could eventually become a textbook case in the scientific literature: originally a coalition of several parties, close to the model of the left-libertarian party, with few hierarchical structures, decentralized decision-making processes, imprecise statutes, a refusal of professionalization and exacerbated factionalism, Syriza evolved in record time into a highly centralized organization which ended up merging with its leader, Alexis Tsipras… The observations, however, also apply to Synaspismos before the creation of Syriza, a party which, from an organizational point of view, corresponds almost in all respects to the model of the left-libertarian party, and has in some way imported this culture into Syriza.}} In Turkey, Ufuk Uras of the Party of the Greens and the Left Future identifies as a left-libertarian. Ufuk Uras identifies as a left libertarian.{{cite web | title=Turkish libertarian: Pro-Kurdish HDP in Turkey should be like Syriza in Greece | website=rudaw.net | date=1 January 1970 | url=https://www.rudaw.net/english/interview/02062015 | access-date=9 September 2024|quote=The libertarian left is different from the traditional left because of its principles. These are: going in and out of power through elections, respect for different identities and beliefs, socially libertarian, egalitarian, eco-minded, participatory and for the restoration of justice. We would like the HDP to have such a profile. What we are trying to do is to adopt the Syriza experience in Greece to the HDP in Turkey.}}

In contrast to right-libertarianism and libertarian socialism, left-libertarianism holds that individuals should have no exclusive right to the exploitation of natural resources, instead advocating for an equitable distribution of resources, while also insisting on the protection of personal property rights.{{Sfn|Carlson|2012|p=1007}} Contemporary left-libertarian scholars such as David Ellerman,Ellerman, David (1992). Property and Contract in Economics: The Case for Economic Democracy. Cambridge MA: Blackwell.Ellerman, David (1990). The Democratic Worker-Owned Firm. London: Unwin Hyman. Michael Otsuka,*{{cite book|last=Otsuka|first=Michael|title=Libertarianism Without Inequality|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=2005|isbn=978-0-19-928018-6}} Hillel Steiner,Steiner, Hillel (1994). An Essay on Rights. Oxford: Blackwell. Peter Vallentyne(2000). Left Libertarianism and Its Critics: The Contemporary Debate. In Vallentyne, Peter; and Steiner, Hillel. London:Palgrave. and Philippe Van ParijsVan Parijs, Philippe (2009). Marxism Recycled. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. root an economic egalitarianism in the classical liberal concepts of self-ownership and land appropriation, combined with geoist or physiocratic views regarding the ownership of land and natural resources (e.g. those of Henry George and John Locke).Vallentyne, Peter (2007). "Libertarianism and the State". Liberalism: Old and New. In Paul, Ellen Frankel; Miller Jr., Fred; Paul, Jeffrey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 199.{{cite journal|last=Casal|first=Paula|title=Global Taxes on Natural Resources|journal=Journal of Moral Philosophy|year=2011|volume=8|issue=3|pages=307–327|url=http://www.unipa.it/dottoratodirittocomparato/sites/default/files/20052009/Materiale%20Casal%282%29.pdf|access-date=14 March 2014|quote=It can also invoke geoism, a philosophical tradition encompassing the views of John Locke and Henry George [...].|doi=10.1163/174552411x591339|archive-date=14 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314175836/http://www.unipa.it/dottoratodirittocomparato/sites/default/files/20052009/Materiale%20Casal%282%29.pdf|url-status=live}} Their intellectual forebears include Henry George, Thomas Paine, and Herbert Spencer.{{Sfn|Kymlicka|2005|p=516}}{{sfn|Fried|2004|p=66}} Classical economists such as Henry George, John Stuart Mill, the early writings of Herbert Spencer,{{Sfn|Fried|2020|p=176}} among others, "provided the basis for the further development of the left libertarian perspective."Ryley, Peter (2013). Making Another World Possible: Anarchism, Anti-capitalism and Ecology in Late 19th and Early 20th Century Britain. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 5. {{ISBN|978-1-4411-5377-7}}. Most left-libertarians of this tradition support some form of economic rent redistribution on the grounds that each individual is entitled to an equal share of natural resources and argue for the desirability of state social welfare programs.Van Parijs, Phillippe (1998). Real Freedom for All: What (If Anything) Can Justify Capitalism? Oxford: Clarendon-Oxford University Press.

Scholars representing this school of left-libertarianism often understand their position in contrast to right-libertarians, who maintain that there are no fair share constraints on use or appropriation that individuals have the power to appropriate unowned things by claiming them (usually by mixing their labor with them) and deny any other conditions or considerations are relevant and that there is no justification for the state to redistribute resources to the needy or to overcome market failures. A number of left-libertarians of this school argue for the desirability of some state social welfare programs.Van Parijs, Phillippe (1998). Real Freedom for All: What (If Anything) Can Justify Capitalism? Oxford:Clarendon-Oxford University Press.Daskal, Steve (1 January 2010). [http://www.faqs.org/periodicals/201001/1964732951.html "Libertarianism Left and Right, the Lockean Proviso, and the Reformed Welfare State"]. Social Theory and Practice. p. 1. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516070924/http://www.faqs.org/periodicals/201001/1964732951.html|date=16 May 2011}}.

Left-libertarians generally uphold self-ownership and oppose strong private property rights, instead supporting the egalitarian distribution of natural resources.Carlson (2012). p. 1006-7. "[Left-libertarians] disagree with right-libertarians with respect to property rights, arguing instead that individuals have no inherent right to natural resources. Namely, these resources must be treated as collective property that is made available on an egalitarian basis." Left-libertarians of this school hold that it is illegitimate for anyone to claim private ownership of natural resources to the detriment of others,{{Sfn|Kymlicka|2005|p=516}} and so are skeptical of, or fully against, private ownership of natural resources, arguing, in contrast to right-libertarians, that neither claiming nor mixing one's labor with natural resources is enough to generate full private property rights, and they maintain that natural resources should be held in an egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collectively.Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilbur R. The social history of crime and punishment in America. London: Sage Publications. p. 1007. {{ISBN|1-4129-8876-4}}. "Left-libertarians disagree with right-libertarians with respect to property rights, arguing instead that individuals have no inherent right to natural resources. Namely, these resources must be treated as collective property that is made available on an egalitarian basis".{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Left Libertarianism |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |publisher=Sage; Cato Institute |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |access-date=2016-03-18 |author-link1=Jan Narveson |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-first=Ronald |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |pages=288–289 |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n174 |isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4 |lccn=2008009151 |oclc=750831024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230109234738/https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |archive-date=2023-01-09 |quote=[Left libertarians] regard each of us as full self-owners. Left libertarians embrace the view that all natural resources, land, oil, gold, trees, and so on should be held collectively. To the extent that individuals make use of these commonly owned goods, they must do so only with the permission of society, a permission granted only under the provision that a certain payment for their use be made to society at large. |last2=Trenchard |first2=David |last1=Narveson |first1=Jan}}{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Vallentyne|first=Peter|title=Libertarianism|date=2014|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/libertarianism/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Summer 2014|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2023-01-01|archive-date=2024-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208194607/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/libertarianism/|url-status=live}} Those left-libertarians who are more lenient towards private property support different property norms and theories, such as usufruct{{Cite web|last=Carson|first=Kevin|title=An Introduction to Left-Libertarianism|url=https://c4ss.org/content/28216|access-date=2023-01-01|website=Center for a Stateless Society|language=en-US|archive-date=2019-09-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903175118/http://c4ss.org/content/28216|url-status=live}} or under the condition that recompense is offered to the local or even global community.{{cite encyclopedia|title=Libertarianism|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Stanford University|location=Stanford, CA|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2009/entries/libertarianism/|access-date=5 March 2010|last=Vallentyne|first=Peter|date=March 2009|edition=Spring 2009|quote=Libertarianism is committed to full self-ownership. A distinction can be made, however, between right-libertarianism and left-libertarianism, depending on the stance taken on how natural resources can be owned.|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|archive-date=6 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706070638/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2009/entries/libertarianism/|url-status=live}}{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Narveson|first1=Jan|last2=Trenchard|first2=David|title=Left Libertarianism|author-link1=Jan Narveson|editor-first=Ronald|editor-last=Hamowy|editor-link=Ronald Hamowy|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC|year=2008|publisher=Sage; Cato Institute|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n174|isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4|oclc=750831024|lccn=2008009151|pages=288–289|quote=Left libertarians regard each of us as full self-owners. However, they differ from what we generally understand by the term libertarian in denying the right to private property. We own ourselves, but we do not own nature, at least not as individuals. Left libertarians embrace the view that all natural resources, land, oil, gold, and so on should be held collectively. To the extent that individuals make use of these commonly owned goods, they must do so only with the permission of society, a permission granted only under the proviso that a certain payment for their use be made to society at large.|access-date=2016-03-18|archive-date=2023-01-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230109234738/https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC|url-status=live}}

For left libertarians of this school, unappropriated natural resources are either unowned or owned in common and private appropriation is only legitimate if everyone can appropriate an equal amount or if private appropriation is taxed to compensate those who are excluded from natural resources.{{Cite book|editor-last1=Gaus|editor-first1=Gerald F.|editor-last2=Kukathas|editor-first2=Chandran|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dXjXKlb79cgC&q=libertarian%2520left|title=Handbook of Political Theory|year=2004|last1=Mack|first1=Eric|last2=Gaus|first2=Gerald F.|chapter=Classical Liberalism and Libertarianism: The Liberty Tradition|publisher=Sage|isbn=978-0-7619-6787-3|language=en|page=128|access-date=2023-01-29|archive-date=2024-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208194607/https://books.google.com/books?id=dXjXKlb79cgC&q=libertarian%2520left#v=onepage&q=libertarian%2520left&f=false|url-status=live}}

Political scientist Peter Mclaverty notes it has been argued that socialist values are incompatible with the concept of self-ownership when this concept is considered "the core feature of libertarianism" and socialism is defined as holding "that we are social beings, that society should be organised, and individuals should act, so as to promote the common good, that we should strive to achieve social equality and promote democracy, community and solidarity."{{cite journal|title=Socialism and libertarianism|last=Mclaverty|first=Peter|year=2005|journal=Journal of Political Ideologies|volume=10|issue=2|pages=185–198|doi=10.1080/13569310500097349|s2cid=144693867}} However, political philosopher Nicholas Vrousalis has also argued that "property rights [...] do not pass judgment as to what rights individuals have to their own person [...] [and] to the external world" and that "the nineteenth-century egalitarian libertarians were not misguided in thinking that a thoroughly libertarian form of communism is possible at the level of principle."{{cite journal|title=Libertarian Socialism: A Better Reconciliation between Self-Ownership and Equality|last=Vrousalis|first=Nicholas|date=April 2011|journal=Social Theory and Practice|volume=37|issue=2|pages=221–226|doi=10.5840/soctheorpract201137213|ssrn = 1703457|jstor=23558541}}

Left-libertarians of the Carson–Long left-libertarianism school typically endorse the labor-based property rights that contemporary left-libertarian philosophers reject, but they hold that implementing such rights would have radical rather than conservative consequences.{{cite book|last1=Vallentyne|first1=Peter|last2=Steiner|first2=Hillel|title=The Origins of Left-Libertarianism|publisher=Palgrave|location=Basingstoke|year=2000|isbn=978-0-312-23591-8}}

These left-libertarians support some form of income redistribution on the grounds of a claim by each individual to be entitled to an equal share of natural resources.{{cite book|last1=Vallentyne|first1=Peter|last2=Steiner|first2=Hillel|title=Left-Libertarianism and Its Critics|publisher=Palgrave|location=Basingstoke|year=2000|isbn=978-0-312-23699-1|page=1|oclc=1057919438}} Some left-libertarians make a libertarian reading of progressive and social-democratic economics to advocate a universal basic income. Building on Michael Otsuka's conception of "robust libertarian self-ownership", Karl Widerquist argues that a universal basic income must be large enough to maintain individual independence regardless of the market value of resources because people in contemporary society have been denied direct access to enough resources with which they could otherwise maintain their existence in the absence of interference by people who control access to resources.Widerquist, Karl (2013). "What Good Is a Theory of Freedom That Allows Forced Labor? Independence and Modern Theory of Freedom". Independence, Propertylessness, and Basic Income: A Theory of Freedom as the Power to Say No Updating. New York City: Springer. pp. 121–143. {{ISBN|978-1-137-31309-6}}.

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}

• Cellular democracy
• Civil libertarianism
• Cultural liberalism
• Cultural radicalism
• Drug liberalization
• Grassroots democracy
• Individualist feminism
• Left-libertarians (category)
• Libertarian Democrat
• Libertarian municipalism
• Libertarian paternalism
• Libertarian transhumanism
• Lockean proviso
• Market socialism
• Neoclassical liberalism
• Outline of libertarianism
• Radical movement
• Refusal of work

{{div col end}}

{{reflist|2}}

{{refbegin|2}}

• {{Cite book|last=Bookchin|first=Murray|author-link=Murray Bookchin|year=1995|title=Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: The Unbridgeable Chasm|url=https://libcom.org/article/social-anarchism-or-lifestyle-anarchism-unbridgeable-chasm-murray-bookchin|publisher=AK Press|isbn=1-873176-83-X|pages=49–61}}
• {{cite book |last=Carlson |first=Jennifer D. |author-link=Jennifer Carlson (sociologist) |year=2012 |chapter=Libertarianism |editor-last=Miller |editor-first=Wilbur R. |title=The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Sage Publications |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tYME6Z35nyAC&pg=PA1007 |page=1005-1009 |isbn=978-1-4129-8876-6 }}
• {{Cite journal |last1=Fried |first1=Barbara H. |author-link=Barbara Fried |title=Left-Libertarianism: A Review Essay |journal=Philosophy & Public Affairs |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=66–92 |date=Winter 2004 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6486.2004.00005.x |jstor=3557982 |issn=0048-3915 |df=mdy-all }}
• {{cite book|last=Fried|first=Barbara H.|year=2020|chapter=Left-Libertarianism|title=Facing Up to Scarcity: The Logic and Limits of Nonconsequentialist Thought|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=176–196|isbn=978-0-19-884787-8}}
• {{Cite book|last=Goodway|first=David|year=2006|title=Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward|title-link=Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow|publisher=Liverpool University Press|isbn=978-1-84631-025-6}}
• {{Cite book|last=Long|first=Roderick T.|year=2012|chapter=Anarchism|editor-last=Gaus|editor-first=Gerald F.|editor-last2=D'Agostino |editor-first2=Fred|title=The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|isbn=978-0-415-87456-4|pages=217–230}}
• {{cite book|chapter=Anarchism and Libertarianism|last=Long|first=Roderick T.|year=2017|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|editor-first=Nathan|editor-last=Jun|title=Brill's Companion to Anarchism and Philosophy|isbn=978-90-04-35689-4|pages=285–317|doi=10.1163/9789004356894_012|url=https://brill.com/view/title/35861}}
• {{cite book|last=Long|first=Roderick T.|year=2021|chapter=The Anarchist Landscape|editor-last1=Chartier|editor-first1=Gary|editor-last2=Van Schoelandt|editor-first2=Chad|title=The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought|pages=28–38|publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315185255-2|isbn=978-1-315-18525-5}}
• {{Cite encyclopedia|author-link=Will Kymlicka|last=Kymlicka|first=Will|year=2005|orig-date=1995|title=libertarianism, left-|editor-link=Ted Honderich|editor-last=Honderich|editor-first=Ted|encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy|edition=2nd|location=New York City|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=516–617|isbn= 0-19-926479-1}}
• {{cite book|first=Peter H.|last = Marshall|author-link=Peter Marshall (author, born 1946)|title=Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism|year=2008|orig-date=1992|location=London|publisher=Harper Perennial|isbn=978-0-00-686245-1|oclc=218212571}}
• {{cite journal |last1=Vallentyne |first1=Peter |title=Left-Libertarianism |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Political Philosophy |date=2012 |pages=152–168 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376692.013.0008}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin}}

• Deshpande, Meena; Vinod, M. J. (2000). Contemporary Political Theory. "Left-libertarianism". PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_oYd5L4xDdMC&q=left-libertarianism&pg=PA243 243]. {{ISBN|978-81-203-4713-7}}.
• {{cite book|last=Kerr|first=Gavin|year=2017|chapter=Geo-Libertarianism: The Prioritization of Unorthodox Market Freedom|title=The Property-Owning Democracy: Freedom and Capitalism in the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Taylor & Francis|pages=94–141|isbn=978-1-4411-5377-7}}
• {{cite journal|last1=Vallentyne|first1=Peter|author-link=Peter Vallentyne|author-link2=Hillel Steiner|author-link3=Michael Otsuka|last2=Steiner|first2=Hillel|last3=Otsuka|first3=Michael|year=2005|title=Why Left-Libertarianism is not Incoherent, Indeterminate, or Irrelevant|url=http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~uctymio/leftlibP&PA.pdf|journal=Philosophy & Public Affairs|volume=33|issue=2|pages=201–215|doi=10.1111/j.1088-4963.2005.00030.x|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911064302/http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~uctymio/leftlibP%26PA.pdf|archive-date=11 September 2008}}
• Vallentyne, Peter (2000). [https://web.archive.org/web/20100702184359/http://klinechair.missouri.edu/on-line%20papers/LL%20Primer.doc "Left-Libertarianism: A Primer"] (full text; final draft). In Vallentyne, Peter; Steiner, Hillel (eds.). Left Libertarianism and Its Critics: The Contemporary Debate. Palgrave Publishers Ltd. pp. 1–20.

{{refend}}

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