Marine Hospital Service

File:Old Marine Hospital (Charleston).jpg

The origins of the system of Marine Hospitals can be traced to the passage, by the 5th Congress of the United States, of "An Act for the Relief of Sick and Disabled Seamen" in 1798. This act created Marine Hospitals to care for sick seamen.{{Cite web|title=Public Health|url=http://marinehospital.org/publichealth.htm|access-date=2018-03-07|website=marinehospital.org}} The Marine Hospital Fund was placed under the Revenue Marine Service (a forerunner of the present-day Coast Guard) within the Department of the Treasury.

It was the first federal health law. It authorized a tax, which was the deduction of twenty cents per month from the wages of the seamen.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nosue.org/healthcare/sick-and-disabled-seaman-act-of-1798-govt-healthcare/|title=Justice Network - Sick and Disabled Seaman Act of 1798 Govt. Healthcare|website=nosue.org|language=en|access-date=2018-03-07}} This tax raised funds for physicians and to support the network of hospitals.{{Cite web|url=http://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/mph-modules/ph/publichealthhistory/publichealthhistory8.html|title=Public Health in the United States|website=sphweb.bumc.bu.edu|language=en|access-date=2018-03-07}} The tax was about 1% of the wages of maritime sailors.{{cite news|url=https://blogs.forbes.com/rickungar/2011/01/17/congress-passes-socialized-medicine-and-mandates-health-insurance-in-1798/|title=Congress Passes Socialized Medicine and Mandates Health Insurance -In 1798|last=Ungar|first=Rick|date=January 17, 2011|accessdate=2012-11-08|work=Forbes.com}} (In 1884, the tax was abolished and in 1906 funds were dispensed by Congress.)

The act led to the gradual creation of a network of hospitals along coastal and inland waterways.{{Cite web|title=About the Commissioned Corps|url=https://www.usphs.gov/aboutus/history.aspx|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070728065615/https://www.usphs.gov/aboutus/history.aspx|archive-date=2007-07-28|access-date=2018-03-07|website=usphs.gov}} They were initially located along the East Coast, at the harbors of the major port cities, with Boston being the site of the first such facility, followed later by others including in the Baltimore vicinity at Curtis Bay.{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7SN73yRun24C&q=%22Act+for+the+relief+of+sick+and+disabled+seamen%22+%22marine+hospital+service%22&pg=PA156|title=Public Health Law: Power, Duty, Restraint, Revised and Expanded|last=Gostin|first=Lawrence O.|publisher=University of California Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0520253766|edition=2nd|page=156|chapter=Box 8: The Federal Presence in Public Health|accessdate=2012-11-08}} As the boundaries of the United States expanded, and harbors were built on other coasts, so too were marine hospitals. In the 1830s and 1840s they were built along inland waterways, the Great Lakes, and the Gulf of Mexico. After the acquisition of the Oregon Territory (1846) and California (1848) hospitals were built in 1850s at Pacific Coast harbors.

Following the Civil War, public outcry and scandal surrounded the Marine Hospital Fund. In 1869, Dr. John Shaw Billings, a prominent Army surgeon, was appointed to head an investigation of the Marine Hospital Fund. Dr. Billings found the hospital fund to be inadequate and completely disorganized.

In June 1870 the 41st Congress formally converted the loose network of locally controlled marine hospitals, the Marine Hospital Fund, into a centrally controlled Marine Hospital Service, with its headquarters in Washington, D.C. This reorganization made the Marine Hospital Service into its own bureau within the Department of the Treasury.

Dr. John Maynard Woodworth was subsequently appointed to the Service as "Supervising Surgeon." He transformed the service into a disciplined organization based on his experience in the Union Army as a surgeon. Dr. Woodworth required his physicians to be a mobile work force stationed where the service was in need, and he mandated the daily wear uniforms. This eventually led to the creation of the modern-day Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. Dr. Woodworth, using Army-style heraldry, created the Marine Hospital Service fouled anchor and caduceus seal which is used to this day by the Public Health Service. In 1873, Dr. Woodworth's title was changed to "Supervising Surgeon General," a forerunner of the modern-day office of Surgeon General of the United States.{{Cite web|url=https://www.surgeongeneral.gov/about/previous/biowoodworth.html|title=John Maynard Woodworth (1871-1879)|last=ASPA|website=surgeongeneral.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2017-12-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201191734/https://www.surgeongeneral.gov/about/previous/biowoodworth.html|archive-date=December 1, 2017|url-status=dead}}

Woodworth created a cadre of mobile, career service physicians, who could be assigned as needed to the various Marine Hospitals. The commissioned officer corps was established by legislation in 1889, and signed by President Grover Cleveland. At first open only to physicians, over the course of the 20th century, the Corps expanded to include veterinarians, dentists, physician assistants, sanitary engineers, pharmacists, nurses, environmental health officers, scientists, and other types of health professionals. It is now known as the Commissioned Corps of the U.S. Public Health Service.

The scope of activities of the Marine Hospital Service began to expand well beyond the care of merchant seamen in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, beginning with the control of infectious disease. Starting in the mid-14th century, ships entering harbors were quarantined when any of the crew was sick. This practice was normal procedure at United States harbors, with quarantine originally a function of the individual states, rather than of the Federal Government. The National Quarantine Act of 1878 vested quarantine authority to the Marine Hospital Service. However, the Public Health Act of 1879 created the National Board of Health, through which quarantine authority was shared with the U.S. Army and Navy; this arrangement was not reauthorized by Congress in 1883, and its powers reverted solely to the Marine Hospital Service.Smillie, W. G. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1527526/ "The National Board of Health, 1879-1883"] American Journal of Public Health and The Nation's Health (1943) 33(8):925-930. Over the next half a century, the Marine Hospital Service increasingly took over quarantine functions from individual state authorities.

File:U.S. Marine Hospital, Staten Island, NY (14359401805).jpg began as a single room Laboratory of Hygiene for bacteriological investigation established by the U.S. Marine Hospital Service at Stapleton, Staten Island, New York. From 1887 to 1891, the hygienic laboratory was located in the attic of the Marine Hospital on Staten Island.]]

The Marine Hospitals, as their name suggests, were hospitals constructed at key sea and river ports across the nation to provide health care for merchant marine sailors. Aside from the well-being of these sailors, the hospitals provided a key monitoring and gate-keeping function against pathogenic diseases.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/phs_history/intro.html|title=Images From the History of the Public Health Service: Introduction|website=nlm.nih.gov|access-date=2017-12-03}} As immigration increased dramatically in the late 19th century, the Federal Government also took over the processing of immigrants from the individual states, beginning in 1891. The Marine Hospital Service was assigned the responsibility for the medical inspection of arriving immigrants at sites such as Ellis Island in New York Harbor. Commissioned officers played a major role in fulfilling the Service's commitment to prevent disease from entering the country.

As the nation grew, the scope of Marine Hospital Service's duties grew to include domestic and foreign quarantine and other national public health functions. Over time, the hospitals of the service were also expanded to include research and prevention work as well as the care of patients. Aside from merchant seamen, members of the military, immigrants, Native Americans, other federal beneficiaries, and people affected by chronic and epidemic diseases found a source for health care in the MHS and its hospitals.{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}}

In 1899, the Marine Hospital Service first formed internal divisions: the Division of Marine Hospitals and Relief, Division of Domestic (Interstate) Quarantine, Division of Insular and Foreign Quarantine and Immigration, Division of Personnel and Accounts, Division of Sanitary Reports and Statistics, Division of Scientific Research and Sanitation, and Miscellaneous Division, although there were minor name changes after this time.{{Cite web|date=2016-08-15|title=Records of the Public Health Service [PHS], 1912-1968|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/090.html|access-date=2020-08-28|website=National Archives|at=Sections 90.3, 90.7, 90.8|language=en}}

{{Main|United States Public Health Service}}

Image:LouisvilleMarineHospital.jpgIn 1902, the Marine Hospital Service was renamed the "Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service." In 1912, as the emphasis of its responsibilities shifted from sailors to general public health, the name was changed again to the "Public Health Service" to encompass its diverse and changing mission.

File:Flag of the United States Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service.svg

The Division of Hospitals, which contained the Marine Hospital system, became part of the Bureau of Medical Services in 1943, and was eventually renamed as a different Bureau of Medical Services within the Health Services Administration in 1973.{{Cite web|date=1943|title=Reorganization and functions of the Public Health Service|url=https://archive.org/details/reorganizationfu00unit/page/4|access-date=2020-09-15|publisher=United States Senate|pages=4–6|via=Internet Archive}} [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reorganization_and_functions_of_the_Public_Health_Service_..._Report._-To_accompany_S._400-_(IA_reorganizationfu00unit).pdf Alt URL] Large new buildings were constructed for many Marine Hospitals in the 1920s and 1930s, and the system reached its peak of 30 hospitals in 1943.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aQG6xwEACAAJ&pg=PA3|title=Public Health Service Hospital Closings|date=1965|publisher=U.S. House of Representatives|pages=3|language=en}} A wave of closings in 1944–1953 mainly targeted hospitals that had not been upgraded, and another wave during 1965–1970 closed the remaining hospitals at inland locations, leaving eight general hospitals and the National Leprosarium operating.{{Cite web|title=United States. Public Health Service. Division of Hospitals|url=https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w61p43pr|access-date=2020-08-31|website=SNAC}} The system was abolished in 1981, with the last eight general hospitals transferred to other organizations,{{Cite journal|last=Driscoll|first=Robert S.|date=1986-02-01|title=What Happened to the U.S. Public Health Service Hospital?|url=https://academic.oup.com/milmed/article/151/2/128/4851598|journal=Military Medicine|language=en|volume=151|issue=2|pages=128–129|doi=10.1093/milmed/151.2.128|issn=0026-4075|pmid=3083292|doi-access=free|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite web|title=United States. Public Health Service. Division of Hospitals|url=https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w61p43pr|access-date=2020-08-31|website=SNAC}} and the remaining functions of the Bureau of Medical Services merged into the present Bureau of Primary Health Care within the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA).{{USFedReg|47|38409}}{{Cite web|last=Erickson|first=Anna|title=A Policy History of the Community Health Centers Program: 1965-2012|url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/CHC_history.pdf|access-date=2020-08-30|website=University of Michigan}} PHS would however continue to operate the National Leprosarium until 1999.{{cite web|title=History of the National Hansen's Disease (Leprosy) Program|url=http://www.hrsa.gov/hansensdisease/history.html|access-date=2011-07-27|publisher=HHS-Health Resources and Services Administration}}

Other pre-1912 divisions of the Marine Hospital Service have descendants that operate to the present day:

• The Division of Domestic Quarantine became the Division of States Relations and then the Bureau of State Services in 1943. This bureau would eventually give rise to the modern Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), as well as the HRSA Bureau of Health Workforce and Healthcare Systems Bureau.{{Cite web|date=2016-08-15|title=Records of the Health Resources and Services Administration [HRSA]|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/512.html|access-date=2020-08-29|website=National Archives|at=Section 512.2|language=en}}
• The Division of Scientific Research became the National Institutes of Health. The Environmental Health Divisions (predecessor of the Environmental Protection Agency and FDA Center for Devices and Radiological Health), and the Division of Industrial Hygiene (predecessor of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health), were spun off from it in the mid-20th century.{{Cite web|date=2016-08-15|title=Records of the Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/412.html|access-date=2020-08-29|website=National Archives|at=Section 412.2|language=en}}{{Cite web|last=Doyle|first=Henry N.|date=1977|title=The federal industrial hygiene agency: a history of the Division of Occupational Health, United States Public Health Service|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Federal_Industrial_Hygiene_Agency.pdf|access-date=2020-09-03|website=American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists}}
• The Division of Foreign Quarantine eventually became the CDC Division of Global Migration and Quarantine.{{Cite web|date=2012-01-16|title=Images From the History of the Public Health Service: Disease Control and Prevention, Fighting the Spread of Epidemic Diseases|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/phs_history/fighting.html|access-date=2020-09-16|website=U.S. National Library of Medicine}}{{Cite web|date=2020-07-20|title=History of Quarantine|url=https://www.cdc.gov/quarantine/historyquarantine.html|access-date=2020-09-21|website=U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us}}
• The Division of Sanitary Reports and Statistics was an ancestor of the CDC National Center for Health Statistics.

Today, the records for these institutions sit in storage at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland and the National Archives in College Park, Maryland.{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}}

{{Further|List of U.S. Marine Hospitals}}

The hospitals themselves were, by the middle of the 19th century, fairly imposing and architecturally grand structures in many cases. As long as ample federal funding was available for their construction, these hospitals were impressive examples of government-provided health care. The hospitals of the early 20th century in major port cities such as New Orleans, San Francisco, and Savannah displayed ornate architectural detail and reflected many of the changes sweeping medicine at the time.{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}}

In addition to the major hospitals, many lower-class hospitals and clinics existed.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpFoh3NcheEC&pg=PA301|title=Annual Report of the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service of the United States|date=1921|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|page=301}}

A chronological gallery of hospitals constructed prior to 1912 follow, showing the year operations began as a U.S. Marine Hospitals. Not all hospitals are shown. Structures that are still extant are marked with an asterisk (*).

File:1789 CastleWilliam BostonHarbor MassachusettsMagazine.jpg|Temporary Boston hospital at Castle Island, 1800

File:Norfolk Marine Hospital 4.tiff|Norfolk, Virginia hospital, 1800

File:Boston Marine Hospital 2.tiff|Second Boston hospital at Charlestown Navy Yard, 1804

File:Boston Marine Hospital 3.tiff|Fourth Boston hospital in Chelsea, Massachusetts, 1827

File:U.S. Marine Hospital, Staten Island, NY (14359401805).jpg|Stapleton, Staten Island hospital, 1831*

File:Charleston U.S. Marine Hospital 2021a.jpg|Charleston, South Carolina hospital, 1833*

File:U.S. Marine Hospital, Mobile, Alabama.jpg|Mobile, Alabama hospital, 1843*

File:Maui-Lahaina-USSeamensHospital-front.JPG|Lahaina, Hawaii hospital, 1844*

File:Key West Marine Hospital.tiff|Key West, Florida hospital, 1845*

File:Old Marine Hospital NOLA 1845 B Norman.jpg|First New Orleans hospital at Algiers, 1847

File:United States Marine Hospital, Natchez, Mississippi.jpg|Natchez, Mississippi hospital, 1852

File:U.S. Marine Hospital, Louisville, Kentucky.jpg|Louisville, Kentucky hospital, 1852*

File:Cleveland Marine Hospital 1896.jpg|Cleveland hospital, 1852

File:Chicago Marine Hospital 1871.jpg|First Chicago hospital at Fort Dearborn, 1852

File:Fort Anderson. Fort Anderson, Paducah, Kentucky, and the camp of the 6th Illinois Cavalry, April, 1862 - sketched by A.E. Mathews, 31st Regt. O.V.U.S.A. LCCN92508857.jpg|Paducah, Kentucky hospital, 1852

File:San Francisco Marine Hospital 2.tiff|First San Francisco hospital at Rincon Point, 1854

File:Chelsea Marine Hospital 4.tif|Fifth Boston hospital in Chelsea, Massachusetts, 1857*

File:Old Detroit Marine Hospital.jpg|Detroit hospital, 1857

File:Marine Hospital, southeast corner of Marine Avenue and Miami Street.jpg|St. Louis hospital, 1858

File:Marine Hospital - Portland, Maine.JPG|Portland, Maine hospital, 1859*

File:Good Samaritan Hospital 1896.png|First Cincinnati hospital, 1860

File:US Marine Hospital NOLA Great South.jpg|Second New Orleans hospital, never completed, abandoned 1860

File:Photocopy of drawing (A. H. Bowman) FRONT AND SIDE ELEVATIONS - Marine Hospital, Galena, Jo Daviess County, IL HABS ILL,43-GALA,35-1.tif|Galena, Illinois hospital, 1861*

File:U. S. Marine Hospital (3678982250).jpg|Second Chicago hospital, 1873

File:San Francisco Marine Hospital 7.tiff|Second San Francisco hospital at the Presidio, 1875

File:Martha's Vineyard Museum - frontside.jpg|Vineyard Haven, Massachusetts hospital, 1879*

File:Historic American Buildings Survey, Edgar D. Tyler, Photographer March 4, 1934 NORTH ELEVATION. - Marine Hospital, Third and Kilgour Streets, Cincinnati, Hamilton County, OH HABS OHIO,31-CINT,6-2.tif|Second Cincinnati hospital in the former Kilgour Mansion, 1882

File:New Orleans Marine Hospital 1928.png|Third New Orleans hospital, 1883

File:Port Townsend Marine Hospital.jpg|Port Townsend, Washington hospital, 1883

File:National Ornamental Metal Museum Memphis TN.jpg|Memphis, Tennessee hospital, 1884*

File:US-Marine-Hospital-Cairo-Illinois.jpg|Cairo, Illinois hospital, 1886

File:Former U.S. Marine Hospital Building, 3100 Wyman Park Drive, Baltimore, MD 21211 (35640870753).jpg|Baltimore hospital, 1887*

File:Evansville Marine Hospital.tiff|Evansville, Indiana hospital, 1892

File:Adjutant Office Fort Stanton New Mexico.jpg|Tuberculosis sanatorium at Fort Stanton, New Mexico, 1898*

File:Wilmington Marine Hospital.jpg|Second Wilmington, North Carolina hospital, 1898

File:Ellis Island National Monument ELIS4093.jpg|Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, 1902*

File:Savannah U.S. Marine Hospital 2021a.jpg|Savannah, Georgia hospital, 1906*

File:Pittsburgh U.S. Marine Hospital.jpg|Second Pittsburgh hospital, 1909*

File:Former Benedict House, Marine Hospital, UB Chronic Disease Institute - Buffalo, New York - 20200515.jpg|Buffalo, New York hospital, 1909*

File:Pesthouse at KCHC 3.jpg

• Timeline of the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps
• United States Public Health Service

{{Commons category|United States Marine Hospitals}}

{{NIE Poster|Marine Hospital Service}}

• The National Library of Medicine has a [https://web.archive.org/web/20041010204116/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/manuscripts/ead/phs471.html guide] to the documents culled from various PHS hospitals when these closed.
• [http://marinehospital.org marinehospital.org]- Website of the U.S. Hospital Foundation, which is restoring the Marine Hospital in Louisville, Kentucky.
• [http://history.nih.gov/research/downloads/1StatL729.pdf History Of National Institution Of Health]

{{John Adams}}

{{authority control}}

Category:Hospital networks in the United States

Category:Closed facilities of the United States Coast Guard

Hospital service

Category:Military medicine in the United States

Category:Seafarers' Welfare Organizations