Onoclea sensibilis#Morphology

The sterile and fertile fronds of Onoclea sensibilis have independent stalks originating from the same rhizome, quite different from other ferns. The bright, yellow-green trophophylls (sterile fronds) are deeply pinnatifid and are typically borne at intervals along the creeping rhizome. The sterile fronds are deciduous with trophopods, swollen bases, that serve as over winter storage organs.{{cite web |last1=Brownsey |first1=P.J. |last2=Perrie |first2=L.R. |title=Onoclea sensibilis L. |url=https://www.nzflora.info/factsheet/Taxon/Onoclea-sensibilis.html |publisher=Flora of New Zealand Online |access-date=17 November 2021 |date=2020 }} The sterile fronds of O. var. sensibilis have a length of {{convert|1|–|1.3|m|ft|abbr=on}} with 5–11 pinnae, leaf pairs, evenly spaced along the stipe. O. var. interrupta Maxim. fronds are shorter, {{convert|20|–|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, with fewer pinnae, only 5–8 pairs.{{cite book |title=Onoclea sensibilis Linnaeus var. interrupta Maximowicz, Prim. Fl. Amur. |publisher=Flora of China |page=408 |edition=FOC Vol. 2–3 |url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=242334359 |access-date=13 December 2021 |language=English}}

File:Onoclea sensibilis 02.JPG

The sporophylls (fertile fronds) are smaller, {{convert|20|–|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length, non-green at maturity and have very narrow pinnae. They are persistent, standing 2–3 years. The sori comprise clusters of sporangia (spore cases) 2–4 mm (1/10–1/6 in) in diameter,{{cite web | title= Onoclea sensibilis Linnaeus |author1=David M. Johnson |url=http://floranorthamerica.org/Onoclea_sensibilis |website=floranorthamerica.org |publisher=Flora of North America Association |access-date=20 November 2021 |date=5 November 2020}} like beads, on upright fertile fronds, hence the common name Bead fern.

Sori are typically bilaterally symmetrical, though leaf forms have been observed with pinnae fertile only on a single side of the rachis. This form, named O. sensibilis L. F. hemiphyllodes (Kiss & Kümmerle, 1926){{cite journal |last1=Weatherby |first1=C. A. |title=A List of Varieties and Forms of the Ferns of Eastern North America |journal=American Fern Journal |date=January–March 1936 |volume=26 |issue=1 |page=16 |doi=10.2307/1544182 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1544182 |access-date=19 May 2022 |publisher=American Fern Society|jstor=1544182 }} and a second, O. sensibilis L. F. obtusilobata having flat pinnules (not curled or bead shaped), were deemed to be variations not meriting taxonomic recognition (J. M. Beitel et al. 1981).

File:Onoclea sensibilis 2016-04-19 7859.jpg

The fiddleheads have a pale reddish color.

The spermatogenesis process spans formation of spermatogenous cells to the release of spore. In homosporous ferns, like O. sensibilis L., developing spermatids are surrounded by two different walls at specific development stages, as opposed to a single wall reported in other species. Other differences include a delayed formation of the osmiophilic crest and during sperm release the cap cell removes intact, as opposed to forming a pore or collapsing altogether.{{cite journal |last1=Kotenko |first1=Jane L. |title=Spermatogenesis in a Homosporous Fern, Onoclea sensibilis |journal=American Journal of Botany |date=June 1990 |volume=77 |issue=6 |pages=809–25 |doi=10.2307/2444372 |jstor=2444372 |url=https://ur.booksc.eu/dl/47028768/c3380f |access-date=16 December 2021}} Spores are monolete with the antheridium, or sporangium, containing either 32 or 64 sperm spores, usually being 64. Regardless of the number, the capsule's volume remains nearly the same.

The mechanics of spore release and its timing are controlled by springtime humidity.{{cite journal |last1=Watkins |first1=James E |last2=Testo |first2=Weston L |title=Close observation of a common fern challenges long-held notions of how plants move. A commentary on 'Fern fronds that move like pine cones: humidity-driven motion of fertile leaflets governs the timing of spore dispersal in a widespread fern species' (Suissa JS, 2021) |journal=Annals of Botany |date=25 February 2022 |volume=129 |issue=Editorial. Online, ahead of print |pages=i–iii |doi=10.1093/aob/mcac017 |pmid=35211726|pmc=9007092 }} The small fertile margins, that in live-form held spore in tightly rolled structures, maintain their dry, leathery shape over winter. These pinnules respond to spring's higher humidity by opening, releasing their spore into the air. Subsequent gametophytes are unisexual in early development, favoring cross-fertilization, later becoming bisexual to ensure species survival.{{cite web |title=Plant Reproductive System- Ferns |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/plant-reproductive-system/Lycopsids#ref76172 |website=www.britannica.com |publisher=Britannica |access-date=16 December 2021}}

The genus Onoclea was cast by Carl Linnaeus in 1751, separating from the fern's prior association with the Angiopteris genus.{{cite journal |last1=Underwood |first1=Lucien Marcus |title=A Review of the Genera of Ferns proposed prior to 1832 |journal=Memoirs of the Torrey Botanical Club |date=1 December 1899 |volume=6 |issue=4 |page=253 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43390508 |access-date=18 November 2021 |publisher=Torrey Botanical Society |location=Chicago, Illinois|jstor=43390508 }} The binominal name, Onoclea sensibilis, was published in his 1753 Species Plantarum.{{cite book | title=Species Plantarum | edition=1st | volume=II | last=Linnaeus | first=C. | authorlink=Carl Linnaeus | year=1753 | publisher=Laurentii Salvii | location=Stockholm | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/359083|page=1062}}

Onoclea sensibilis has two geographically disjunctive varieties. Onoclea sensibilis var. sensibilis is native to North America; Canada's central and eastern regions and the United States' north, central and eastern regions. Onoclea sensibilis var. interrupta Maximowicz (aka Maxim.) is native to Southeast Siberia, Japan and China. The varietal difference is their ultimate height, O. var. interrupta Maxim. only reaching half the height of its sister.

Regional colloquial names for Onoclea sensibilis, the sensitive fern, focus on its characteristics.

• bead fern, an alternate name based on its fertile beaded pinnae (leaflets)
• bolletjesvaren; Dutch, meaning "ball fern"
• druebregne; Danish, meaning "grape fern"{{cite web |title=Druebregne (Onoclea sensibilis) |url=https://www.naturbasen.dk/art/14239/druebregne |website=www.naturbasen.dk |access-date=21 March 2022}}
• dwa’hũdes gananitsga’kwaʼ; Cayuga, meaning "deer, what they lie on"
• harilik pärljalg; Estonian, meaning "common pearl leg"{{cite web |title=Pärljalg sobib algajale sõnajalakasvatajale (The pearl leg is suitable for a novice fern breeder) |url=https://maakodu.delfi.ee/artikkel/29836333/parljalg-sobib-algajale-sonajalakasvatajale |website=maakodu.delfi.ee |access-date=21 March 2022 |date=17 March 2010}}
• helmisaniainen; Finnish, meaning "mother of pearl"{{cite web |title=Onoclea sensibilis – helmisaniainen |url=http://www.mustila.fi/kasvit/OnocleaSensibilis |website=www.mustila.fi |publisher=Mustila Arboretum- Elimäki, Finland |access-date=21 March 2022}}
• pärlbräken; Swedish, meaning "pearl bracts"
• unì·suwεkwaʼ; Onondaga, meaning "bait"

Onoclea sensibilis' name was descriptive. Onoclea comes from the Greek onos, meaning a vessel, and kleio, meaning to close, describing the closely rolled sori on its fertile fronds. Its species, from the Late Latin sensibilis, means sensitive, describing its high sensitivity to autumn's first frost and to drought.{{cite web |title=Onoclea sensibilis |url=https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?kempercode=l300 |publisher=Missouri Botanical Garden |access-date=18 November 2021 |location=St Louis, Missouri}}

Onoclea sensibilis is native to Northern Hemisphere temperate regions; the Russian Far East, China and Eastern Asia, and a wide native distribution in Northern America.{{cite web |title=Taxon: Onoclea sensibilis L. |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomydetail?id=402104 |website=npgsweb.ars-grin.gov |publisher=U.S. National Plant Germplasm System |access-date=15 December 2021 |date=20 November 2021}} It ranges from Newfoundland south to Florida and west to Texas, the Rocky Mountains, North and South Dakota, Quebec, and Manitoba.{{Cite web|url=http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ONSE|title = USDA Plants Database |publisher= United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA)}}{{cite journal |last1=Brooks |first1=Ralph E. |title=The Ferns of the Black Hills |journal=Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science |date=11 June 1969 |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=109–136 |doi=10.2307/3627056 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3627056 |access-date=15 November 2021 |publisher=Kansas Academy of Science|jstor=3627056 }}{{cite web |last1=Burkhart |first1=Beth |last2=Crook |first2=Reed |title=R2 Individual Species Recommendations |publisher=USDA Forest Service |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5331338.pdf |access-date=15 November 2021 |date=4 October 2002}}

It has become naturalized in western Europe{{cite web |title=Onoclea sensibilis L. distribution map |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:281589-2|website=www.plantsoftheworldonline.org |publisher=Royal Botanical Gardens |access-date=16 November 2021}} and New Zealand.

Onoclea sensibilis can be found at elevations from sea level up to {{convert|1500|m|ft}} in fresh water habitats, not brackish, as its spore germination ceases at salt (NaCl) levels ≥ 0.6%,{{cite journal |last1=Lloyd |first1=Robert M. |last2=Buckley |first2=Donald P. |editor1-last=Crabbe |editor1-first=J. A. |editor2-last=Gibby |editor2-first=M. |editor3-last=Parris |editor3-first=B. S. |title=Effects of Salinity on Gametophyte Growth of Acrostichum aureum and A. danaeifolium |journal=The Fern Gazette |date=1986 |volume=13 |issue=Part 2 |page=101 |url=https://www.bfa.fcnym.unlp.edu.ar/catalogo/doc_num.php?explnum_id=2054&usg=AOvVaw1tCi7fmspCHlzDE18VzqnP |access-date=11 December 2021 |publisher=The British Pteridological Society}} moderately saline water and higher.

Onoclea sensibilis grows best in moist shaded or partially shaded areas, dwelling in a variety of swamp and wood habitats: wet meadows, thickets and bogs, as well as stream and riverbanks and roadside ditches. It tolerates extremely wet soils, appearing in soggy ground or at the very edge of water in shade or sun.{{cite web |title=Onoclea sensibilis |url=https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=ONSE |website=www.wildflower.org |publisher=LADY BIRD JOHNSON WILDFLOWER CENTER |access-date=13 November 2021}} The plant can tolerate dryer conditions in shade.

It prefers acidic (pH <6.8), loose, sandy to loam, limestone-based soils.

File:Onoclea sensibilis 4 crop.jpg

The Onoclea sensibilis plant has remained essentially unchanged over millions of years. A fifty-seven million year old fossil of Paleocene epoch flora shows specimens virtually identical to modern samples. It has a life cycle featuring alternation of generations, sexual and asexual reproduction; its sporophyte generation matures in autumn, casts its spores in the spring and the gametophyte generation follows. Sporophytes require 5–10 years of growth before reaching their mature fern height.

Sensitive ferns propagate by both spore dispersion and rhizome growth. Its growth clusters attract local fauna where small wildlife find habitat, deer bed upon its dense mat and in winter wild turkeys use the fertile spore stalks as a secondary food source. They can become aggressive and a nuisance if established near preferable vegetation. The University of Maine's Cooperative Extension: Maine Wild Blueberries classifies the sensitive fern as a herbaceous broadleaf weed.{{cite web |last1=D’Appollonio |first1=Jennifer L. |title=Herbaceous Broadleaf Weeds: Ferns |url=https://extension.umaine.edu/blueberries/weed-images/herbaceous-broadleaf-weeds/ferns/ |website=Cooperative Extension: Maine Wild Blueberries |publisher=University of Maine |access-date=15 November 2021}}

Its deciduous fronds do not tolerate freezing temperatures, however, the plant survives USDA hardiness zones 4–8, or minimum temperatures of {{convert|-20|to|-15|C|F}} having the Royal Horticultural Society's H6 rating.{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf | title = Award of Garden Merit (AGM) Plants – Ornamental (Hardiness ratings) | date = July 2021 | page = 75 | publisher = Royal Horticultural Society | access-date = 15 November 2021}} Winter survival is enhanced if the dried frond petiole bases are left intact.

Nutrient beneficial ectotrophic mycorrhizal associations may occur in Onoclea sensibilis, Pteridium aquilinum and Adiantum pedatum located in oak and hickory forests.{{cite journal |last1=Iqbal |first1=S. H. |last2=Yousaf |first2=M. |last3=Younus |first3=M. |title=A Field Survey of Mycorrhizal Associations in Ferns of Pakistan |journal=The New Phytologist |date=January 1981 |volume=87 |issue=1 |page=69 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.1981.tb01691.x |bibcode=1981NewPh..87...69I |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1981.tb01691.x |access-date=16 December 2021}}

Onoclea sensibilis is a wetland indicator, listed as a Facultative Wetland Hydrophyte in the 2013 (US) National Wetland Plant List due to its observed affinity for wetter soils.{{cite journal |last1=Lichvar |first1=Robert W. |editor1-last=Nesom |editor1-first=Guy L. |title=The National Wetland Plant List: 2013 wetland ratings |journal=Lilloa |date=17 July 2013 |url=http://www.phytoneuron.net/2013Phytoneuron/49PhytoN-2013NWPL.pdf |access-date=13 November 2021 |publisher=Phytoneuron |location=Fort Worth, Texas |issn=2153-733X |oclc=540632713}}

Opinion is mixed regarding the species' tolerance to disturbance of its growing environment. In one forest setting, a decade long decline was noticed following even single-cut tree felling operations.{{cite web |title=Ferns of the Adirondacks: Sensitive Fern (Onoclea sensibilis L.) |url=https://wildadirondacks.org/adirondack-ferns-sensitive-fern-onoclea-sensibilis.html |website=wildadirondacks.org |publisher=Adirondack Park |access-date=18 November 2021 |date=2021}} In other settings sensitive ferns appear opportunistic, disturbance not being a problem. They spread to form colonies, often the first species to inhabit disturbed areas.

Onoclea sensibilis hosts insects, fungi, bacteria and even a parasitic vine, Cuscuta gronovii (scaldweed), that can overgrow and constrict it.

File:Angle shades - aka olive sausage (BG) (13101368135).jpg

Insects feeding upon the Onoclea sensibilis target both its leaves and rhizome roots. Amphorophora ampullata fern aphids,{{cite web |author1=Dr. John Hilty |title=Sensitive Fern (Onoclea sensibilis) |url=https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/grasses/plants/sensitive_fern.htm |website=www.illinoiswildflowers.info |access-date=19 November 2021 |date=20 November 2019}} Chirosia gleniensis fern miners{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Jie |last2=Wang |first2=Xuexiong |last3=Duffy |first3=Kevin Jan |last4=Dai |first4=Xiaohua |title=A preliminary world checklist of fern-mining insects |journal=Biodiversity Data Journal |date=25 March 2021 |page=Table1 |doi=10.3897/BDJ.9.e62839 |pmid=33824618 |series=eCollection 2021 |volume=9 |pmc=8016819 |doi-access=free }} and the larvae of sawflies Hemitaxonus dubitatus and Stromboceros delicatulus{{cite web |title=Stromboceros delicatulus (Fallén, 1808) (a sawfly) |url=https://www.bioinfo.org.uk/html/Stromboceros_delicatulus.htm |website=www.bioinfo.org.uk |publisher=BioInfo (UK) |access-date=10 December 2021}} feed on its leaves. Larvae of moth species Phlogophora iris (olive angle shades, pictured),{{cite web |title=Sensitive Fern- Onoclea sensibilis L. |url=https://eol.org/pages/596753 |website=eol.org |publisher=Encyclopedia of Life |access-date=29 November 2021}} Callopistria cordata (silver-spotted fern moth) and Papaipema inquaesita (Sensitive Fern Borer) are known to feed on both stems and rhizomes.

Parasitic fungi include Ceratobasidium anceps, causing frond and stem necrosis; Ceratobasidium cornigerum, covering stems with saprophyte growths;{{cite book |title=Index of Plant Diseases in the United States |date=August 1960 |publisher=United States Agricultural Research Service- Crops Research Division |location=Washington, DC |page=363 |edition=Agricultural Handbook No. 165 |url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=ZYMWAAAAYAAJ&rdid=book-ZYMWAAAAYAAJ&rdot=1 |access-date=1 December 2021}} and Uredinopsis mirabilis, a distinct rust species unique to the Sensitive Fern.{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=H. P. |title=Fern Rusts Abies |journal=The Botanical Gazette |date=March 1924 |volume=77 |issue=1 |page=6 |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/333278 |access-date=22 November 2021 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago, Illinois|doi=10.1086/333278 |s2cid=85139988 }} Invasive fungi like Taphrina filicina, Taphrina hiratsukae and Phyllactinia corylea, synonym Phyllactinia guttata{{cite journal |last1=Stevenson |first1=John A. |title=Ferns and Fungi |journal=American Fern Journal |date=October–December 1945 |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=100–1 |doi=10.2307/1545645 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1545645 |access-date=9 December 2021 |publisher=American Fern Society|jstor=1545645 }} can infect leaves, causing blisters or white powdery mildew.

Fungi can develop beneath beech trees, where aphid honeydew secretions accumulate;{{cite web |title=Grylloprociphilus imbricator (Associated fungus)|url=https://influentialpoints.com/Gallery/Grylloprociphilus_imbricator_beech_blight_aphid.htm |website=InfluentialPoints.com |publisher=InfluentialPoints |access-date=15 December 2021}}{{cite journal |last1=Hottes |first1=Frederick C. |last2=Frison |first2=Theodore H. |editor1-last=Oesterling |editor1-first=H. C. |title=The Plant Lice, or Aphiidae, of Illinois |journal=Division of the Natural History Survey Bulletin |date=September 1931 |volume=19 |issue=3 |page=373 |url=https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/44882/Bulletin19(3).pdf?sequence=2 |access-date=15 December 2021 |publisher=Schnepp & Barnes, Printers |location=Springfield, Illinois}} these strictly epiphyllous honeydew fungi, Sclerotiomyces colchicus{{cite journal |last1=Greene |first1=H. C. |title=Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. XVI. |journal=The American Midland Naturalist |date=November 1952 |volume=48 |issue=3 |page=748 |doi=10.2307/2422208 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2422208 |access-date=9 December 2021 |publisher=The University of Notre Dame|jstor=2422208 }} and Scorias spongiosa (Schwein.) Fr.,{{cite web |last1=Davis |first1=J. J. |title=Taxon: Scorias spongiosa (Schwein.) Fr. |url=https://mycoportal.org/portal/collections/individual/index.php?occid=3763097 |website=Mycology Collections data Portal |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison Herbarium (WIS) |access-date=13 December 2021 |date=4 August 1920}} have been recorded on Onoclea sensibilis, where their sooty mold buildup impairs leaf function.

Onoclea sensibilis can host Burkholderia plantarii which causes stem lesions. B. plantarii is a pathogen of bacterial seedling blight in rice. In a multi-year study the weedy presence of O. sensibilis at rice paddy fields and a means to convey the bacterium (rainfall runoff) implicated it as the source of bacterial blight outbreaks when paired with enabling environmental conditions.{{cite journal |last1=Tanaka |first1=T. |last2=Katoh |first2=T. |last3=Satoh |first3=T. |title=Role of the rice seedlings [Oryza sativa] and Kouyawarabi (Onoclea sensibilis L.) infested with Burkholderia plantarii as the source of bacterial seedling blight of rice |journal=Annals of the Phytopathological Society of Japan |date=2002 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=283–290 |doi=10.3186/jjphytopath.68.283 |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjphytopath1918/68/3/68_3_283/_article/-char/en |access-date=15 December 2021 |language=ja|issn=0031-9473|doi-access=free }}

Onoclea sensibilis has two internally-synthesized chemical defenses against insects. Ingesting any part of the plant introduces thiaminase enzymes and phytoecdysteroid hormones which can disrupt an insect's molting cycle, preventing its full development.{{cite web |title=Ferns of Texas- Onoclea sensibilis |url=https://ferns.brit.org/?q=node/78 |website=brit.org |publisher=Botanical Research Institute of Texas |access-date=23 November 2021}}

Onoclea sensibilis has been implicated in equine poisoning and death,{{cite book |last1=Quattrocchi |first1=Umberto |title=CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology |date=1999 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boco Ratan, Florida |isbn=1482250640 |page=2688 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-37OBQAAQBAJ&dq=1753+Onoclea+sensibilis+var.+sensibilis&pg=PA2688 |access-date=17 November 2021 }} especially if eaten in quantity. The exact cause is unproven, but thiaminase poisoning, causing an extreme Vitamin B1 deficiency is suspected.

Its human toxicity is not well defined; no specific warnings for Onoclea sensibilis have been found.{{cite web |title=Onoclea sensibilis – L. |url=https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Onoclea+sensibilis |website=pfaf.org |publisher=Plants For A Future |access-date=23 November 2021 |date=2010}} Its summaries, however, frequently include precautionary statements that ferns, in general, may contain natural carcinogens and/or the enzyme thiaminase, the latter being dangerous in high concentration. Historically, some Native American peoples have consumed Onoclea sensibilis without apparent distress; see Food uses in this article.

Onoclea sensibilis has limited value for food use, considered a famine food by some and reserved for times of scarcity. Cooking heat eliminates its thiaminase content. The Iroquois treated Onoclea sensibilis as an early springtime vegetable, prepared like spinach, the fiddleheads cooked and "seasoned with salt, pepper or butter" (Waugh, 1916).{{cite book |last1=Waugh |first1=F. W. (Frederick Wilkerson) |title=Iroquois Foods and Food Preparation |date=1916 |publisher=Canada Department of Mines ... Anthropological series / Geological Survey of Canada; number 12|location=Ottawa, Canada |page=118 |url=http://naeb.brit.org/uses/search/?string=Sensitive+Fern |access-date=28 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216000000/http://naeb.brit.org/uses/search/?string=Sensitive+Fern |archive-date=2023-02-16}} [https://www.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.82410 Alt URL] After removing the "brown scales" (sori), leaves were processed likewise.

Its young shoots have been sold as delicacies in Asian markets.

It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in traditional and native plant gardens, and in natural landscaping and habitat restoration projects.{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector – Onoclea sensibilis|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/11816/Onoclea-sensibilis/Details | access-date = 16 January 2021}} It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. Gardeners employ rhizome division and are aided by spore harvesting guides.{{cite book |last1=Wasowski |first1=Sally |last2=Wasowski |first2=Andy |title=Gardening with Native Plants of the South |date=1994 |publisher=Taylor Trade Publishing |location=Lanham, Maryland |isbn=9781589794245 |page=118 |edition=2010}} Its decomposing fronds make an effective mulch, suppressing undergrowth. Plantings can become aggressive, weedy if not sited properly.

Its cut fronds are used in dried flower arrangements.

Historically, Native American peoples used Onoclea sensibilis for oral and topical indigenous treatments.{{cite book |last1=Moerman |first1=D. |title=Native American Ethnobotany |date=1998 |publisher=Timber Press |location=Oregon |isbn=0-88192-453-9}}

{{commons category|Onoclea sensibilis}}

• Also see the Polish Wikipedia article for Onoclea sensibilis.

{{Reflist}}

• [http://www.borealforest.org/ferns/fern12.htm Boreal-forest.org]
• [http://www.wellesley.edu/Biology/Web/Species/pfernsensitive.html Onoclea sensibilis.] Web of Species: Biodiversity at Wellesley College and in New England.
• [http://delta-intkey.com/britfe/www/onocsens.htm Onoclea sensibilis] in [http://delta-intkey.com/britfe/ L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz (2004 onwards). The Ferns (Filicopsida) of the British Isles.] delta-intkey.com
• Discussion of O. sensibilis' rhizome growth, branching and fern reproduction in [https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1811/3513/1/V46N02_073.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1nG5MreLX8DeNFzlSs4dTP A Phylogenetic Study of the Ferns of Burma]

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Category:Ferns of Asia

Category:Ferns of the Americas

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Category:Flora of Eastern Asia

Category:Flora of the Russian Far East

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