Parliamentary republic
{{Short description|Form of government}}
{{republicanism sidebar}}
A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies. In some countries the head of state has reserve powers to use at their discretion as a non-partisan "referee" of the political process.{{Cite news |last=Twomey |first=Anne |author-link=Anne Twomey (academic) |title=Australian politics explainer: Gough Whitlam's dismissal as prime minister |language=en |work=The Conversation |url=https://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-gough-whitlams-dismissal-as-prime-minister-74148 |access-date=18 October 2018}}{{Cite news |title=The President's Role |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/The-Presidents-role/articleshow/20154333.cms?referral=PM |access-date=18 October 2018}} Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary confidence. In general, parliamentary republics grant the highest sovereign powers to the parliament.{{Systems of government}}
Powers
{{more citations needed|section|date=February 2019}}
In contrast to republics operating under either the presidential system or the semi-presidential system, the head of state usually does not have executive powers as an executive president would (some may have reserve powers or a bit more influence beyond that), because many of those powers have been granted to a head of government (usually called a prime minister).{{Clarify|date=December 2015}}
However, in a parliamentary republic with a head of state whose tenure is dependent on parliament, the head of government and head of state can form one office (as in Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and South Africa), but the president is still selected in much the same way as the prime minister is in most Westminster systems. This usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament.
In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of government (as in Iceland) but by convention they either do not use these powers or they use them only to give effect to the advice of the parliament or head of government. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system but operating under a parliamentary system.
Historical development
Typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system.{{cite book|title=Parliamentary versus presidential government|isbn=978-0-19-878044-1|publisher=Oxford University Press|editor=Arend Lijphart|year=1992}}
Following the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, France once again became a republic – the French Third Republic – in 1870. The President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940. Following the end of the war, the French Fourth Republic was constituted along similar lines in 1946. The Fourth Republic saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after the war, and played an important part in the development of the process of European integration, which changed the continent permanently. Some attempts were made to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation that had existed before the war, but the instability remained and the Fourth Republic saw frequent changes in government – there were 20 governments in ten years. Additionally, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization. As a result, the Fourth Republic collapsed and Charles de Gaulle was given power to rule by decree, subsequently legitimized by approval of a new constitution in a referendum on 28 September 1958 that led to the establishment of the French Fifth Republic in 1959.
Chile became the first parliamentary republic in South America following a civil war in 1891. However, following a coup in 1925 this system was replaced by a presidential one.{{Original research inline|date=January 2016}}
= Commonwealth of Nations =
{{main|Commonwealth of Nations}}
Since the London Declaration of 29 April 1949 (just weeks after Ireland declared itself a republic, and excluded itself from the Commonwealth) republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
In the case of many republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a Governor-General, to be replaced by a non-executive head of state. This was the case in South Africa (which ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth immediately upon becoming a republic, and later switched to having an executive presidency), Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India, Vanuatu and since 30 November 2021, Barbados. In many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with Sri Lanka and Pakistan.
Other states became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence.
{{Clear}}
List of modern parliamentary republics and related systems
{{main|List of countries by system of government#Parliamentary and related systems}}
| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="7" | Full parliamentary republics |
| Country/territory
!Head of state !Head of state elected by !Cameral structure !Parliamentary republic adopted !Previous government form !Notes |
|---|
| {{flag|Albania}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Bajram Begaj | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by three-fifths majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1991 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state | |
| {{flag|Armenia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Vahagn Khachaturyan | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by absolute majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|2018Changed after the 2015 referendum. | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential republic | |
| {{flag|Austria}}
|style="text-align:center;"|Alexander Van der Bellen |style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system |style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral |style="text-align:center;"|1945 |style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (as part of Nazi Germany, see Anschluss) | |
| {{nowrap|{{flag|Bangladesh}}}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Mohammed Shahabuddin | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1991Was, previously, a parliamentary republic between 1972 and 1975. | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic | |
| {{nowrap|{{flag|Barbados}}}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Sandra Mason | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority if there is no joint nomination | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"|2021 | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm) | |
| {{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Denis Bećirović | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election of collective head of state, by first-past-the-post vote | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1991 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
| {{flagicon|Bulgaria}} Bulgaria
| style="text-align:center;"|Rumen Radev | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1991 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state | |
| {{flag|Republic of China (Taiwan)}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Lai Ching-te | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by first-past-the-post | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1946 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party military dictatorship (Mainland China) | style="text-align:center;"|Nominally; the Constitution has been partially superseded by additional articles that provide for a semi-presidential republic with direct presidential elections and a unicameral legislature. These additional articles have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in mainland China. |
| {{flagicon|Croatia}} Croatia
| style="text-align:center;"|Zoran Milanović | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|2000 | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential republic | |
| {{flag|Czech Republic}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Petr Pavel | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system (since 2013; previously parliament, by majority) | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1993 | style="text-align:center;"|Parliamentary republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | |
| {{flag|Dominica}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Sylvanie Burton | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1978 | style="text-align:center;"|Associated state of the United Kingdom | |
| {{flag|Estonia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Alar Karis | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1991Estonia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1918 and 1934 when the system was changed to a presidential system which was thereafter overthrown by a coup d'état. In 1938, Estonia finally adopted a presidential system and in June 1940 was illegally occupied by the Soviet Union. Became a parliamentary republic again in 1990 with the implementation of an interim period to restore full independence, which was achieved by 1991. | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state | |
| {{flag|Ethiopia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Taye Atske Selassie | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1991 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state | |
| {{flag|Fiji}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Naiqama Lalabalavu | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|2014 | style="text-align:center;"|Military dictatorship | |
| {{flag|Finland}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Alexander Stubb | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|2000Formerly a semi-presidential republic, it is now a parliamentary republic according to David Arter, First Chair of Politics at Aberdeen University. In his "Scandinavian Politics Today" (Manchester University Press, revised 2008 {{ISBN|9780719078538}}), he quotes {{Cite journal | last = Nousiainen | first = Jaakko | title = From semi-presidentialism to parliamentary government: political and constitutional developments in Finland | journal = Scandinavian Political Studies | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | pages = 95–109 | doi = 10.1111/1467-9477.00048 | date = June 2001 }} as follows: "There are hardly any grounds for the epithet 'semi-presidential'." Arter's own conclusions are only slightly more nuanced: "The adoption of a new constitution on 1 March 2000 meant that Finland was no longer a case of semi-presidential government other than in the minimalist sense of a situation where a popularly elected fixed-term president exists alongside a prime minister and cabinet who are responsible to parliament (Elgie 2004: 317)". According to the Finnish Constitution, the president has no possibility to rule the government without the ministerial approval, and does not have the power to dissolve the parliament under his or her own desire. Finland is actually represented by its prime minister, and not by its president, in the Council of the Heads of State and Government of the European Union. The 2012 constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the president even further. | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential republic | |
| {{flag|Georgia (country)|name=Georgia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Mikheil Kavelashvili (disputed){{efn|Kavelashvili's election is contested by outgoing President Salome Zourabichvili, all large opposition parties, as well as numerous watchdogs and constitutional experts, who question the legitimacy of the 2024 Georgian parliamentary election that determined the composition of the electoral college for the presidential election.}} | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and regional delegates, by absolute majority (since 2024; previously direct election, by two-round system) | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|2018{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/29/world/europe/georgia-president-salome-zurabishvili.html |title=Salome Zurabishvili Wins Georgia Presidential Runoff |agency=The Associated Press |work=The New York Times |access-date=3 January 2019 |date=29 November 2018}} | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential republic | |
| {{flag|Germany}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Frank-Walter Steinmeier | style="text-align:center;"|Federal Convention (Bundestag and state delegates{{Efn|The Federal Convention is made up of all the members of the Bundestag. The other half is distributed to the 16 Länder, that then each elect Members to elect the President of Germany. Often German celebrities are chosen by the state parliaments. |group=note}}), by absolute majority{{Cite web |title=Art 54 GG - Einzelnorm |url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/gg/art_54.html |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=www.gesetze-im-internet.de}} | style="text-align:center;"|Two unicameral institutions{{Efn|The Bundesrat is sometimes referred to as an upper chamber of the German legislature. This is technically incorrect, since the German Constitution defines the Bundestag and Bundesrat as two separate legislative institutions. It describes the Bundesrat as the constitutional organ which is representing the 16 Länder (States) of Germany. Hence, the federal legislature of Germany consists of two unicameral legislative institutions, not one bicameral parliament. However the Federal Constitutional Court itself referred to the Bundesrat in the English translation of this decision. |group=note}}{{Cite web |title=Zusammensetzung des Bundesrates |url=https://www.bundesrat.de/DE/bundesrat/verteilung/verteilung-node.html |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=Bundesrat |language=de}} | style="text-align:center;"|1949{{efn|In the case of the former West German states, including former West Berlin, the previous one-party state is Nazi Germany, but in the case of the New Länder and former East Berlin it is East Germany. German reunification took place on 3 October 1990, when the five re-established states of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin was united into a single city-state. Therefore, this date applies to today's Federal Republic of Germany as a whole, although the area of former East Germany was no part of that parliamentary republic until 1990. |group=note}} | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state | |
| {{flag|Greece}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Katerina Sakellaropoulou | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1975 | style="text-align:center;"|Military dictatorship; constitutional monarchy | |
| {{flag|Hungary}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Tamás Sulyok | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1990 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (Hungarian People's Republic) | |
| {{flag|Iceland}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Halla Tómasdóttir | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1944 | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (in a personal union with Denmark) | |
| {{flag|India}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Droupadi Murmu | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and state legislature, by instant-runoff vote | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1950 | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) | |
| {{flag|Iraq}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Abdul Latif Rashid | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority | style="text-align:center;"|UnicameralOfficially bicameral, upper house never entered into functions, to present day. | style="text-align:center;"|2005 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state | |
| {{flag|Ireland}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Michael D. Higgins | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by instant-runoff vote | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1949The head of state was ambiguous from 1936 until the Republic of Ireland Act came into force on 18 April 1949. A minority of Irish republicans assert that the Irish Republic proclaimed in 1919 is still extant. | style="text-align:center;"|To 1936: Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) | |
| {{flag|Israel}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Isaac Herzog | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|2001 | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-parliamentary republic | |
| {{flag|Italy}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Sergio Mattarella | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and region delegates, by two-thirds majority; by absolute majority, starting from the fourth ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first three ballots | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1946 | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy | style="text-align:center;"|Prime Minister is dependent on the confidence of both of the houses of Parliament. |
| {{flag|Kosovo}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Vjosa Osmani | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority; by a simple majority, at the third ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first two ballots | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|2008 | style="text-align:center;"|UN-administered Kosovo (formally part of Serbia) | |
| {{flag|Latvia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Edgars Rinkēvičs | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1991Latvia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1921 and 1934 when the then prime minister Kārlis Ulmanis took power in a coup d'état. In June 1940 Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state | |
| {{flag|Lebanon}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Joseph Aoun | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1941 | style="text-align:center;"|Protectorate (French mandate of Lebanon) | |
| {{flag|Malta}}
| style="text-align:center;"|George Vella | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by two-thirds majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1974 | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm{{cite web|url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/malta/00_1964_74_s.php|title=Malta: Heads of State: 1964-1974|website=Archontology.org|access-date=18 February 2018}}){{cite web|url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/uk/01_realms.php|title=British Monarch's Titles: 1867-2018|website=Archontology.org|access-date=18 February 2018}} | |
| {{flag|Mauritius}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Dharam Gokhool | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1992 | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm{{cite web|url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/mauritius/00_1968_1992_s.php|title=Mauritius: Heads of State: 1968-1992|website=Archontology.org|access-date=18 February 2018}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L027DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29|title=The Statesman's Year-Book 1984-85|last1=Paxton|first1=John|page=29|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|date=1984|access-date=18 February 2018|isbn=978-0-333-34731-7}}) | |
| {{flag|Moldova}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Maia Sandu | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|2001 | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential republic | |
| {{flag|Montenegro}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Jakov Milatović | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1992 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (Part of Yugoslavia, and after Serbia and Montenegro) | |
| {{flag|Nepal}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Ram Chandra Poudel | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and state legislators | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral[http://constitution.org.np/userfiles/constitution%20of%20nepal%202072-en.pdf Constitution of Nepal] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223153410/http://constitution.org.np/userfiles/constitution%20of%20nepal%202072-en.pdf |date=December 23, 2015 }} | style="text-align:center;"|2008Under a transitional government between 2006 and 2015; this Transitional Government was responsible to an elected Constituent Assembly, which resolved to establish a republic in 2008. | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy | |
| {{flag|North Macedonia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Gordana Siljanovska-Davkova | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1991 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
| {{flag|Pakistan}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Asif Ali Zardari | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and state legislators, by instant-runoff vote | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"| 2010{{Cite web|author=Kiran Khalid|url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/04/09/pakistan.constitution/ |title=Pakistan lawmakers approve weakening of presidential powers |work=CNN|date=9 April 2010 |access-date=14 April 2010}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.nation.com.pk/11-Apr-2010/18th-amendment-to-restore-constitution |title='18th Amendment to restore Constitution' |date=11 April 2010 |publisher=Nation.com.pk |access-date=14 April 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414123429/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Regional/Lahore/11-Apr-2010/18th-Amendment-to-restore-Constitution |archive-date=14 April 2010 }} | style="text-align:center;"|Assembly-independent republic | |
| {{flag|Poland}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Andrzej Duda | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1989 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state | |
| {{flag|Samoa}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Tuimalealiifano Va'aletoa Sualauvi II | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1960 | style="text-align:center;"|Trust Territory of New Zealand | |
| {{flag|Serbia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Aleksandar Vučić | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1991 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (part of Yugoslavia, and later Serbia and Montenegro) | |
| {{flag|Singapore}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Tharman Shanmugaratnam | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election (since 1993) | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1965 | style="text-align:center;"|State of Malaysia | |
| {{flag|Slovakia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Peter Pellegrini | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system (since 1999; previously by parliament) | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1993 | style="text-align:center;"|Parliamentary Republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | |
| {{flag|Slovenia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Nataša Pirc Musar | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by two-round system | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1991 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
| {{flag|Somalia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Hassan Sheikh Mohamud | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"|2012Had a transitional government between 1991 and 2012. | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state | |
| {{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Christine Kangaloo | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1976 | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm{{cite web|url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/trinidad/00_1962_1976_state.php|title=Trinidad and Tobago: Heads of State: 1962-1976|website=Archontology.org|access-date=18 February 2018}}) | |
| {{flag|Togo}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Faure Gnassingbé | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|2024 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic | |
| {{flag|Vanuatu}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Nikenike Vurobaravu | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament and regional council presidents, by majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1980 | style="text-align:center;"|British–French condominium (New Hebrides) | |
| colspan=7|Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency |
| Country
!Head of state !Head of state elected by !Cameral structure !Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency adopted !Previous government form !Notes |
| {{flag|Botswana}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Duma Boko | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1966 | style="text-align:center;"|British protectorate (Bechuanaland Protectorate) | |
| {{flag|Kiribati}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Taneti Maamau | style="text-align:center;"|Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1979 | style="text-align:center;"|Protectorate |Following a general election, by which citizens elect the members of the House of Assembly, members select from their midst "not less than 3 nor more than 4 candidates" for the presidency. No other person may stand as candidate. The citizens of Kiribati then elect the president from among the proposed candidates with first-past-the-post voting.{{Cite web |date=2009-04-16 |title=Parliament of Kiribati - Constitution |url=http://www.parliament.gov.ki/constitution.html |access-date=2023-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416024522/http://www.parliament.gov.ki/constitution.html |archive-date=2009-04-16 }} |
| {{flag|Guyana}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Irfaan Ali | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-direct election, by first-past-the-post voteEvery list of candidates for Parliament must also have a candidate for President, and the having the most votes automatically has its candidate elected President (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority) | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1980 | style="text-align:center;"|Full parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"| |
| {{flag|Marshall Islands}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Hilda Heine | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1979 | style="text-align:center;"|UN Trust Territory (part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) | |
| {{flag|Nauru}}
| style="text-align:center;"|David Adeang | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1968 | style="text-align:center;"|UN Trusteeship between Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. | |
| {{flag|South Africa}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Cyril Ramaphosa | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority | style="text-align:center;"|Bicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1961 | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm{{cite web|url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/south_africa/00_1910_1961_s.php|title=South Africa: Heads of State: 1910-1961|website=Archontology.org|access-date=18 February 2018}}{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/south-africa-returns-to-the-commonwealth-fold-1419686.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220525/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/south-africa-returns-to-the-commonwealth-fold-1419686.html |archive-date=2022-05-25 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=South Africa returns to the Commonwealth fold|last1=Carlin|first1=John|website=The Independent|date=31 May 1994|access-date=18 February 2018}}{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=WUVkAAAAIBAJ&pg=5504,1422353|title=Secession Talked by Some Anti-Republicans|newspaper=Saskatoon Star-Phoenix|date=11 October 1960|access-date=18 February 2018}}) | style="text-align:center;"|Was a full parliamentary republic from 1961–1984; adopted an executive presidency in 1984. |
| {{flag|Suriname}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Chan Santokhi | style="text-align:center;"|ParliamentPresident must have 2/3rd majority vote in parliament. Voting happens twice if there is no majority vote at the first vote for a candidate. If no 2/3rd majority vote after second vote, then parliament moves this to the VVV (Vereenigde Volksvergadering, where all the members of Parliament and district and resort counsel members will vote for the president. Majority vote decides who becomes president. (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority) | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1987 | style="text-align:center;"|Full parliamentary republic |style="text-align:center;"|Was a full parliamentary republic from 1975–1980; adopted an executive presidency in 1987 after the military coup period from 1980–1987, when the president was given executive powers and the prime minister title became vice-president. | |
| colspan=7|Assembly-independent systems |
| Country
!Head of state !Head of state elected by !Cameral structure !Assembly-independent republic adopted !Previous government form !Notes |
| {{flag|Federated States of Micronesia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Wesley Simina | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament, by majority | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1986 | style="text-align:center;"|UN Trust Territory (Part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) | The president is assisted by the vice-president, both of whom are elected by the FSM Congress from among the at-large members to serve for four-year terms.{{Cite web |title=Executive |url=https://www.gov.fm/index.php/national-government/executive |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=www.gov.fm |date=8 March 2021 |language=en-gb}} |
| {{flag|San Marino}}
| style="text-align:center;"|Francesca Civerchia | style="text-align:center;"|Parliament | style="text-align:center;"|Unicameral | style="text-align:center;"|1291 | style="text-align:center;"|Theocracy (part of the Papal States) | style="text-align:center;"|Two collective heads of state and heads of government, the Captains Regent |
| colspan=7 | Directorial systems |
| Country
!Head of state !Head of state elected by !Cameral structure !Parliamentary republic adopted !Previous government form !Notes |
| {{flag|Switzerland}}
| style="text-align:center;" | Guy Parmelin | style="text-align:center;" | Parliament by exhaustive ballot at a joint sitting of both houses | style="text-align:center;" | Bicameral | style="text-align:center;" | 1848 | style="text-align:center;" | Confederation of states | style="text-align:center;" | Also has citizen-initiated referendums |
List of former parliamentary republics and related systems
| class="wikitable sortable"
!Country !Became a !Status !width=300px|Changed to !Reason for change !Notes | |||
| colspan="6" | Full parliamentary republics | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| {{flagicon|Abkhazia|SSR}} SSR Abkhazia
| style="text-align:center;"|1921 | style="text-align:center;"|1931 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman | |||
| {{flag|Abkhaz ASSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1931 | style="text-align:center;"|1991 | style="text-align:center;"|Full parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 | |||
| {{flag|Abkhazia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1991 | style="text-align:center;"|1994 | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|New constitution adopted | | |||
| {{flag|First Republic of Armenia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1918 | style="text-align:center;"|1920 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic | | |||
| {{flag|Armenian SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1920 | style="text-align:center;"|1991 | style="text-align:center;"|Multi-party semi-presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 | |||
| {{flagicon|Austria}} First Austrian Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1920 | style="text-align:center;"|1929 | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | | |||
| {{flag|Azerbaijan Democratic Republic}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1918 | style="text-align:center;"|1920 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic | | |||
| {{flag|Azerbaijan SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1920 | style="text-align:center;"|1990 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman | |||
| {{flag|Belarusian Democratic Republic}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1918 | style="text-align:center;"|1920 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic | | |||
| {{flag|Byelorussian SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1920 | style="text-align:center;"|1990 | style="text-align:center;"|Full parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman | |||
| {{flag|Belarus|1991}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1990 | style="text-align:center;"|1994 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|New constitution adopted | | |||
| {{BRA}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1961 | style="text-align:center;"|1963 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|Referendum | | |||
| {{flagicon|Burma|1948}} Burma (present-day Myanmar)
| style="text-align:center;"|1948 | style="text-align:center;"|1962 | style="text-align:center;"|Military dictatorship | style="text-align:center;"|1962 Burmese coup d'état | | |||
| rowspan=2|{{flagicon|Chile}} Chile
| style="text-align:center;"|1891 | style="text-align:center;"|1924 | style="text-align:center;"|Military junta | style="text-align:center;"|1924 Chilean coup d'état | | |||
| style="text-align:center;"|1925
| style="text-align:center;"|1925 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|New constitution | | |||
| rowspan=2| {{flagicon|ROC}} Republic of China
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:center;"|1947 | style="text-align:center;"|1972 (de facto) | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|Constitution suspended | rowspan=2 style="text-align:center;"|The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution which is generally in effect, but are suspended by the Additional Articles, which have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in mainland China. | |||
| style="text-align:center;"|1991 (de jure; nominally remains parliamentary)
| style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|Additional articles of the Constitution adopted | |||
| {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} First Czechoslovak Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1920 | style="text-align:center;"|1939 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state | style="text-align:center;"|Munich agreement | | |||
| {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} Third Czechoslovak Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1945 | style="text-align:center;"|1948 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"|Coup d'état | | |||
| {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} Fourth Czechoslovak Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1948 | style="text-align:center;"|1989 | style="text-align:center;"|Multi-party parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"|Velvet Revolution | style="text-align:center;"|One-party system under the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia | |||
| {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} Fifth Czechoslovak Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1989 | style="text-align:center;"|1992 | style="text-align:center;"|State dissolved | style="text-align:center;"|Velvet Divorce | | |||
| {{flagicon|East Indonesia}} State of East Indonesia
| style="text-align:center;"|1946 | style="text-align:center;"|1950 | style="text-align:center;"|State dissolved | style="text-align:center;"|Merged to the Republic of Indonesia | | |||
| rowspan=2| {{flagicon|Estonia}} First Republic of Estonia
| style="text-align:center;"|1920 | style="text-align:center;"|1934 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"|1934 Estonian coup d'état | rowspan=2 style="text-align:center;"|In June 1940, Estonia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. | |||
| style="text-align:center;"|1934
| style="text-align:center;"|1938 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|New constitution adopted | |||
| {{flagicon|France|1830}} French Third Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1870 | style="text-align:center;"|1940 | style="text-align:center;"|Puppet state | style="text-align:center;"|World War II German occupation | | |||
| {{flagicon|France|1830}} French Fourth Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1946 | style="text-align:center;"|1958 | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|New constitution adopted | | |||
| {{flag|Democratic Republic of Georgia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1918 | style="text-align:center;"|1921 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia | | |||
| {{flag|Georgian SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1921 | style="text-align:center;"|1991 | style="text-align:center;"|Multi-party semi-presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 | |||
| {{flag|Guyana}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1970 | style="text-align:center;"|1980 | style="text-align:center;"|Assembly-independent republic | style="text-align:center;"|New constitution adopted | | |||
| {{flagicon|Hungary|1946}} Hungary
| style="text-align:center;"|1946 | style="text-align:center;"|1949 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state | style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the People's Republic of Hungary | | |||
| {{INA}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1945 | style="text-align:center;"|1959 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential constitution reinstated | | |||
| {{ISR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1948 | style="text-align:center;"|1996 | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-parliamentary system | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | | |||
| {{KEN}}
| style="text-align:center;"|2008 | style="text-align:center;"|2013 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|New constitution and elections | style="text-align:center;"|A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013 | |||
| {{flagicon|KOR|1949}} Second Republic of Korea
| style="text-align:center;"|1960 | style="text-align:center;"|1961 | style="text-align:center;"|Military junta | style="text-align:center;"|16 May coup | | |||
| {{flag|Kazakh SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1936 | style="text-align:center;"|1990 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman | |||
| {{flag|Kirghiz SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1936 | style="text-align:center;"|1990 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman | |||
| {{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
| style="text-align:center;"|2010 | style="text-align:center;"|2021 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Referendum | style="text-align:center;"|The 2010 Constitution of Kyrgyzstan introduced a parliamentary system to the country while remaining a de facto semi-presidential republic, with the President retaining many forms of executive powers such as appointing a Prime Minister as the head of government. The decision was subjected to a parliamentary vote of confidence.{{Cite web |last=Esengeldiev |first=Almaz |title=Kyrgyzstan's 2016 Constitutional Referendum |url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/analytical-brief/2017/kyrgyzstans-2016-constitutional-referendum |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=Freedom House |language=en}} | |||
| rowspan=2| {{flagicon|Latvia}} First Republic of Latvia
| style="text-align:center;"|1922 | style="text-align:center;"|1934 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"|1934 Latvian coup d'état | rowspan=2 style="text-align:center;"|In June 1940, Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. | |||
| style="text-align:center;"|1934
| style="text-align:center;"|1940 | style="text-align:center;"|State dissolved | style="text-align:center;"|World War II Soviet occupation | |||
| {{flagicon|Lithuania|1918}} First Republic of Lithuania
| style="text-align:center;"|1920 | style="text-align:center;"|1926 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state | style="text-align:center;"|1926 Lithuanian coup d'état | style="text-align:center;"|In June 1940, Lithuania was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. | |||
| {{flag|Lithuania|1988}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1990 | style="text-align:center;"|1992 | style="text-align:center;"|Multi-party semi-presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|New constitution adopted | style="text-align:center;"|In February 1993, Lithuania holds its first presidential election since the state re-established. | |||
| {{flag|Moldavian SSR}} (present-day Moldova)
| style="text-align:center;"|1940 | style="text-align:center;"|1990 | style="text-align:center;"|Multi-party semi-presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman | |||
| {{NGR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1963 | style="text-align:center;"|1966 | style="text-align:center;"|Military dictatorship | style="text-align:center;"|Coup d'état | | |||
| rowspan=4|{{flag|Pakistan}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1956 | style="text-align:center;"|1958 | style="text-align:center;" rowspan=3| Military dictatorship | style="text-align:center;"|1958 Pakistani coup d'état | | |||
| style="text-align:center;"|1973 | style="text-align:center;"|1978 | style="text-align:center;"|1977 Pakistani coup d'état
| | |
| style="text-align:center;"|1997 | style="text-align:center;"|1999 | style="text-align:center;"|1999 Pakistani coup d'état
| | |
| style="text-align:center;"|2002 | style="text-align:center;"|2003 | style="text-align:center;"| Assembly-independent republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment
| |
| {{flagicon|Poland|1919}} Second Polish Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1919 | style="text-align:center;"|1935 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|New constitution adopted | | |||
| {{flagicon|Portugal}} First Portuguese Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1911 | style="text-align:center;"|1926 | style="text-align:center;"|Military dictatorship | style="text-align:center;"|28 May coup | | |||
| {{flagicon|Philippines|aguinaldo}} First Philippine Republic (Malolos Republic)
| style="text-align:center;"|1899 | style="text-align:center;"|1901 | style="text-align:center;"|Military dictatorship | style="text-align:center;"|Capture of Emilio Aguinaldo to the American forces | | |||
| {{flagicon|Philippines|1936}} Fourth Philippine Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1973 | style="text-align:center;"|1981 | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | | |||
| {{flagicon|Democratic Republic of Congo|1960}} Republic of the Congo
| style="text-align:center;"|1960 | style="text-align:center;"|1965 | style="text-align:center;"|Military dictatorship | style="text-align:center;"|1965 Congolese coup d'état | | |||
| {{flag|Rhodesia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1970 | style="text-align:center;"|1979 | style="text-align:center;"|Parliamentary system | style="text-align:center;"|Creation of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia | style="text-align:center;"|Political rights were restricted to the white minority | |||
| {{flag|Russian SFSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1917 | style="text-align:center;"|1991 | style="text-align:center;"|Multi-party semi-presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Referendum | | |||
| {{USSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1922 | style="text-align:center;"|1990 | style="text-align:center;"|Multi-party semi-presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1989 | |||
| {{flagicon|Spain|1873}} First Spanish Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1873 | style="text-align:center;"|1874 | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional monarchy | style="text-align:center;"|Restoration of the monarchy | | |||
| {{flagicon|Spanish Republic}} Second Spanish Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1931 | style="text-align:center;"|1939 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state | style="text-align:center;"|Coup d'état | | |||
| {{flag|Suriname}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1975 | style="text-align:center;"|1987 | style="text-align:center;"|Assembly-independent republic | style="text-align:center;"|New constitution adopted | | |||
| {{SRI}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1972 | style="text-align:center;"|1978 | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|New constitution adopted | | |||
| {{flagicon|Syria|1932}} Syrian Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1930 | style="text-align:center;"|1958 | style="text-align:center;"|State dissolved | style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the United Arab Republic | style="text-align:center;"|Merged into the United Arab Republic, which operated as a One-party presidential system | |||
| {{flagicon|Syria|1932}} Syrian Arab Republic
| style="text-align:center;"|1961 | style="text-align:center;"|1963 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|1963 Syrian coup d'état | | |||
| {{flagicon|Transvaal}} Transvaal Republic
| style="text-align:center;"| 1852 | style="text-align:center;"| 1902 | style="text-align:center;"| Colony of the British Empire | style="text-align:center;"| Second Boer War | | |||
| {{flag|Tajik SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1929 | style="text-align:center;"|1990 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman | |||
| {{flag|Turkey}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1923 | style="text-align:center;"|2018 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|Referendum | | |||
| {{flag|Turkmen SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1925 | style="text-align:center;"|1990 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman | |||
| {{UGA}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1963 | style="text-align:center;"|1966 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party state | style="text-align:center;"|Suspension of the constitution | | |||
| rowspan=3| {{flag|Ukrainian People's Republic}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1917 | style="text-align:center;"|1918 | style="text-align:center;"|Client state | style="text-align:center;"|1918 Ukrainian coup d'état | | |||
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan=2|1918
| style="text-align:center;"|1919 | style="text-align:center;"|One-party parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic | | |||
| style="text-align:center;"|1921
| style="text-align:center;"|State dissolved | style="text-align:center;"|Treaty of Riga | | |||
| {{flag|Ukrainian SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1919 | style="text-align:center;"|1991 | style="text-align:center;"|Multi-party semi-presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990 | |||
| {{flag|Uzbek SSR}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1924 | style="text-align:center;"|1990 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman | |||
| {{flag|Yugoslavia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1945 | style="text-align:center;"|1953 | style="text-align:center;"|Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | style="text-align:center;"|Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman | |||
| {{flag|Zimbabwe Rhodesia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1979 | style="text-align:center;"|1979 | style="text-align:center;"|Dependent territory | style="text-align:center;"|Reversion to Southern Rhodesia | | |||
| {{flag|Zimbabwe}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1980 | style="text-align:center;"|1987 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | | |||
| colspan="6" |Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency | |||
| Country
!Became a !Status !width=300px|Changed to !Reason for change !Notes | |||
| {{flag|Gambia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1970 | style="text-align:center;"|1982 | style="text-align:center;"|Presidential system | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | The president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct and separate from parliamentary elections in 1982. | |||
| {{flag|Kenya}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1964 | style="text-align:center;"|2008 | style="text-align:center;"|Full parliamentary system | style="text-align:center;"|Coalition and power-sharing | Originally, the president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed either the resignation of the president or snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct in 1969, including after a vacancy, but their schedule remained linked to the parliamentary elections. | |||
| {{flag|Yugoslavia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1953 | style="text-align:center;"|1963 | style="text-align:center;"|Assembly-independent republic | style="text-align:center;"|New constitution | style="text-align:center;"|One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia | |||
| colspan="6" |Assembly-independent systems | |||
| Country
!Became an !Status !width=300px|Changed to !Reason for change !Notes | |||
| {{flagicon|Ghana}} First Republic of Ghana
| style="text-align:center;"|1960 | style="text-align:center;"|1966 | style="text-align:center;"|Military dictatorship | style="text-align:center;"|Coup d'état | | |||
| rowspan=2|{{flag|Pakistan}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1985 | style="text-align:center;"|1997 | style="text-align:center;" rowspan=2| Full parliamentary republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | rowspan=2| | |||
| style="text-align:center;"|2003 | style="text-align:center;"|2010 | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | |
| {{flag|Serbia and Montenegro}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1992 | style="text-align:center;"|2000 | style="text-align:center;"|Semi-presidential republic | style="text-align:center;"|Constitutional amendment | | |||
| {{flagcountry|Tanganyika (1961–1964)}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1962 | style="text-align:center;"|1964 | style="text-align:center;"|State dissolved | style="text-align:center;"|Creation of the United Republic of Tanzania | style="text-align:center;"|Merged into the United Republic of Tanzania, which operated as a One-party presidential system | |||
| {{flag|Yugoslavia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1963 | style="text-align:center;"|1980 | style="text-align:center;"|Directorial republic | style="text-align:center;"|New constitution and the death of Josip Broz Tito | style="text-align:center;"|One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia | |||
| colspan="6" | Directorial systems | |||
| {{flag|Yugoslavia}}
| style="text-align:center;"|1980 | style="text-align:center;"|1992 | style="text-align:center;"|— | style="text-align:center;"|Breakup of Yugoslavia | style="text-align:center;"|One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia |
See also
Notes
{{Reflist|group="note"}}
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}