Liquor

The term "spirit" (singular and used without the additional term "drink") refers to liquor that should not contain added sugar{{Cite web |date=January 15, 2019 |title=Alcohol and Blood Sugar |url=https://www.diabetes.co.uk/alcohol-and-blood-sugar.html |access-date=June 27, 2022 |website=Diabetes.co.uk |language=en-GB}} and is usually 35–40% alcohol by volume (ABV).{{Cite web |title=Are spirits more dangerous than other alcoholic drinks? |url=https://www.drinkaware.co.uk/facts/alcoholic-drinks-and-units/are-spirits-more-dangerous-than-other-alcoholic-drinks#thestrengthofspirits |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627025156/https://www.drinkaware.co.uk/facts/alcoholic-drinks-and-units/are-spirits-more-dangerous-than-other-alcoholic-drinks#thestrengthofspirits |archive-date=June 27, 2022 |access-date=June 26, 2022 |website=Drinkaware}} Fruit brandy, for example, is also known as 'fruit spirit'.

Liquor bottled with added sugar and flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, amaretto, and American schnapps, are known instead as liqueurs.{{cite web |last1=Filippone |first1=Peggy Trowbridge |title=The Difference Between a Liquor and a Liqueur |url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/difference-between-liquor-and-liqueur-1807030 |website=www.thespruceeats.com |access-date=25 October 2023}}

Liquor generally has an alcohol concentration higher than 30% when bottled, and before being diluted for bottling, it typically has a concentration over 50%. Beer and wine, which are not distilled, typically have a maximum alcohol content of about 15% ABV, as most yeasts cannot metabolize when the concentration of alcohol is above this level; as a consequence, fermentation ceases at that point.

The origin of liquor and its close relative liquid is the Latin verb liquere, meaning 'to be fluid'. According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply "a liquid", can be dated to 1225. The first use documented in the OED defined as "a liquid for drinking" occurred in the 14th century. Its use as a term for "an intoxicating alcoholic drink" appeared in the 16th century.

In accordance with the regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of April 17, 2019,{{Cite web |date=May 25, 2021 |title=Consolidated text: Regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on the definition, description, presentation, and labelling of spirit drinks, the use of the names of spirit drinks in the presentation and labeling of other foodstuffs, the protection of geographical indications for spirit drinks, the use of ethyl alcohol and distillates of agricultural origin in alcoholic beverages, and repealing Regulation (EC) No 110/2008: Article 2 - Definition of and requirements for spirit drinks |url=http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/787/2021-05-25 |pages=2–3}} a spirit drink is an alcoholic beverage that has been produced:

• either directly by using, individually or in combination, any of the following methods:
• # distillation, with or without added flavourings or flavouring foodstuffs, of fermented products;
• # maceration or similar processing of plant materials in ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin, distillates of agricultural origin or spirit drinks or a combination thereof;
• # addition, individually or in combination, to ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin, distillates of agricultural origin, or spirit drinks of flavourings, colours, other authorised ingredients, sweetening products, other agricultural products, and foodstuffs.
• or by adding, individually or in combination, to it any of the following:
• # other spirit drinks;
• # ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin;
• # distillates of agricultural origin;
• # other foodstuffs.

Spirit drinks must contain at least 15% ABV (except in the case of egg liqueur such as Advocaat, which must contain a minimum of 14% ABV).{{Cite web |date=May 25, 2021 |title=Consolidated text: Regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on the definition, description, presentation, and labelling of spirit drinks, the use of the names of spirit drinks in the presentation and labeling of other foodstuffs, the protection of geographical indications for spirit drinks, the use of ethyl alcohol and distillates of agricultural origin in alcoholic beverages, and repealing Regulation (EC) No 110/2008: Annex 1 - Categories of spirit drinks - 39. Egg liqueur or advocaat or avocat or advokat |url=http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/787/2021-05-25 |page=60}}

Regulation makes a difference between "ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin" and a "distillate of agricultural origin". Distillate of agricultural origin is defined as an alcoholic liquid that is the result of the distillation, after alcoholic fermentation, of agricultural products which does not have the properties of ethyl alcohol and which retain the aroma and taste of the raw materials used.{{Cite web |date=May 25, 2021 |title=Consolidated text: Regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on the definition, description, presentation, and labelling of spirit drinks, the use of the names of spirit drinks in the presentation and labeling of other foodstuffs, the protection of geographical indications for spirit drinks, the use of ethyl alcohol and distillates of agricultural origin in alcoholic beverages, and repealing Regulation (EC) No 110/2008 |url=http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/787/2021-05-25 }}

File:Viru Valge 1L.jpg, an Estonian vodka]]

Annex 1 to the regulation lists 44 categories of spirit drinks and their legal requirements.{{Cite web |title=Consolidated text: Regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on the definition, description, presentation, and labelling of spirit drinks, the use of the names of spirit drinks in the presentation and labelling of other foodstuffs, the protection of geographical indications for spirit drinks, the use of ethyl alcohol and distillates of agricultural origin in alcoholic beverages, and repealing Regulation (EC) No 110/2008: Annex 1 - Categories of spirit drinks |url=http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/787/2021-05-25 |pages=39–61 |publication-date=May 25, 2021}}

Some spirit drinks can fall into more than one category. Specific production requirements distinguish one category from another (London gin falls into the Gin category but any gin cannot be considered as London gin).

Spirit drinks that are not produced within the EU, such as tequila or baijiu, are not listed in the 44 categories.

{{div col|colwidth=15em}}

1. Mahua Wine or desi thhara
2. Rum
3. Whisky or whiskey
4. Grain spirit
5. Wine spirit
6. Brandy
7. Grape marc spirit or grape marc
8. Fruit marc spirit
9. Raisin spirit or raisin brandy
10. Fruit spirit
11. Cider spirit, perry spirit and cider and perry spirit
12. Honey spirit
13. {{lang|de|Hefebrand}} or lees spirit
14. {{lang|de|Bierbrand}}, or beer spirit
15. Topinambur or Jerusalem artichoke spirit
16. Vodka
17. Spirit (supplemented by the name of the fruit, berries or nuts) obtained by maceration and distillation
18. {{lang|de|Geist}} (supplemented by the name of the fruit or the raw materials used)
19. Gentian
20. Juniper-flavored spirit drink
21. Gin
22. Distilled gin
23. London gin
24. Caraway-flavored spirit drink or {{lang|de|Kümmel}}
25. {{lang|sv|Akvavit}} or aquavit
26. Aniseed-flavored spirit drink (e.g. rakı, ouzo)
27. Pastis
28. Pastis de Marseille
29. Anis or {{lang|cs|janeževec}}
30. Distilled anis
31. Bitter-tasting spirit drink or bitters
32. Flavored vodka
33. Sloe-aromatized spirit drink or pacharán
34. Liqueur
35. {{lang|fr|Crème de}} (supplemented by the name of a fruit or other raw material used)
36. Sloe gin
37. Sambuca
38. Maraschino, marrasquino or maraskino
39. Nocino ou {{lang|hr|orehovec}}
40. Egg liqueur or {{lang|nl|advocaat}}, avocat or advokat
41. Liqueur with egg
42. {{lang|it|Mistrà}}
43. {{lang|fi|Väkevä glögi}} or {{lang|sv|spritglögg}}
44. {{lang|nl|Berenburg}} or {{lang|nl|Beerenburg}}
45. Honey nectar or mead nectar

{{div col end}}

{{Main|Distillation#History}}

File:Zosimos distillation equipment.jpg,{{Cite book |last1=Gildemeister |first1=E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=earQAAAAMAAJ |title=The Volatile Oils |last2=Hoffman |first2=Fr. |publisher=Wiley |year=1913 |volume=1 |location=New York |page=203 |translator-last=Kremers |translator-first=Edward}}{{Cite book |last1=Bunch |first1=Bryan H. |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88 |title=The History of Science and Technology |last2=Hellemans |first2=Alexander |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2004 |isbn=0-618-22123-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88 88] |url-access=registration}} from the Byzantine Greek manuscript Parisinus graecus 2327.{{Cite web |last=Berthelot |first=Marcelin |date=1887 |title=Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs |url=https://archive.org/details/collectiondesanc01bert |location=Paris |page=161 |volume=1}}]]

Early evidence of distillation comes from Akkadian tablets dated {{Circa|1200 BC}} describing perfumery operations, providing textual evidence that an early, primitive form of distillation was known to the Babylonians of ancient Mesopotamia.{{Cite book |last=Levey |first=Martin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=76ILAQAAIAAJ |title=Chemistry and Chemical Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia |date=1959 |publisher=Elsevier |page=36 |quote=As already mentioned, the textual evidence for Sumero-Babylonian distillation is disclosed in a group of Akkadian tablets describing perfumery operations, dated ca. 1200 B.C.}} Early evidence of distillation also comes from alchemists working in Alexandria, Roman Egypt, in the 1st century.{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=Robert James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |title=A short history of the art of distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier Blumenthal |publisher=BRILL |year=1970 |isbn=978-90-04-00617-1 |pages=57, 89 |access-date=June 29, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111220084813/http://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |archive-date=December 20, 2011 |url-status=live }} Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias.{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=F. Sherwood |author-link=F. Sherwood Taylor |year=1945 |title=The Evolution of the Still |journal=Annals of Science |volume=5 |issue=3 |page=186 |doi=10.1080/00033794500201451 |issn=0003-3790}} Alchemists in Roman Egypt were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century.

Distillation was known in the ancient Indian subcontinent, evident from baked clay retorts and receivers found at Taxila and Charsadda in Pakistan and Rang Mahal in India dating to the early centuries of the Common Era.{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IOnUugEACAAJ&q=water-condensers&pg=PA420|page=420|title=Taxila: An Illustrated Account of Archaeological Investigations Carried Out at Taxila|volume=2|date=1951|publisher=Cambridge University Press|language=en}}Frank Raymond Allchin, "India: the ancient home of distillation?" Man, New Series 14:1:55-63 (1979) [https://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/ad/allchin-india-the-ancient-home-of-distillation.pdf full text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220212010/https://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/ad/allchin-india-the-ancient-home-of-distillation.pdf |date=December 20, 2019 }}Javed Husain, "The So-Called 'Distillery' at Shaikhan Dheri - A Case Study", Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society 41:3:289-314 (July 1, 1993) Frank Raymond Allchin says these terracotta distill tubes were "made to imitate bamboo". These "Gandhara stills" were capable of producing only very weak liquor, as there was no efficient means of collecting the vapors at low heat.{{Cite book |last=Habib |first=Irfan |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/728102346 |title=Economic history of medieval India, 1200-1500 |date=2011 |isbn=978-81-317-2791-1 |page=55 |publisher=Pearson Education India |oclc=728102346}}

Distillation in China could have begun during the Eastern Han dynasty (1st–2nd centuries), but the distillation of beverages began in the Jin (12th–13th centuries) and Southern Song (10th–13th centuries) dynasties according to archaeological evidence.

Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice. The freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use.

File:Brewing and distillation industries. ( 1858- ).jpg

The flammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BCE), Theophrastus ({{Circa|371|287 BCE}}), and Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE).{{Cite book |last1=Berthelot |first1=Marcellin |title=La Chimie au Moyen Âge |last2=Houdas |first2=Octave V. |publisher=Imprimerie nationale |year=1893 |volume=I–III |location=Paris |author-link=Marcellin Berthelot}} vol. I, p. 137. This did not immediately lead to the isolation of alcohol, however, despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second- and third-century Roman Egypt.{{harvnb|Berthelot|Houdas|1893|loc=vol. I, pp. 138–139}}. An important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (ninth century CE), was that by adding salt to boiling wine, which increases the wine's relative volatility, the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced.{{Cite book |last=al-Hassan |first=Ahmad Y. |title=Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry |publisher=Georg Olms Verlag |year=2009 |location=Hildesheim |pages=283–298 |chapter=Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources from the 8th Century |author-link=Ahmad Y. al-Hassan}} (same content also available on [http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html the author's website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229003135/http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html |date=December 29, 2015 }}). The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to al-Kindī (c. 801–873 CE) and to al-Fārābī (c. 872–950), and in the 28th book of al-Zahrāwī's (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) Kitāb al-Taṣrīf (later translated into Latin as Liber servatoris).{{harvnb|al-Hassan|2009}} (same content also available on [http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html the author's website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229003135/http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html |date=December 29, 2015 }}); cf. {{harvnb|Berthelot|Houdas|1893|loc=vol. I, pp. 141, 143}}. Sometimes, sulfur was also added to the wine (see {{harvnb|Berthelot|Houdas|1893|loc=vol. I, p. 143}}). In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of aqua ardens ("burning water", i.e., alcohol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century, it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.{{Cite book |last=Multhauf |first=Robert P. |title=The Origins of Chemistry |publisher=Oldbourne |year=1966 |isbn=9782881245947 |location=London |author-link=Robert P. Multhauf}} pp. 204–206. Its medicinal properties were studied by Arnald of Villanova (1240–1311 CE) and John of Rupescissa (c. 1310–1366), the latter of whom regarded it as a life-preserving substance able to prevent all diseases (the aqua vitae or "water of life", also called by John the quintessence of wine).{{Cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence M. |title=The Secrets of Alchemy |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0226103792 |location=Chicago |author-link=Lawrence M. Principe}} pp. 69–71.

In China, archaeological evidence indicates that the true distillation of alcohol began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties.{{Cite book |last=Haw |first=Stephen G. |title=Marco Polo in China |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-134-27542-7 |pages=147–148 |chapter=Wine, women and poison |quote=The earliest possible period seems to be the Eastern Han dynasty... the most likely period for the beginning of true distillation of spirits for drinking in China is during the Jin and Southern Song dynasties |author-link=Stephen G. Haw |access-date=July 10, 2016 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSfvfr8VQSEC&pg=PA148}}

A still has been found at an archaeological site in Qinglong, Hebei, dating to the 12th century.

In India, the true distillation of alcohol was introduced from the Middle East and was in wide use in the Delhi Sultanate by the 14th century.{{Cite news |date=April 19, 2022 |title=India's Most Popular Liquors: ভারতের সব থেকে জনপ্রিয় মদ কোনগুলি জানেন, রইল তালিকা |work=The Bengali Chronicle |url=https://thebengalichronicle.com/most-wanted-alcohol-bavarage-brand-in-india-pst/ |access-date=August 10, 2022 |language=bn |archive-date=August 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810112629/https://thebengalichronicle.com/most-wanted-alcohol-bavarage-brand-in-india-pst/ |url-status=dead }}

The works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated fractional distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained.{{Cite book |last=Holmyard |first=Eric John |title=Alchemy |date=1957 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-486-26298-7 |location=Harmondsworth |author-link=Eric John Holmyard}} pp. 51–52.

In 1437, "burned water" (brandy) was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany.{{Cite web |title=graf-von-katzenelnbogen.com |url=http://www.graf-von-katzenelnbogen.com/begriffe.html |access-date=October 25, 2008 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126140943/http://www.graf-von-katzenelnbogen.com/begriffe.html |url-status=dead }}

It is legal to distill beverage alcohol as a hobby for personal use in some countries, including New Zealand{{Cite news |last=Austin |first=Kim |date=September 16, 2011 |title=Distilling your own spirits: A drop of the easier stuff |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/aucklander/lifestyle/news/article.cfm?c_id=1503372&objectid=11040946 |access-date=May 20, 2020}} and the Netherlands.{{Efn|In the Netherlands, the ABV of the distilled drink must be under 15% ABV without a license.|name=Note|group=note}}

In many others including the United States, it is illegal to distill beverage alcohol without a license, and the licensing process is too arduous for hobbyist-scale production. In some parts of the U.S., it is also illegal to sell a still without a license. Nonetheless, all states allow unlicensed individuals to make their own beer, and some also allow unlicensed individuals to make their own wine (although making beer and wine is also prohibited in some local jurisdictions).{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Some countries and sub-national jurisdictions limit or prohibit the sale of certain high-percentage alcohol, commonly known as neutral spirit. Due to its flammability (see below) alcoholic beverages with an alcohol content above 70% by volume are not permitted to be transported in aircraft.{{Cite web |title=App-1 Appendix on Dangerous Goods |url=https://www.icao.int/safety/DangerousGoods/Working%20Group%20of%20the%20Whole/WP.50.AppB.pdf |access-date=May 20, 2020 |publisher=ICAO}}

Microdistilling (also known as craft distilling) began to re-emerge as a trend in the United States following the microbrewing and craft beer movement in the last decades of the 20th century.

{{See also|Alcohol proof|Flash point|Fire point|Flaming drink}}

File:Flaming cocktails.jpg

Liquor that contains 40% ABV (80 US proof) will catch fire if heated to about {{convert|26|°C}} and if an ignition source is applied to it. This temperature is called its flash point.{{Cite web |title=Flash Point and Fire Point |url=http://www.nttworldwide.com/tech2212.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214222420/http://www.nttworldwide.com/tech2212.htm |archive-date=December 14, 2010 |access-date=March 6, 2011}} The flash point of pure alcohol is {{convert|16.6|°C}}, less than average room temperature.{{Cite web |title=Material Safety Data Sheet, Section 5 |url=http://fscimage.fishersci.com/msds/89308.htm |access-date=March 7, 2011}}

The flammability of liquor is applied in the cooking technique flambé.

The flash points of alcohol concentrations from 10% to 96% by weight are:{{Cite web |title=Flash points of ethanol-based water solutions |url=http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ethanol-water-d_989.html |access-date=June 23, 2011}}

• 10% – {{convert|49|°C}} – ethanol-based water solution
• 12.5% – about {{convert|52|°C}} – wine{{Cite news |last=Wolke |first=Robert L. |date=July 5, 2006 |title=Combustible Combination |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/04/AR2006070400283.html |access-date=January 27, 2011}}
• 15% – {{convert|42|°C}} – sake, mijiu, cheongju
• 20% – {{convert|36|°C}} – shōchū, fortified wine
• 30% – {{convert|29|°C}} – strong shōchū
• 40% – {{convert|26|°C}} – typical vodka, whisky or brandy
• 50% – {{convert|24|°C}} – typical baijiu, strong whisky, bottled in bond whisky, typical blanche absinthe
• 60% – {{convert|22|°C}} – strong baijiu, normal tsikoudia (called mesoraki or middle raki), barrel proof whisky, typical verte absinthe
• 70% – {{convert|21|°C}} – slivovitz
• 80% – {{convert|20|°C}} – strong absinthe
• 90% or more – {{convert|17|°C}} – neutral grain spirit

{{See also|Bartending terminology}}

File:Bar Hard Rock Cafe Prague.png]]

Liquor can be served:

• Neat – at room temperature without any additional ingredient(s){{Cite book |last=Walkart |first=C.G. |title=National Bartending Center Instruction Manual |publisher=Bartenders America, Inc |year=2002 |location=Oceanside, California |page=104}}  ASIN: B000F1U6HG.
• Up – shaken or stirred with ice, strained, and served in a stemmed glass
• Down – shaken or stirred with ice, strained, and served in a rocks glass
• On the rocks – over ice cubes
• Blended or frozen – blended with ice
• With a simple mixer, such as club soda, tonic water, juice, or cola
• As an ingredient of a cocktail
• As an ingredient of a shooter
• With water
• With water poured over sugar (as with absinthe)

{{Main|List of countries by alcohol consumption}}

{{See also|Alcohol preferences in Europe}}

[[File:Alcohol belts of Europe (actual consumption in 2016).svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=European countries grouped by preferred type of alcoholic drink, based on recorded alcohol consumption per capita (age 15+) (in liters of pure alcohol) in 2016|Map of Europe with individual countries grouped by preferred type of alcoholic drink, based on recorded alcohol consumption per capita (age 15+) (in liters of pure alcohol) in 2016.{{Cite web |title=Global status report on alcohol and health 2018 |url=https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789241565639 |website=www.who.int}}

{{legend|#a70000|Wine}}

{{legend|#f8f107|Beer}}

{{legend|#5fc8d7|Spirits}}]]

The World Health Organization (WHO) measures and publishes alcohol consumption patterns in different countries. The WHO measures alcohol consumed by persons 15 years of age or older and reports it on the basis of liters of pure alcohol consumed per capita in a given year in a country.{{Cite web |title=who.int |url=https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_alcohol_report/msbgsruprofiles.pdf}}

In Europe, spirits (especially vodka) are more popular in the north and east of the continent.File:Vodka distillery Matsalu 2021.jpg distillery in Estonia]]

{{Main|Health effects of alcohol}}

Distilled spirits contain ethyl alcohol, the same chemical that is present in beer and wine, and as such, spirit consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the spirits and the timespan over which the consumption took place.{{cite journal |vauthors=Feige B, Scaal S, Hornyak M, Gann H, Riemann D |date=January 2007 |title=Sleep electroencephalographic spectral power after withdrawal from alcohol in alcohol-dependent patients |journal=Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=19–27 |doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00260.x |pmid=17207097}}

The short-term effects of alcohol consumption range from a decrease in anxiety and motor skills and euphoria at lower doses to intoxication (drunkenness), to stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia (memory "blackouts"), and central nervous system depression at higher doses. Cell membranes are highly permeable to alcohol, so once it is in the bloodstream, it can diffuse into nearly every cell in the body. Alcohol can greatly exacerbate sleep problems. During abstinence, residual disruptions in sleep regularity and sleep patterns are the greatest predictors of relapse.

Drinking more than 1–2 drinks a day increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke.{{Cite journal |last1=O'Keefe |first1=JH |last2=Bhatti |first2=SK |last3=Bajwa |first3=A |last4=DiNicolantonio |first4=JJ |last5=Lavie |first5=CJ |date=March 2014 |title=Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the dose makes the poison...or the remedy. |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=382–93 |doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.11.005 |pmid=24582196 |doi-access=free}} The risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking, which may result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are due to alcohol each year.{{Cite web |title=Alcohol Facts and Statistics |url=http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212173744/http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics |archive-date=February 12, 2016 |access-date=May 9, 2015}}

Unlike wine and perhaps beer, there is no evidence for a J-shaped health effect for the consumption of distilled alcohol. Long-term use can lead to an alcohol use disorder, an increased risk of developing physical dependence. cardiovascular disease and several types of cancer.

Alcoholism, also known as "alcohol use disorder", is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems.{{Cite book |last=Littrell |first=Jill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2k57AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA55 |title=Understanding and Treating Alcoholism Volume I: An Empirically Based Clinician's Handbook for the Treatment of Alcoholism: Volume II: Biological, Psychological, and Social Aspects of Alcohol Consumption and Abuse |date=2014 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |isbn=9781317783145 |location=Hoboken |page=55 |quote=The World Health Organization defines alcoholism as any drinking which results in problems}} Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years{{Cite journal |last=Schuckit |first=MA |date=November 27, 2014 |title=Recognition and management of withdrawal delirium (delirium tremens). |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/08b9z9th |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=371 |issue=22 |pages=2109–13 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1407298 |pmid=25427113 |s2cid=205116954}} and alcohol use is the third-leading cause of early death in the United States.

Consumption of alcohol in any quantity can cause cancer. Alcohol causes breast cancer, colorectal cancer, esophageal cancer, liver cancer, and head-and-neck cancers. The more alcohol is consumed, the higher the cancer risk.{{Cite web |date=July 14, 2021 |title=Alcohol and Cancer Risk Fact Sheet - NCI |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/alcohol/alcohol-fact-sheet |access-date=June 28, 2022 |website=www.cancer.gov |language=en}}

{{confuse|Moonshine}}

A survey of high school students in Alstahaug, Nordland county, revealed that adolescents consume alcohol at rates above the national average, with home-made liquor being prevalent and easily accessible, highlighting an urgent need for preventive measures.{{cite journal |last1=Jaegtvik |first1=T |last2=Schei |first2=E |title=[Home-brew and alcohol drinking of adolescents]. |journal=Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforening |date=30 May 1999 |volume=119 |issue=14 |pages=2010–4 |pmid=10394274}}

{{div col|colwidth=25em}}

• {{annotated link|Aguardiente}}
• {{annotated link|Akvavit}}
• {{section link|Alcohol measurements#Liquor bottles}}
• {{annotated link|Amaro (liqueur)}}
• {{annotated link|Arak (drink)|Arak}}
• {{annotated link|Arrack}}
• {{annotated link|Awamori}}
• {{annotated link|Baijiu}} / Shōchū / Soju
• {{annotated link|Borovička}}
• {{annotated link|Cachaça}}
• {{annotated link|Eau de vie}}
• {{annotated link|Er guo tou}}
• {{annotated link|Feni (liquor)|Fenny}}
• {{annotated link|Freeze distillation}}
• {{annotated link|Geist (liquor)|Geist}}
• {{annotated link|Horilka}}
• {{annotated link|Jenever}}
• {{annotated link|Liquor store}}
• {{annotated link|List of national drinks}}
• {{annotated link|Mahuli (wine)|Mahua}}
• {{annotated link|Mamajuana}}
• {{annotated link|Mezcal}}
• {{annotated link|Moonshine}}
• {{annotated link|Moonshine by country}}
• {{annotated link|Orujo}}
• {{annotated link|Padlamanggan}}
• {{annotated link|Pálinka}}
• {{annotated link|Pisco}}
• {{annotated link|Poitín}}
• {{annotated link|Rakia}}
• {{annotated link|Rakı}}
• {{annotated link|Rectified spirit}}
• {{annotated link|Rượu đế}}
• {{annotated link|Schnapps}}
• {{annotated link|Slivovitz}}
• {{annotated link|Tsikoudia}}
• {{annotated link|Tsipouro}}
• {{annotated link|Viche (drink)|Viche}}

{{div col end}}

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{{Reflist|30em}}

• {{Cite book |last=Blue |first=Anthony Dias |title=The Complete Book of Spirits: A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=0-06-054218-7 |location=New York}}
• {{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=Robert |title=Short History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-00617-6}}
• {{Cite book |last=Multhauf |first=Robert |title=The Origins of Chemistry |publisher=Gordon & Breach Science Publishers |year=1993 |isbn=2-88124-594-3}}

{{Wiktionary|liquor|liqueur|spirit}}

• {{commons category-inline|Distilled beverages}}

{{Alcoholic beverages |state=expanded |selected=types}}

{{portal bar|Liquor|Drink}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Alcohol industry

Category:Alcoholic drinks

Category:Distillation

Category:Drinks

Category:Mesopotamian inventions

Category:Ancient inventions