Psychotherapy#History

The term psychotherapy is derived from Ancient Greek psyche (ψυχή meaning "breath; spirit; soul") and therapeia (θεραπεία "healing; medical treatment"). The Oxford English Dictionary defines it as "The treatment of disorders of the mind or personality by psychological means...", however, in earlier use, it denoted the treatment of disease through hypnotic suggestion.[http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/153946?rskey=jNoItF&result=1 "psychotherapy, n.".] OED Online. March 2015. Oxford University Press. (accessed 23 May 2015){{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} Psychotherapy is often dubbed as a "talking therapy" or "talk therapy", particularly for a general audience,{{cite web |website=nami.org |url=http://www.nami.org/Learn-More/Treatment/Psychotherapy |title=Psychotherapy |publisher=National Alliance on Mental Illness |access-date=29 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329185701/http://www.nami.org/Learn-More/Treatment/Psychotherapy |archive-date=29 March 2015 }} though not all forms of psychotherapy rely on verbal communication.[http://www.yourdictionary.com/talk-therapy 'Talk Therapy'] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150716002816/http://www.yourdictionary.com/talk-therapy |date=16 July 2015 }} The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 5th edition Children or adults who do not engage in verbal communication (or not in the usual way) are not excluded from psychotherapy; indeed some types are designed for such cases.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

The American Psychological Association adopted a resolution on the effectiveness of psychotherapy in 2012 based on a definition developed by American psychologist John C. Norcross: "Psychotherapy is the informed and intentional application of clinical methods and interpersonal stances derived from established psychological principles for the purpose of assisting people to modify their behaviors, cognitions, emotions, and/or other personal characteristics in directions that the participants deem desirable".{{cite journal | vauthors = Campbell LF, Norcross JC, Vasquez MJ, Kaslow NJ | title = Recognition of psychotherapy effectiveness: the APA resolution | journal = Psychotherapy | volume = 50 | issue = 1 | pages = 98–101 | date = March 2013 | pmid = 23505985 | doi = 10.1037/a0031817 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236058462 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160101111335/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236058462_Recognition_of_Psychotherapy_Effectiveness_The_APA_Resolution | archive-date = 1 January 2016 | df = dmy-all }} The full text of the resolution: {{cite web |url=https://www.apa.org/about/policy/resolution-psychotherapy |title=Recognition of Psychotherapy Effectiveness |date=August 2012 |website=www.apa.org}} Influential editions of a work by psychiatrist Jerome Frank defined psychotherapy as a healing relationship using socially authorized methods in a series of contacts primarily involving words, acts and rituals—which Frank regarded as forms of persuasion and rhetoric.Frank, J. D., & Frank, J. B. (1991, 3rd ed. First published 1961). [https://books.google.com/books?id=vnMBQiOyTn0C Persuasion and healing: A comparative study of psychotherapy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723051414/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnMBQiOyTn0C |date=23 July 2015 }}. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Page 2. Historically, psychotherapy has sometimes meant "interpretative" (i.e. Freudian) methods, namely psychoanalysis, in contrast with other methods to treat psychiatric disorders such as behavior modification.{{cite book |title= Oxford Companion to the Mind |series= Oxford Companions |editor-last= Gregory |editor-first= Richard L. |editor-link= Richard Gregory |last= Eysenck |first= Hans |author-link= Hans J. Eysenck |pages= 92–3 |year= 2004 |edition= 2nd |orig-year= 1999 |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0198602248}}

Some definitions of counseling overlap with psychotherapy (particularly in non-directive client-centered approaches), or counseling may refer to guidance for everyday problems in specific areas, typically for shorter durations with a less medical or "professional" focus.[http://counsellingresource.com/lib/therapy/types/history/ History of Counselling & Psychotherapy] Greg Mulhauser, CounsellingResource Library, 2014 Somatotherapy refers to the use of physical changes as injuries and illnesses, and sociotherapy to the use of a person's social environment to effect therapeutic change.[https://books.google.com/books?id=WCSunMx7EJ8C Theory and Practice of Nursing: An Integrated Approach to Caring Practice] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723054936/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WCSunMx7EJ8C |date=23 July 2015 }} Lynn Basford, Oliver Slevin, Nelson Thornes, 2003. Page 533 Psychotherapy may address spirituality as a significant part of someone's mental / psychological life, and some forms are derived from spiritual philosophies, but practices based on treating the spiritual as a separate dimension are not necessarily considered as traditional or 'legitimate' forms of psychotherapy.[https://books.google.com/books?id=QFEWmuja1CwC Psychotherapy in a Traditional Society: Context, Concept and Practice] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150716111045/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QFEWmuja1CwC |date=16 July 2015 }} Vijoy K Varma, Nitin Gupta. Jaypee Brothers Publishers. 2008. Page 230

Psychotherapy may be delivered in person (one on one, or with couples, with families, or, in groups) or via telephone counseling or online counseling (see also {{section link||Telepsychotherapy}}).{{cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=Jesse H.|title=Computer-Assisted Psychotherapy {{!}} Psychiatric Times|journal=Psychiatric Times|series=Psychiatric Times Vol 25 No 14 |date=1 December 2008|volume=25 |issue=14 |url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/computer-assisted-psychotherapy|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924083317/https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/computer-assisted-psychotherapy|archive-date=24 September 2015}} There have also been developments in computer-assisted therapy, such as virtual reality therapy for behavioral exposure, multimedia programs to teach cognitive techniques, and handheld devices for improved monitoring or putting ideas into practice (see also {{section link||Computer-supported}}).{{cite journal | vauthors = Carroll KM, Rounsaville BJ | title = Computer-assisted therapy in psychiatry: be brave-it's a new world | journal = Current Psychiatry Reports | volume = 12 | issue = 5 | pages = 426–32 | date = October 2010 | pmid = 20683681 | pmc = 2967758 | doi = 10.1007/s11920-010-0146-2 }}

Most forms of psychotherapy use spoken conversation. Some also use various other forms of communication such as the written word, artwork, drama, narrative story or music. Psychotherapy with children and their parents often involves play, dramatization (i.e. role-play), and drawing, with a co-constructed narrative from these non-verbal and displaced modes of interacting.{{cite book |last1= Schechter |first1= Daniel S. |author1-link= Daniel Schechter |last2= Coates |first2= Susan W. |author2-link= Susan Coates |year= 2006 |chapter= Relationally and Developmentally Focused Interventions with Young Children and Their Caregivers Affected by the Events of 9/11 |title= 9/11: Mental Health in the Wake of Terrorist Attacks |editor1-first= Yuval |editor1-last= Neria |editor1-link= Yuval Neria |editor2-first= Raz |editor2-last= Gross |editor3-first= Randall |editor3-last= Marshall |editor4-first= Ezra |display-editors = 3 |editor4-last= Susser |publisher= Cambridge University Press |pages= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kADL4ymHsY8C&pg=PA402 402–27] |isbn= 9781139457729}}

{{see also|Psychologist#Licensing and regulations|Counseling psychology#Counseling ethics and regulation|Psychiatrist#Professional requirements|Health professional requisites|Social work#Qualifications|Mental health professional#Professional distinctions}}

Psychotherapists traditionally may be mental health professionals like psychologists and psychiatrists; professionals from other backgrounds (family therapists, social workers, nurses, etc.) who have trained in a specific psychotherapy; or (in some cases) academic or scientifically trained professionals. In addition to the training, many countries require psychotherapist to register with a professional body in order to be permitted to offer services.

Psychiatrists are trained first as physicians, and as such they may prescribe prescription medication; and specialist psychiatric training begins after medical school in psychiatric residencies: however, their specialty is in mental disorders or forms of mental illness.{{Cite web |title=How to Become a Psychiatrist – Career Path, Salary and Job Description {{!}} UniversityHQ |url=https://universityhq.org/how-to-become/psychiatrist-careers/ |access-date=13 March 2022 |website=universityhq.org}} Clinical psychologists have specialist doctoral degrees in psychology with some clinical and research components. Other clinical practitioners, social workers, mental health counselors, pastoral counselors, and nurses with a specialization in mental health, also often conduct psychotherapy. Many of the wide variety of psychotherapy training programs and institutional settings are multi-professional. In most countries, psychotherapy training is completed at a postgraduate level, often at a master's degree (or doctoral) level, over four years, with significant clinical supervision and clinical placements. Mental health professionals that choose to specialize in psychotherapeutic work also require a program of continuing professional education after basic professional training.{{Cite web |title=Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy Training {{!}} APsaA |url=https://apsa.org/psychoanalytic-psychotherapy-training |access-date=26 March 2022 |website=apsa.org}}

A listing of the extensive professional competencies of a European psychotherapist was developed by the European Association of Psychotherapy (EAP) in 2013.{{cite web |url=http://www.psychotherapy-competency.eu/index.php |title=The Professional Competencies of a European Psychotherapist: Home Page |access-date=25 January 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708052131/http://psychotherapy-competency.eu/index.php |archive-date=8 July 2017 }}

As sensitive and deeply personal topics are often discussed during psychotherapy, therapists are expected, and usually legally bound, to respect client or patient confidentiality. The critical importance of client confidentiality—and the limited circumstances in which it may need to be broken for the protection of clients or others—is enshrined in the regulatory psychotherapeutic organizations' codes of ethical practice.Ethical Principles (2010) of the American Psychological Association, Standard 4: Privacy and Confidentiality online at {{cite web |url=http://www.apa.org/ethics/code |title=Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct |access-date=1 April 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401172733/http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/ |archive-date=1 April 2015 }}. Examples of when it is typically accepted to break confidentiality include when the therapist has knowledge that a child or elder is being physically abused; when there is a direct, clear and imminent threat of serious physical harm to self or to a specific individual. In some countries psychotherapists are required by law to be mandated reporters.{{cite book|last1=Mathews|first1=Ben|year=2022|chapter=Developing Countries and the Potential of Mandatory Reporting Laws to Identify Severe Child Abuse and Neglects|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-16-9820-0_27|chapter-url-access=subscription|location=Singapore|editor-last1=Deb|editor-first1=Sibnath|title=Child Safety, Welfare and Well-being|url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-16-9820-0|url-access=subscription|language=en|edition=2|publisher=Springer Publishing|pages=485–521|doi=10.1007/978-981-16-9820-0|isbn=9789811698200|oclc=1322042243|access-date= }}

As of 2015, there are still a lot of variations between different European countries about the regulation and delivery of psychotherapy. Several countries have no regulation of the practice or no protection of the title. Some have a system of voluntary registration, with independent professional organizations, while other countries attempt to restrict the practice of psychotherapy to 'mental health professionals' (psychologists and psychiatrists) with state-certified training. The titles that are protected also vary.{{cite tech report |last=Woelbert |first=Eva |date=2015 |title=Psychotherapy for mental illness in Europe: An exploration on the evidence base and the status quo |number=JRC94870 |isbn=978-92-79-46165-1 |url=https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/psychotherapy-mental-illness-europe-exploration-evidence-base-and-status-quo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722131907/https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/psychotherapy-mental-illness-europe-exploration-evidence-base-and-status-quo |archive-date=22 July 2015 |url-status=dead |institution=Joint Research Centre, Publications Office of the European Union}} The European Association for Psychotherapy (EAP) established the 1990 Strasbourg Declaration on Psychotherapy, which is dedicated to establishing an independent profession of psychotherapy in Europe, with pan-European standards.{{cite web|url=http://www.psychotherapy-competency.eu/Appendices/appendix1.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110127013001/http://www.psychotherapy-competency.eu/Appendices/appendix1.php|url-status=live|archive-date=27 January 2011|title=Appendix 1a}} The EAP has already made significant contacts with the European Union & European Commission towards this end.

Given that the European Union has a primary policy about the free movement of labor within Europe, European legislation can overrule national regulations that are, in essence, forms of restrictive practices.

In Germany, the practice of psychotherapy for adults is restricted to qualified psychologists and physicians (including psychiatrists) who have completed several years of specialist practical training and certification in psychotherapy.{{Citation |title=A guide to psychotherapy in Germany: Where can I find help? |date=2016-12-23 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279513/ |work=InformedHealth.org [Internet] |access-date=2023-10-02 |publisher=Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG) |language=en}} As psychoanalysis, psychodynamic therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and systemic therapy meet the requirements of German health insurance companies, mental health professionals regularly opt for one of these four specializations in their postgraduate training. For psychologists, this includes three years of full-time practical training (4,200 hours), encompassing a year-long internship at an accredited psychiatric institution, six months of clinical work at an outpatient facility, 600 hours of supervised psychotherapy in an outpatient setting, and at least 600 hours of theoretical seminars.{{cite web|url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/psychth-aprv/BJNR374900998.html|title=PsychTh-APrV – Ausbildungs- und Prüfungsverordnung für Psychologische Psychotherapeuten|website=www.gesetze-im-internet.de|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928222210/http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/psychth-aprv/BJNR374900998.html|archive-date=28 September 2017}} Social workers may complete the specialist training for child and teenage clients.[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0072697/ A guide to psychotherapy in Germany: Where can I find help?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101111335/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0072697/ |date=1 January 2016 }} January 2013; Next update: 2016. IQWiG (Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care) Similarly in Italy, the practice of psychotherapy is restricted to graduates in psychology or medicine who have completed four years of recognised specialist training.{{cite web |url= http://www.psy.it/normativa/legge_56_eng.html |title= Regulation of the profession of the psychologist |access-date= 19 March 2015 |ref= {{Harvid|Ossicini Act|1982}} |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402154716/http://www.psy.it/normativa/legge_56_eng.html |archive-date= 2 April 2015 |df= dmy-all }}{{cite web |url= http://www.salusaccessibile.it/Laienanalyse/ossicini.pdf |title= Cosa regolamenta effettivamente la legge Ossicini? |language= it |last1= Moreno |first1= Manghi |date= December 2004 |access-date= 19 March 2015 |ref= {{Harvid|Moreno Manghi|2004}} |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093138/http://www.salusaccessibile.it/Laienanalyse/ossicini.pdf |archive-date= 2 April 2015 |df= dmy-all }} Sweden has a similar restriction on the title "psychotherapist", which may only be used by professionals who have gone through a post-graduate training in psychotherapy and then applied for a licence, issued by the National Board of Health and Welfare.{{cite web |url= http://www.socialstyrelsen.se/applicationforswedishlicencetopractiseeea/psychotherapist |title= Application for licence to practise as a psychotherapist |publisher= National Board of Health and Welfare (Sweden) |access-date= 31 March 2013 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140109100230/http://www.socialstyrelsen.se/applicationforswedishlicencetopractiseeea/psychotherapist |archive-date= 9 January 2014 |df= dmy-all }}

Legislation in France restricts the use of the title "psychotherapist" to professionals on the National Register of Psychotherapists,{{cite web |url= http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000022336754&dateTexte=&categorieLien=id |title= Arrêté du 9 juin 2010 relatif aux demandes d'inscription au registre national des psychothérapeutes |access-date= 21 July 2010 |language= fr |ref= {{Harvid|Arrêté du 9 juin 2010 relatif aux demandes d'inscription au registre national des psychothérapeutes|2010}} |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100707010353/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000022336754&dateTexte=&categorieLien=id |archive-date= 7 July 2010 |df= dmy-all }} which requires a training in clinical psychopathology and a period of internship which is only open to physicians or titulars of a master's degree in psychology or psychoanalysis.{{Cite web |title=Psychotherapy in France |url=https://www.europsyche.org/situation-of-psychotherapy-in-various-countries/france/ |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=European Association for Psychotherapy |language=en-US}}

Austria and Switzerland (2011) have laws that recognize multi-disciplinary functional approaches.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

In the United Kingdom, the government and Health and Care Professions Council considered mandatory legal registration but decided that it was best left to professional bodies to regulate themselves, so the Professional Standards Authority for Health and Social Care (PSA) launched an Accredited Voluntary Registers scheme.{{cite web|last= UK Department of Health|author-link= Department of Health (United Kingdom)|title= Trust, assurance and safety: The regulation of health professionals |url= http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/dh_065947.pdf|archive-url= http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/dh_065947.pdf|url-status= dead|archive-date= 7 January 2013|type= White Paper |publisher= The Stationery Office |location= London |date= 21 February 2007 |access-date= 22 February 2013}}{{cite journal |last1= McGivern |first1= Gerry |last2= Fischer |first2= Michael Daniel | title = Reactivity and reactions to regulatory transparency in medicine, psychotherapy and counselling | journal = Social Science & Medicine | volume = 74 | issue = 3 | pages = 289–296 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22104085 | doi = 10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.09.035 |url= http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/45260/1/WRAP_McGivern_McGivern__Fischer_SSM_2012_Reactivity__Reactions_to_Regulatory_Transparency_in_Medicine_Psychotherapy__Counselling_%28Authors%27_version%29.pdf }}{{cite book |title= Statutory regulation and the future of professional practice in psychotherapy and counselling: Evidence from the field |last1= McGivern |first1= Gerry |last2= Fischer |first2= Michael |last3= Ferlie |first3= Ewan |last4= Exworthy |first4= Mark |url= http://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/departments/management/news/StatutoryRegulation1.pdf |date= October 2009 |publisher= Economic and Social Research Council, King's College London |access-date= 22 February 2013 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140109102311/http://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/departments/management/news/StatutoryRegulation1.pdf |archive-date= 9 January 2014 |df= dmy-all }}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}}{{Cite legislation UK |type= act |year= 2012 |chapter= 7 |act= Health and Social Care Act 2012}}{{cite web |title= Voluntary Registers: About Accreditation |url= http://www.professionalstandards.org.uk/voluntary-registers/about-accreditation |publisher= Professional Standards Authority for Health and Social Care |access-date= 9 January 2014 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140109103930/http://www.professionalstandards.org.uk/voluntary-registers/about-accreditation |archive-date= 9 January 2014 |df= dmy-all }} Counseling and psychotherapy are not protected titles in the United Kingdom. Counsellors and psychotherapists who have trained and qualify to a certain standard (usually a level 4 Diploma) can apply to be members of the professional bodies who are listed on the PSA Accredited Registers.

In some states, counselors or therapists must be licensed to use certain words and titles on self-identification or advertising. In some other states, the restrictions on practice are more closely associated with the charging of fees. Licensing and regulation are performed by various states. Presentation of practice as licensed, but without such a license, is generally illegal.[http://counsellingresource.com/lib/therapy/aboutcouns/licensure/ Counselling Resource, "Professional Licensing in Mental Health".] Accessed 11 March 2015. Without a license, for example, a practitioner cannot bill insurance companies.{{cite web |first1=Abraham |last1=Wolf|first2= Gabor |last2=Keitner |first3=Barbara |last3=Jennings |title=The Psychotherapeutic Professions in the United States of America |url=http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.psychotherapyresearch.org/resource/resmgr/imported/events/barcelona/reports/report_usa.pdf |access-date=1 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402120813/http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.psychotherapyresearch.org/resource/resmgr/imported/events/barcelona/reports/report_usa.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2015 }}. Information about state licensure of psychologists is provided by the American Psychological Association.{{cite web|url=http://www.apapracticecentral.org/ce/state/index.aspx|title=State Licensure|website=apapracticecentral.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402121302/http://www.apapracticecentral.org/ce/state/index.aspx|archive-date=2 April 2015|access-date=1 April 2015}}

In addition to state laws, the American Psychological Association requires its members to adhere to its published Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct.Ethical Principles (2010) of the American Psychological Association, online at {{cite web |url=http://www.apa.org/ethics/code |title=Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct |access-date=1 April 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401172733/http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/ |archive-date=1 April 2015 }}. The American Board of Professional Psychology examines and certifies "psychologists who demonstrate competence in approved specialty areas in professional psychology".{{cite web|url=http://www.abpp.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3285|title=PUBLIC – American Board of Professional Psychology|website=www.abpp.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613131341/http://www.abpp.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3285|archive-date=13 June 2011|access-date=1 April 2015}}

Regulation of psychotherapy is in the jurisdiction of, and varies among, the provinces and territories.

In Quebec, psychotherapy is a regulated activity which is restricted to psychologists, medical doctors, and holders of a psychotherapy permit issued by the Ordre des psychologues du Québec, the Quebec order of psychologists. Members of certain specified professions, including social workers, couple and family therapists, occupational therapists, guidance counsellors, criminologists, sexologists, psychoeducators, and registered nurses may obtain a psychotherapy permit by completing certain educational and practice requirements; their professional oversight is provided by their own professional orders. Some other professionals who were practising psychotherapy before the current system came into force continue to hold psychotherapy permits alone.{{cite web |title=Qui pratique la psychothérapie ? |url=https://www.ordrepsy.qc.ca/qui-pratique-la-psychotherapie- |website=Ordre des psychologues du Québec |access-date=2 November 2020}}

On 1 July 2019, Ontario's Missing Persons Act came into effect, with the purpose of giving police more power to investigate missing persons. It allows police to require (as opposed to permit) health professionals, including psychotherapists, to share otherwise confidential documents about their client, if there is reason to believe their client is missing.{{Cite journal |date=October 2019 |title=New Legislation: Missing Persons Act, 2018 |url=https://cpo.on.ca/wp-content/uploads/Complete-Issue-October-2019.pdf |journal=The E-Bulletin |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=6}}{{Cite news |date=6 June 2019 |title=New Missing Persons act gives Ontario police more power to investigate |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/ontario-missing-persons-act-maureen-trask-1.5164532}} Some have expressed concern that this legislation undermines psychotherapy confidentiality and could be abused maliciously by police,{{Cite web |last=Mares |first=Beth |date=23 December 2019 |title=New police powers trump privacy in Ontario |url=https://www.therapytorontotherapist.ca/pp2.htm}} while others have praised the act for how it respects privacy and includes checks and balances.{{Cite news |last=Gillis |first=Wendy |date=18 July 2019 |title=New Ontario law expands police powers in missing persons cases |work=Toronto Star |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2019/07/18/new-ontario-law-expands-police-powers-in-missing-person-cases.html}}

{{See also|History of psychotherapy|Timeline of psychotherapy}}

Psychotherapy can be said to have been practiced through the ages, as medics, philosophers, spiritual practitioners and people in general used psychological methods to heal others.[http://www.electrummagazine.com/2013/03/ancient-classical-roots-of-psychology/ Ancient Classical Roots of Psychology] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723120858/http://www.electrummagazine.com/2013/03/ancient-classical-roots-of-psychology/ |date=23 July 2015 }} Laura Rehwalt in History of Science, Electrum Magazine, 2 March 2013[https://books.google.com/books?id=v_2sAgAAQBAJ Modern Psychology and Ancient Wisdom: Psychological Healing Practices from the World's Religious Traditions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723053023/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v_2sAgAAQBAJ |date=23 July 2015 }} Sharon G. Mijares, Routledge, 14 January 2014 {{ISBN|1317788001}}

In the Western tradition, by the 19th century, a moral treatment movement (then meaning morale or mental) developed based on non-invasive non-restraint therapeutic methods.{{cite journal | vauthors = Carlson ET, Dain N | title = The psychotherapy that was moral treatment | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 117 | issue = 6 | pages = 519–24 | date = December 1960 | pmid = 13690826 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.117.6.519 }} Another influential movement was started by Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) and his student Armand-Marie-Jacques de Chastenet, Marquis of Puységur (1751–1825). Called Mesmerism or animal magnetism, it would have a strong influence on the rise of dynamic psychology and psychiatry as well as theories about hypnosis.Ellenberger, H. F. (1970). The discovery of the unconscious: The history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry. New York: Basic Books.Gielen, U. P., & Raymond, J. (2015). The curious birth of psychological healing in the Western World (1775–1825): From Gaßner to Mesmer to Puységur. In G. Rich & U. P. Gielen (Eds.), Pathfinders in international psychology (pp. 25–51). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. In 1853, Walter Cooper Dendy introduced the term "psycho-therapeia" regarding how physicians might influence the mental states of patients and thus their bodily ailments, for example by creating opposing emotions to promote mental balance.{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/careofpsychehist0000jack|url-access=registration|title=Care of the Psyche: A History of Psychological Healing|first=Stanley W.|last=Jackson|author1-link=Stanley W. Jackson|date=29 September 1999|publisher=Yale University Press|via=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0300147339}}[https://books.google.com/books?id=cpjgoazGIC4C The Oxford Handbook of the History of Medicine] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707050115/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cpjgoazGIC4C&dq |date=7 July 2015 }} Mark Jackson, OUP Oxford, 25 August 2011. Pg527 Daniel Hack Tuke cited the term and wrote about "psycho-therapeutics" in 1872 in his book Illustrations of the Influence of the Mind upon the Body in Health and Disease, in which he also proposed making a science of animal magnetism.Shamdasani S. (2005) [https://archive.today/20160904013640/http://hhs.sagepub.com/content/18/1/1.short 'Psychotherapy': the invention of a word] History of the Human Sciences 18(1):1–22Tuke, Daniel Hack Illustrations of the influence of the mind upon the body in health and disease: designed to elucidate the action of the imagination Henry C. Lea. Philadelphia: 1873 Hippolyte Bernheim and colleagues in the "Nancy School" developed the concept of "psychotherapy" in the sense of using the mind to heal the body through hypnotism, yet further. Charles Lloyd Tuckey's 1889 work, Psycho-therapeutics, or Treatment by Hypnotism and Suggestion popularized the work of the Nancy School in English.Tuckey, C. Lloyd [https://archive.org/details/b2040766x Psycho-therapeutics, or, Treatment by sleep and suggestion] Balliere, Tindall, and Cox. London: 1889 Also in 1889 a clinic used the word in its title for the first time, when Frederik van Eeden and Albert Willem van Renterghem in Amsterdam renamed theirs "Clinique de Psycho-thérapeutique Suggestive" after visiting Nancy. During this time, travelling stage hypnosis became popular, and such activities added to the scientific controversies around the use of hypnosis in medicine. Also in 1892, at the second congress of experimental psychology, van Eeden attempted to take the credit for the term psychotherapy and to distance the term from hypnosis. In 1896, the German journal Zeitschrift für Hypnotismus, Suggestionstherapie, Suggestionslehre und verwandte psychologische Forschungen changed its name to Zeitschrift für Hypnotismus, Psychotherapie sowie andere psychophysiologische und psychopathologische Forschungen, which is probably the first journal to use the term. Thus psychotherapy initially meant "the treatment of disease by psychic or hypnotic influence, or by suggestion".

Image:Hall Freud Jung in front of Clark 1909.jpg

Sigmund Freud visited the Nancy School and his early neurological practice involved the use of hypnotism. However following the work of his mentor Josef Breuer—in particular a case where symptoms appeared partially resolved by what the patient, Bertha Pappenheim, dubbed a "talking cure"—Freud began focusing on conditions that appeared to have psychological causes originating in childhood experiences and the unconscious mind. He went on to develop techniques such as free association, dream interpretation, transference and analysis of the id, ego and superego. His popular reputation as the father of psychotherapy was established by his use of the distinct term "psychoanalysis", tied to an overarching system of theories and methods, and by the effective work of his followers in rewriting history. Many theorists, including Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Karen Horney, Anna Freud, Otto Rank, Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein and Heinz Kohut, built upon Freud's fundamental ideas and often developed their own systems of psychotherapy. These were all later categorized as psychodynamic, meaning anything that involved the psyche's conscious/unconscious influence on external relationships and the self. Sessions tended to number into the hundreds over several years.

Behaviorism developed in the 1920s, and behavior modification as a therapy became popularized in the 1950s and 1960s. Notable contributors were Joseph Wolpe in South Africa, M.B. Shapiro and Hans Eysenck{{cite journal |last=Eysenck |first=Hans |author-link=Hans Eysenck | title = The effects of psychotherapy: an evaluation | journal = Journal of Consulting Psychology | volume = 16 | issue = 5 | pages = 319–24 | date = October 1952 | pmid = 13000035 | doi = 10.1037/h0063633}} in Britain, and John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner in the United States. Behavioral therapy approaches relied on principles of operant conditioning, classical conditioning and social learning theory to bring about therapeutic change in observable symptoms. The approach became commonly used for phobias, as well as other disorders.{{Cite web |title=Behaviorism {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/behaviorism/ |access-date=15 March 2022 }}

Some therapeutic approaches developed out of the European school of existential philosophy. Concerned mainly with the individual's ability to develop and preserve a sense of meaning and purpose throughout life, major contributors to the field (e.g., Irvin Yalom, Rollo May) and Europe (Viktor Frankl, Ludwig Binswanger, Medard Boss, R.D.Laing, Emmy van Deurzen) attempted to create therapies sensitive to common "life crises" springing from the essential bleakness of human self-awareness, previously accessible only through the complex writings of existential philosophers (e.g., Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul Sartre, Gabriel Marcel, Martin Heidegger, Friedrich Nietzsche). The uniqueness of the patient-therapist relationship thus also forms a vehicle for therapeutic inquiry. A related body of thought in psychotherapy started in the 1950s with Carl Rogers. Based also on the works of Abraham Maslow and his hierarchy of human needs, Rogers brought person-centered psychotherapy into mainstream focus. The primary requirement was that the client receive three core "conditions" from his counselor or therapist: unconditional positive regard, sometimes described as "prizing" the client's humanity; congruence [authenticity/genuineness/transparency]; and empathic understanding. This type of interaction was thought to enable clients to fully experience and express themselves, and thus develop according to their innate potential.{{Cite web |title=Person Centred Therapy – Core Conditions {{!}} Simply Psychology |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/client-centred-therapy.html |access-date=26 March 2022 |website=www.simplypsychology.org}} Others developed the approach, like Fritz and Laura Perls in the creation of Gestalt therapy, as well as Marshall Rosenberg, founder of Nonviolent Communication, and Eric Berne, founder of transactional analysis. Later these fields of psychotherapy would become what is known as humanistic psychotherapy today. Self-help groups and books became widespread.

During the 1950s, Albert Ellis originated rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). Independently a few years later, psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck developed a form of psychotherapy known as cognitive therapy. Both of these included relatively short, structured and present-focused techniques aimed at identifying and changing a person's beliefs, appraisals and reaction-patterns, by contrast with the more long-lasting insight-based approach of psychodynamic or humanistic therapies. Beck's approach used primarily the socratic method, and links have been drawn between ancient stoic philosophy and these cognitive therapies.{{Cite book |last= Robertson |first= Daniel |title= The Philosophy of Cognitive–Behavioural Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy |year= 2010 |publisher= Karnac |location= London |isbn= 9781855757561|page=xix}}

Cognitive and behavioral therapy approaches were increasingly combined and grouped under the umbrella term cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) in the 1970s. Many approaches within CBT are oriented towards active/directive yet collaborative empiricism (a form of reality-testing), and assessing and modifying core beliefs and dysfunctional schemas. These approaches gained widespread acceptance as a primary treatment for numerous disorders. A "third wave" of cognitive and behavioral therapies developed, including acceptance and commitment therapy and dialectical behavior therapy, which expanded the concepts to other disorders and/or added novel components and mindfulness exercises. However the "third wave" concept has been criticized as not essentially different from other therapies and having roots in earlier ones as well.{{Cite journal|last=Hofmann|first=Stefan G.|date=1 December 2008|title=Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: New Wave or Morita Therapy?|journal=Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice|volume=15|issue=4|pages=280–285|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2850.2008.00138.x|issn=1468-2850}} Counseling methods developed include solution-focused therapy and systemic coaching.

Postmodern psychotherapies such as narrative therapy and coherence therapy do not impose definitions of mental health and illness, but rather see the goal of therapy as something constructed by the client and therapist in a social context. Systemic therapy also developed, which focuses on family and group dynamics—and transpersonal psychology, which focuses on the spiritual facet of human experience. Other orientations developed in the last three decades include feminist therapy, brief therapy, somatic psychology, expressive therapy, applied positive psychology and the human givens approach. A survey of over 2,500 US therapists in 2006 revealed the most utilized models of therapy and the ten most influential therapists of the previous quarter-century.{{cite news |url= http://www.psychotherapynetworker.org/magazine/populartopics/219-the-top-10 |title= The top 10: The most influential therapists of the past quarter-century |magazine= Psychotherapy Networker |date=March–April 2007 |access-date= 7 October 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110205113426/http://www.psychotherapynetworker.org/magazine/populartopics/219-the-top-10 |archive-date= 5 February 2011}}

{{See also|List of psychotherapies}}

There are hundreds of psychotherapy approaches or schools of thought. By 1980 there were more than 250;{{cite book |editor-last= Herink |editor-first= Richie |title= The Psychotherapy Handbook. The A-Z Handbook to More Than 250 Psychotherapies as Used Today |year= 1980 |publisher= New American Library |isbn= 9780452005259 |url= https://archive.org/details/psychotherapyhan00heri }}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}} by 1996 more than 450;{{cite book |last= Maclennan |first= Nigel |title= Counselling For Managers |year= 1996 |publisher= Gower |isbn= 978-0566080920 }}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}} and at the start of the 21st century there were over a thousand different named psychotherapies—some being minor variations while others are based on very different conceptions of psychology, ethics (how to live) or technique.[https://books.google.com/books?id=YT50xokDC1UC Twenty-First Century Psychotherapies: Contemporary Approaches to Theory and Practice] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711225308/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YT50xokDC1UC |date=11 July 2015 }} Jay L. Lebow, John Wiley & Sons, 2012. Introduction. Citing Garfield 2006{{cite book |title= Which psychotherapy? Leading Exponents Explain Their Differences |first= Colin |last= Feltham |year= 1997 |publisher= SAGE Publications |isbn= 978-0803974791}} In practice therapy is often not of one pure type but draws from a number of perspectives and schools—known as an integrative or eclectic approach.{{cite book |first1= Hans |last1= Strupp |author1-link= Hans Herrman Strupp |first2= Jeffrey |last2= Binder |title= Psychotherapy in a New Key |location= New York |publisher= Basic Books |year= 1984 |isbn= 9780465067473 |url= https://archive.org/details/psychotherapyinn00stru }}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}}{{cite book |first1= Anthony |last1= Roth |first2= Peter |last2= Fonagy |author2-link= Peter Fonagy |title= What Works for Whom? A Critical Review of Psychotherapy Research |publisher= Guilford Press |year= 2005 |orig-year= 1996 |edition= revised |isbn= 9781572306509}}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}} The importance of the therapeutic relationship, also known as therapeutic alliance, between client and therapist is often regarded as crucial to psychotherapy. Common factors theory addresses this and other core aspects thought to be responsible for effective psychotherapy.

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), a Viennese neurologist who studied with Jean-Martin Charcot in 1885, is often considered the father of modern psychotherapy. His methods included analyzing his patient's dreams in search of important hidden insights into their unconscious minds. Other major elements of his methods, which changed throughout the years, included identification of childhood sexuality, the role of anxiety as a manifestation of inner conflict, the differentiation of parts of the psyche (id, ego, superego), transference and countertransference (the patient's projections onto the therapist, and the therapist's emotional responses to that). Some of his concepts were too broad to be amenable to empirical testing and invalidation, and he was critiqued for this by Jaspers. Numerous major figures elaborated and refined Freud's therapeutic techniques including Melanie Klein, Donald Winnicott, and others. Since the 1960s, however, the use of Freudian-based analysis for the treatment of mental disorders has declined substantially. Different types of psychotherapy have been created along with the advent of clinical trials to test them scientifically. These incorporate subjective treatments (after Beck), behavioral treatments (after Skinner and Wolpe) and additional time-constrained and centered structures, for example, interpersonal psychotherapy. In youth issue and in schizophrenia, the systems of family treatment hold esteem. A portion of the thoughts emerging from therapy are presently pervasive and some are a piece of the tool set of ordinary clinical practice. They are not just medications, they additionally help to understand complex conduct.

Therapy may address specific forms of diagnosable mental illness, or everyday problems in managing or maintaining interpersonal relationships or meeting personal goals. A course of therapy may happen before, during or after pharmacotherapy (e.g. taking psychiatric medication).

Psychotherapies are categorized in several different ways. A distinction can be made between those based on a medical model and those based on a humanistic model. In the medical model, the client is seen as unwell and the therapist employs their skill to help the client back to health. The extensive use of the DSM-IV, the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders in the United States is an example of a medically exclusive model. The humanistic or non-medical model in contrast strives to depathologise the human condition. The therapist attempts to create a relational environment conducive to experiential learning and help build the client's confidence in their own natural process resulting in a deeper understanding of themselves. The therapist may see themselves as a facilitator/helper.

Another distinction is between individual one-to-one therapy sessions, and group psychotherapy, including couples therapy and family therapy.Crago, H. (2006). [http://www.mcgraw-hill.co.uk/html/0335216889.html Couple, Family and Group Work: First Steps in Interpersonal Intervention.] Maidenhead, Berkshire; New York: Open University Press.

Therapies are sometimes classified according to their duration; a small number of sessions over a few weeks or months may be classified as brief therapy (or short-term therapy), others, where regular sessions take place for years, may be classified as long-term.

Some practitioners distinguish between more "uncovering" (or "depth") approaches and more "supportive" psychotherapy. Uncovering psychotherapy emphasizes facilitating the client's insight into the roots of their difficulties. The best-known example is classical psychoanalysis. Supportive psychotherapy by contrast stresses strengthening the client's coping mechanisms and often providing encouragement and advice, as well as reality-testing and limit-setting where necessary. Depending on the client's issues and situation, a more supportive or more uncovering approach may be optimal.{{Cite journal |pmc = 3330607|year = 2000|last1 = Misch|first1 = D. A.|title = Basic Strategies of Dynamic Supportive Therapy|journal = The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research|volume = 9|issue = 4|pages = 173–189|pmid = 11069130}}

{{Main|Humanistic psychology}}

These psychotherapies, also known as "experiential", are based on humanistic psychology and emerged in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, being dubbed the "third force". They are primarily concerned with the human development and needs of the individual, with an emphasis on subjective meaning, a rejection of determinism, and a concern for positive growth rather than pathology.Maslow, A.H. (2011) "Toward A Psychology of Being" – Reprint of 1962 Edition, Martino Fine Books. Some posit an inherent human capacity to maximize potential, "the self-actualizing tendency"; the task of therapy is to create a relational environment where this tendency might flourish.Stefaroi, P. (2012) "The Humanistic Approach in Psychology & Psychotherapy, Sociology & Social Work, Pedagogy & Education, Management and Art: Personal Development and Community Development", Charleston SC, US: CreateSpace, {{ISBN|978-1535271646}}. Humanistic psychology can, in turn, be rooted in existentialism—the belief that human beings can only find meaning by creating it. This is the goal of existential therapy. Existential therapy is in turn philosophically associated with phenomenology.Deurzen, E., Kenward, R. (2005) "Dictionary of Existential Psychotherapy and Counseling", SAGE Publications.Gessmann, H.W. (1996) "Humanistische Psychologie und Humanistisches Psychodrama. In: Humanistisches Psychodrama Band 4, (Hrsg.), Verlag des PIB, Duisburg

Person-centered therapy, also known as client-centered, focuses on the therapist showing openness, empathy and "unconditional positive regard", to help clients express and develop their own self.Rogers, C. R. (1951) "Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications, and Theory", Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Humanistic Psychodrama (HPD) is based on the human image of humanistic psychology.H.-W. Gessmann: Humanistische Psychologie und Humanistisches Psychodrama. In: Humanistisches Psychodrama. Band IV, Verlag des Psychotherapeutischen Instituts Bergerhausen, Duisburg 1996, S. 27–76. So all rules and methods follow the axioms of humanistic psychology. The HPD sees itself as development-oriented psychotherapy and has completely moved away from the psychoanalytic catharsis theory.H.-W. Gessmann: Erste Überlegungen zur Überwindung des Katharsisbegriffs im Humanistischen Psychodrama. In: Internationale Zeitschrift für Humanistisches Psychodrama. 5. Jahrgang, Heft 2, Dez 1999, Verlag des Psychotherapeutischen Instituts Bergerhausen, Duisburg, S. 5–26, ISSN 0949-3018

Self-awareness and self-realization are essential aspects in the therapeutic process. Subjective experiences, feelings and thoughts and one's own experiences are the starting point for a change or reorientation in experience and behavior in the direction of more self-acceptance and satisfaction. Dealing with the biography of the individual is closely related to the sociometry of the group.H.-W. Gessmann: Die Humanistische Psychologie und das Humanistische Psychodrama. In: Humanistisches Psychodrama. Band IV, Verlag des Psychotherapeutischen Instituts Bergerhausen, Duisburg 1996, {{ISBN|3-928524-31-3}}.

Gestalt therapy, originally called "concentration therapy", is an existential/experiential form that facilitates awareness in the various contexts of life, by moving from talking about relatively remote situations to action and direct current experience. Derived from various influences, including an overhaul of psychoanalysis, it stands on top of essentially four load-bearing theoretical walls: phenomenological method, dialogical relationship, field-theoretical strategies, and experimental freedom.Wheeler, G. (1991) "Gestalt reconsidered", New York: Gardner Press.

A briefer form of humanistic therapy is the human givens approach, introduced in 1998{{ndash}}99.{{cite book |last2=Tyrrell |first2=Ivan |last1=Griffin |first1=Joe |title=Psychotherapy, Counselling and the Human Givens (Organising Idea)|date=1998|publisher=European Therapy Studies Institute |isbn=978-1899398959}} It is a solution-focused intervention based on identifying emotional needs—such as for security, autonomy and social connection—and using various educational and psychological methods to help people meet those needs more fully or appropriately.{{cite journal|last1=Maslow|first1=A. H.|title=A theory of human motivation|journal=Psychological Review|volume=50|issue=4|pages=370–396|doi=10.1037/h0054346|url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm|year=1943|hdl=10983/23610|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914183817/http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm|archive-date=14 September 2017|citeseerx=10.1.1.334.7586|s2cid=53326433 }}{{cite book |last1=Deci |first1=Edward L. |last2=Ryan |first2=Richard M. |title=Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior |year=1985 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7 |isbn=9781489922731}}{{cite book|last1=Griffin|first1=Joe|last2=Tyrrell|first2=Ivan|title=Human givens: The new approach to emotional health and clear thinking|date=2013|publisher=HG Publishing|location=Chalvington, East Sussex|isbn=978-1899398317|pages=97–153|edition=New|url=http://www.humangivens.com/publications/human-givens-book.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008073609/http://www.humangivens.com/publications/human-givens-book.html|archive-date=8 October 2014}}{{Cite journal| title = Human givens therapy: The evidence base |year= 2008 |journal= Mental Health Review Journal |pages= 44–52 |volume= 13 |issue= 4 |last1= Corp |first1= Nadia |last2= Tsaroucha |first2= Anna |last3= Kingston |first3= Paul |doi= 10.1108/13619322200800027}}

{{Main|Insight-oriented psychotherapy}}

Insight-oriented psychotherapies focus on revealing or interpreting unconscious processes. Most commonly referring to psychodynamic therapy, of which psychoanalysis is the oldest and most intensive form, these applications of depth psychology encourage the verbalization of all the patient's thoughts, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from which the analyst formulates the nature of the past and present unconscious conflicts which are causing the patient's symptoms and character problems.

There are six main schools of psychoanalysis, which all influenced psychodynamic theory:[http://psychcentral.com/lib/psychodynamic-therapy/ Psychodynamic Therapy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722084213/http://psychcentral.com/lib/psychodynamic-therapy/ |date=22 July 2015 }} J. Haggerty, PsychCentral, 2013 Freudian, ego psychology, object relations theory, self psychology, interpersonal psychoanalysis,Sullivan, H. S. (1953) The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry. New York: Norton and relational psychoanalysis.Mitchell, S. (1988) Relational Concepts in Psychoanalysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Techniques for analytic group therapy have also developed.

{{Main|Cognitive behavioral therapy}}

Behavior therapies use behavioral techniques, including applied behavior analysis (also known as behavior modification), to change maladaptive patterns of behavior to improve emotional responses, cognitions, and interactions with others. Functional analytic psychotherapy is one form of this approach. By nature, behavioral therapies are empirical (data-driven), contextual (focused on the environment and context), functional (interested in the effect or consequence a behavior ultimately has), probabilistic (viewing behavior as statistically predictable), monistic (rejecting mind-body dualism and treating the person as a unit), and relational (analyzing bidirectional interactions).{{cite book |last1= Sundberg |first1= Norman D. |last2= Winebarger |first2= Allen A. |last3= Taplin |first3= Julian R.| title = Clinical Psychology: Evolving Theory, Practice, and Research | publisher = Prentice Hall | location = Englewood Cliffs, NJ | year = 2001 |edition= 4th | isbn = 9780130871190}}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}}

Cognitive therapy focuses directly on changing the thoughts, in order to improve the emotions and behaviors.

Cognitive behavioral therapy attempts to combine the above two approaches, focused on the construction and reconstruction of people's cognitions, emotions and behaviors. Generally in CBT, the therapist, through a wide array of modalities, helps clients assess, recognize and deal with problematic and dysfunctional ways of thinking, emoting and behaving.

The concept of "third wave" psychotherapies reflects an influence of Eastern philosophy in clinical psychology, incorporating principles such as meditation into interventions such as mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, and dialectical behavior therapy for borderline personality disorder.

Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is a relatively brief form of psychotherapy (deriving from both CBT and psychodynamic approaches) that has been increasingly studied and endorsed by guidelines for some conditions. It focuses on the links between mood and social circumstances, helping to build social skills and social support.{{cite journal | vauthors = Markowitz JC, Weissman MM | title = Interpersonal psychotherapy: past, present and future | journal = Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 99–105 | date = Mar 2012 | pmid = 22331561 | pmc = 3427027 | doi = 10.1002/cpp.1774 | df = dmy-all }} It aims to foster adaptation to current interpersonal roles and situations.

Exposure and response prevention (ERP) is primarily deployed by therapists in the treatment of OCD.{{Cite web |title=International OCD Foundation {{!}} Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP) |url=https://iocdf.org/about-ocd/treatment/erp/ |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=International OCD Foundation |language=en-US}} The American Psychiatric Association (APA) state that CBT drawing primarily on behavioral techniques (such as ERP) has the "strongest evidence base" among psychosocial interventions.{{Cite web|last1=Simpson|first1=H. Blair|last2=Koran|first2=Lorrin M.|date=March 2013|title=Guideline Watch: Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder|url=https://psychiatryonline.org/pb/assets/raw/sitewide/practice_guidelines/guidelines/ocd-watch.pdf|website=Psychiatry Online|publisher=American Psychiatric Association}} By confronting feared scenarios (i.e., exposure) and refraining from performing rituals (i.e., responsive prevention), patients may gradually feel less distress in confronting feared stimuli, while also feeling less inclination to use rituals to relieve that distress. Typically, ERP is delivered in "hierarchical fashion", meaning patients confront increasingly anxiety-provoking stimuli as they progress through a course of treatment.{{Cite web|title=How I Treat OCD – By Bradley C. Riemann, Ph.D.|url=https://beyondocd.org/expert-perspectives/articles/how-i-treat-ocd|access-date=27 August 2020|website=Beyond OCD}}{{Cite web|date=August 2020|title=Treating Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder|url=https://psychiatryonline.org/pb/assets/raw/sitewide/practice_guidelines/guidelines/ocd-guide.pdf|website=Psychiatry Online|publisher=American Psychiatric Association (APA)}}

Other types include reality therapy/choice theory, multimodal therapy, and therapies for specific disorders including PTSD therapies such as cognitive processing therapy, substance abuse therapies such as relapse prevention and contingency management; and co-occurring disorders therapies such as Seeking Safety.{{cite book |last=Najavits |first=Lisa M. |chapter=Seeking Safety: an implementation guide |editor1-last=Springer |editor1-first=David W. |editor2-last=Rubin |editor2-first=Allen |date=2009 |title=Substance abuse treatment for youth and adults |series=Clinician's guide to evidence-based practice series |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jZE8kmQvPrEC&pg=PA311 311–347] |isbn=9780470244531 |oclc=303076493}}

{{Main|Systemic therapy}}

File:Gruppovaya-psihoterapiya.jpg

Systemic therapy seeks to address people not just individually, as is often the focus of other forms of therapy, but in relationship, dealing with the interactions of groups, their patterns and dynamics (includes family therapy and marriage counseling). Community psychology is a type of systemic psychology.

The term group therapy was first used around 1920 by Jacob L. Moreno, whose main contribution was the development of psychodrama, in which groups were used as both cast and audience for the exploration of individual problems by reenactment under the direction of the leader. The more analytic and exploratory use of groups in both hospital and out-patient settings was pioneered by a few European psychoanalysts who emigrated to the US, such as Paul Schilder, who treated severely neurotic and mildly psychotic out-patients in small groups at Bellevue Hospital, New York. The power of groups was most influentially demonstrated in Britain during the Second World War, when several psychoanalysts and psychiatrists proved the value of group methods for officer selection in the War Office Selection Boards. A chance to run an Army psychiatric unit on group lines was then given to several of these pioneers, notably Wilfred Bion and Rickman, followed by S. H. Foulkes, Main, and Bridger. The Northfield Hospital in Birmingham gave its name to what came to be called the two "Northfield Experiments", which provided the impetus for the development since the war of both social therapy, that is, the therapeutic community movement, and the use of small groups for the treatment of neurotic and personality disorders. Today group therapy is used in clinical settings and in private practice settings.{{cite journal |last= Gessmann |first= Hans-Werner |author-link= Hans-Werner Gessmann |year= 2011 |title= Empirischer Beitrag zur Prüfung der Wirksamkeit psychodramatischer Gruppenpsychotherapie bei NeurosepatientInnen (ICD-10: F3, F4) |trans-title= The effects of psychodramatic group psychotherapy with neurosis patients — An empirical contribution (ICD-10: F3, F4) |journal= Zeitschrift für Psychodrama und Soziometrie |volume= 10 |issue= 1 suppl |pages= 69–87 |doi= 10.1007/s11620-011-0128-3 |s2cid= 141232001 |language= de}}

{{Main|Expressive therapy}}

Expressive psychotherapy is a form of therapy that utilizes artistic expression (via improvisational, compositional, re-creative, and receptive experiences) as its core means of treating clients. Expressive psychotherapists use the different disciplines of the creative arts as therapeutic interventions. This includes the modalities dance therapy, drama therapy, art therapy, music therapy, writing therapy, among others.{{Cite book |last=Malchiodi |first=Cathy A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g_k2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PR1 |title=Expressive Therapies |date=27 November 2013 |publisher=Guilford Publications |isbn=978-1-4625-1490-8 }} This may include techniques such as affect labeling. Expressive psychotherapists believe that often the most effective way of treating a client is through the expression of imagination in creative work and integrating and processing what issues are raised in the act.

Also known as post-structuralist or constructivist. Narrative therapy gives attention to each person's "dominant story" through therapeutic conversations, which also may involve exploring unhelpful ideas and how they came to prominence. Possible social and cultural influences may be explored if the client deems it helpful. Coherence therapy posits multiple levels of mental constructs that create symptoms as a way to strive for self-protection or self-realization. Feminist therapy does not accept that there is one single or correct way of looking at reality and therefore is considered a postmodernist approach.[https://books.google.com/books?id=_rsAdzE9KfkC Introduction to Feminist Therapy: Strategies for Social and Individual Change] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723045949/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_rsAdzE9KfkC |date=23 July 2015 }} 2010. Introduction pg180

Transpersonal psychology addresses the client in the context of a spiritual understanding of consciousness.{{Cite web |date=2011-11-03 |title=Transpersonal Psychology: Principles and Applications |url=https://psychcentral.com/health/transpersonal-psychology-spiritual-therapy |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=Psych Central |language=en}} Positive psychotherapy (PPT) (since 1968) is a method in the field of humanistic and psychodynamic psychotherapy and is based on a positive image of humans, with a health-promoting, resource-oriented and conflict-centered approach.

Hypnotherapy is undertaken while a subject is in a state of hypnosis. Hypnotherapy is often applied in order to modify a subject's behavior, emotional content, and attitudes, as well as a wide range of conditions including: dysfunctional habits,{{cite journal |last1= Johnson |first1= David L. |last2=Karkut |first2= Richard T. | title = Performance by gender in a stop-smoking program combining hypnosis and aversion | journal = Psychological Reports | volume = 75 | issue = 2 | pages = 851–7 | date = October 1994 | pmid = 7862796 | doi = 10.2466/pr0.1994.75.2.851 |s2cid= 39850409 }}{{cite journal | last = Barber | first = Joseph | title = Freedom from smoking: integrating hypnotic methods and rapid smoking to facilitate smoking cessation | journal = The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis | volume = 49 | issue = 3 | pages = 257–66 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11430159 | doi = 10.1080/00207140108410075 | s2cid = 29607578 | url = http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4584046/Barber-Freedom_from_smoking.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120706021042/http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4584046/Barber-Freedom_from_smoking.pdf | archive-date = 6 July 2012 | df = dmy-all }}{{cite journal |last= Wynd |first= Christine A. | title = Guided health imagery for smoking cessation and long-term abstinence | journal = Journal of Nursing Scholarship | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 245–50 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16235865 | doi = 10.1111/j.1547-5069.2005.00042.x }}{{cite journal |last1= Ahijevych |first1= Karen |last2= Yerardi |first2= Ruth |last3= Nedilsky |first3= Nancy | title = Descriptive outcomes of the American Lung Association of Ohio hypnotherapy smoking cessation program | journal = The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis | volume = 48 | issue = 4 | pages = 374–87 | date = October 2000 | pmid = 11011498 | doi = 10.1080/00207140008410367 |s2cid= 1116717 }}{{cite journal |last1= Pekala |first1= Ronald J. |last2= Maurer |first2= Ronald |last3= Kumar |first3= V.K. |last4= Elliott |first4= Nancy C. |last5= Masten |first5= Ellsworth |last6= Moon |first6= Edward |last7= Salinger |first7= Margaret | title = Self-hypnosis relapse prevention training with chronic drug/alcohol users: effects on self-esteem, affect, and relapse | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis | volume = 46 | issue = 4 | pages = 281–97 | date = April 2004 | pmid = 15190730 | doi = 10.1080/00029157.2004.10403613 |s2cid= 38903485 | display-authors = 4 }}{{Excessive citations inline|date=March 2025}} anxiety,{{cite journal |title= Treating anxiety with self-hypnosis and relaxation |last1= O'Neill |first1= Lucy M. |last2= Barnier |first2= Amanda J. |last3= McConkey |first3= Kevin |year= 1999 |journal= Contemporary Hypnosis |volume= 16 |issue= 2 |pages= 68–80 |doi= 10.1002/ch.154}} stress-related illness,{{cite journal | last1 = Bryant | first1 = Richard A. | last2 = Moulds | first2 = Michelle L. | last3 = Guthrie | first3 = Rachel M. | last4 = Nixon | first4 = Reginald D.V. | title = The additive benefit of hypnosis and cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating acute stress disorder | journal = Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology | volume = 73 | issue = 2 | pages = 334–340 | date = April 2005 | pmid = 15796641 | doi = 10.1037/0022-006X.73.2.334 | url = http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4448284/Bryant-Additive_benefit_hypnosis_acute_stress_disorder.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20130502042825/http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4448284/Bryant-Additive_benefit_hypnosis_acute_stress_disorder.pdf | archive-date = 2 May 2013 | df = dmy-all }}{{cite journal |url= http://pain-topics.org/pdf/Hypnosis-in-Disability-Pain.pdf |title= Hypnosis in disability settings |last1= Ellner |first1= Michael |last2= Aurbach |first2= Robert |year= 2009 |journal= IAIABC Journal |volume= 46 |issue= 2 |pages= 57–75 |access-date= 29 April 2013 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120713210443/http://pain-topics.org/pdf/Hypnosis-in-Disability-Pain.pdf |archive-date= 13 July 2012 |df= dmy-all }}{{cite journal |last1= Whitehouse |first1= Wayne G. |last2= Dinges |first2= David F. |last3= Orne |first3= Emily C. |last4= Keller |first4= Steven E. |last5= Bates |first5= Brad L. |last6= Bauer |first6= Nancy K. |last7= Morahan |first7= Page |last8= Haupt |first8= Barbara A. |last9= Carlin |first9= Michele M. |last10= Bloom |first10= Peter B. |last11= Zuagg |first11= Line |last12= Orne |first12= Martin T. |title= Psychosocial and immune effects of self-hypnosis training for stress management throughout the first semester of medical school |journal= Psychosomatic Medicine |volume= 58 |issue= 3 |pages= 249–63 |year= 1996 |pmid= 8771625 |url= http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4464881/Whitehouse-Psychosocial_immune_effects_self_hypnosis_stress.pdf |display-authors= 4 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402155054/http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4464881/Whitehouse-Psychosocial_immune_effects_self_hypnosis_stress.pdf |archive-date= 2 April 2015 |df= dmy-all |doi= 10.1097/00006842-199605000-00009 |s2cid= 43116854 }} pain management,{{Cite web |url= http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/1999F/Hypnotism.pdf |title= Hypnosis in Pain Management |last= Ngai |first= Hoi N. |year= 2000 |access-date= 29 April 2013 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131020222016/http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/1999F/Hypnotism.pdf |archive-date= 20 October 2013 |df= dmy-all }}{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2014}}{{cite journal | last = Hammond | first = D. Corydon | title = Review of the efficacy of clinical hypnosis with headaches and migraines | journal = The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis | volume = 55 | issue = 2 | pages = 207–19 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17365074 | doi = 10.1080/00207140601177921 | s2cid = 19705476 | url = http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4531149/Hammond-Review_efficacy_clinical_hypnosis_headaches_migraines.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20130502042315/http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4531149/Hammond-Review_efficacy_clinical_hypnosis_headaches_migraines.pdf | archive-date = 2 May 2013 | df = dmy-all }} and personal development.{{cite web |url= http://www.hypnotherapyarticles.com/ArtG/articleg00050.htm |title= How to learn better study habits through hypnosis |last= Cannon |first= Georgina |year= 2008 |work= Hypnotherapy Articles: Promoting Knowledge |access-date= 29 April 2013 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130126100646/http://www.hypnotherapyarticles.com/ArtG/articleg00050.htm |archive-date= 26 January 2013 |df= dmy-all }}{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2014}}{{cite journal |last= Callen |first= Kenneth E. | title = Auto-hypnosis in long distance runners | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 30–6 | date = July 1983 | pmid = 6678109 | doi = 10.1080/00029157.1983.10404135 }}

Psychedelic therapy are therapeutic practices involving psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, psilocybin, DMT, and MDMA.{{Cite news|last=Pollan|first=Michael|date=15 May 2018|title=My Adventures With the Trip Doctors|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/05/15/magazine/health-issue-my-adventures-with-hallucinogenic-drugs-medicine.html|access-date=11 September 2020|issn=0362-4331}} In psychedelic therapy, in contrast to conventional psychiatric medication taken by the patient regularly or as needed, patients generally remain in an extended psychotherapy session during the acute psychedelic activity with additional sessions both before and after in order to help integrate experiences with the psychedelics.{{Cite journal|last=Byock|first=Ira|date=1 April 2018|title=Taking Psychedelics Seriously|journal=Journal of Palliative Medicine|volume=21|issue=4|pages=417–421|doi=10.1089/jpm.2017.0684|issn=1096-6218|pmc=5867510|pmid=29356590}}{{Cite news|last=Carhart-Harris|first=Robin|author-link=Robin Carhart-Harris|date=8 June 2020|title=We can no longer ignore the potential of psychedelic drugs to treat depression|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/jun/08/psychedelic-drugs-treat-depression|access-date=11 September 2020|issn=0261-3077}} Psychedelic therapy has been compared with the shamanic healing rituals of indigenous people. Researchers identified two main differences: the first is the shamanic belief that multiple realities exist and can be explored through altered states of consciousness, and second the belief that spirits encountered in dreams and visions are real.{{Cite journal|last=Metzner|first=R|date=1998|title=Hallucinogenic drugs and plants in psychotherapy and shamanism |journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs|volume=30|issue=4|pages=333–41|doi=10.1080/02791072.1998.10399709|pmid=9924839}} The charitable initiative Founders Pledge has written a research report on cost-effective giving opportunities for funding psychedelic-assisted mental health treatments.{{Cite web|last=Samuel|first=Sigal|date=9 October 2020|title=The case for funding psychedelics to treat mental health|url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2020/10/9/21506664/psychedelics-mental-health-depression-ptsd-psilocybin-mdma|access-date=2 April 2021|website=Vox}}{{Cite web|last1=Hoeijmakers|first1=Sjir|last2=Goth|first2=Aidan|date=25 September 2020|title=Psychedelic-Assisted Mental Health Treatments Executive Summary|url=https://founderspledge.com/stories/psychedelic-assisted-mental-health-treatments-executive-summary|access-date=2 April 2021|website=Founders Pledge}}

Body psychotherapy, part of the field of somatic psychology, focuses on the link between the mind and the body and tries to access deeper levels of the psyche through greater awareness of the physical body and emotions. There are various body-oriented approaches, such as Reichian (Wilhelm Reich) character-analytic vegetotherapy and orgonomy; neo-Reichian bioenergetic analysis; somatic experiencing; integrative body psychotherapy; Ron Kurtz's Hakomi psychotherapy; sensorimotor psychotherapy; Biosynthesis psychotherapy; and Biodynamic psychotherapy. These approaches are not to be confused with body work or body-therapies that seek to improve primarily physical health through direct work (touch and manipulation) on the body, rather than through directly psychological methods.

Some non-Western indigenous therapies have been developed. In African countries this includes harmony restoration therapy, meseron therapy and systemic therapies based on the Ubuntu philosophy.[http://www.psychevisual.com/Video_by_Carol_Ofovwe_on_Non_Western_Therapies_a_review_of_Meseron_Therapy_what_rsquo_s_the_way_forward.html Non Western Therapies: a review of Meseron Therapy, what is the way forward?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910074442/http://www.psychevisual.com/Video_by_Carol_Ofovwe_on_Non_Western_Therapies_a_review_of_Meseron_Therapy_what_rsquo_s_the_way_forward.html |date=10 September 2015 }} Carol Ofovwe, 7th World Congress on Psychotherapy, 25–29 August 2014[http://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/view/4768 Reframing and Redefining Family Therapy: Ubuntu Perspective] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722031324/http://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/view/4768 |date=22 July 2015 }} Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, Vol 5, No 23 (2014) S.H. Somni, N.S. Sandlana[http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ifep/article/view/91254 Development of The Harmony Restoration Measurement Scale (Cosmogram) Part 1] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721210732/http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ifep/article/view/91254 |date=21 July 2015 }} Vol 21, No 3 (2013) EP Onyekwere, EC Lekwas, EJ Eze, NF Chukwunenyem, IC Uchenna

Integrative psychotherapy is an attempt to combine ideas and strategies from more than one theoretical approach.{{cite book |title= Handbook of Psychotherapy Integration |last1= Norcross |first1= John C. |author-link1=John C. Norcross |last2= Goldfried |first2= Marvin R. |year= 2005 |edition= 2nd |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn= 9780195165791}}{{Page needed|date=January 2014}} These approaches include mixing core beliefs and combining proven techniques. Forms of integrative psychotherapy include multimodal therapy, the transtheoretical model, cyclical psychodynamics, systematic treatment selection, cognitive analytic therapy, internal family systems model, multitheoretical psychotherapy and conceptual interaction. In practice, most experienced psychotherapists develop their own integrative approach over time.

{{main|Child psychotherapy}}

Psychotherapy needs to be adapted to meet the developmental needs of children. Depending on age, it is generally held to be one part of an effective strategy to help the needs of a child within the family setting.{{cite journal |last=Skumin |first=V. A. |title=Borderline mental disorders in chronic diseases of the digestive system in children and adolescents |script-title=ru: Pogranichnye psikhicheskie rasstroĭstva pri khronicheskikh bolezniakh pishchevaritel'noĭ sistemy u deteĭ i podrostkov |trans-title=Borderline mental disorders in chronic diseases of the digestive system in children and adolescents |year=1991 |location=Moscow |journal=Zhurnal nevropatologii i psikhiatrii imeni S.S. Korsakova |url=https://www.mendeley.com/catalogue/4a53c04b-3d0d-3630-978f-b31041a10f36/ |language=ru |oclc=117464823 |access-date=18 January 2015 |issue=8 |pages=81–814 |volume=91 |pmid=1661526 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054309/https://www.mendeley.com/research/borderline-mental-disorders-chronic-diseases-digestive-system-children-adolescents/ |url-status=dead }} Child psychotherapy training programs necessarily include courses in human development. Since children often do not have the ability to articulate thoughts and feelings, psychotherapists will use a variety of media such as musical instruments, sand and toys, crayons, paint, clay, puppets, bibliocounseling (books), or board games. The use of play therapy is often rooted in psychodynamic theory, but other approaches also exist.

In addition to therapy for the child, sometimes instead of it, children may benefit if their parents work with a therapist, take parenting classes, attend grief counseling, or take other action to resolve stressful situations that affect the child. Parent management training is a highly effective form of psychotherapy that teaches parenting skills to reduce their child's behavior problems.

In many cases a different psychotherapist will work with the care taker of the child, while a colleague works with the child.{{cite journal |last1= Schechter |first1= Daniel S. |author-link1= Daniel Schechter |last2= Willheim |first2= Erica | title = When parenting becomes unthinkable: intervening with traumatized parents and their toddlers | journal = Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | volume = 48 | issue = 3 | pages = 249–53 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19242290 | doi = 10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181948ff1}} Therefore, contemporary thinking on working with the younger age group has leaned towards working with parent and child simultaneously, as well as individually as needed.{{cite journal |last1= Lieberman |first1= Alicia F. |last2= Van Horn |first2= Patricia |last3= Ippen |first3= Chondra G. | title = Toward evidence-based treatment: child-parent psychotherapy with preschoolers exposed to marital violence | journal = Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | volume = 44 | issue = 12 | pages = 1241–8 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16292115 | doi = 10.1097/01.chi.0000181047.59702.58 | url = http://empower-daphne.psy.unipd.it/userfiles/file/pdf/Liberman%20A_F_%202005.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140109182043/http://empower-daphne.psy.unipd.it/userfiles/file/pdf/Liberman%20A_F_%202005.pdf | df = dmy-all | url-status = dead | archive-date = 9 January 2014 }}{{cite journal |last1= Donner |first1= Michael B. |last2= VandeCreek |first2= Leon |last3= Gonsiorek |first3= John C. |last4= Fisher |first4= Celia B. |title= Balancing confidentiality: Protecting privacy and protecting the public |url= http://faculty.winthrop.edu/armisteadl/SchoolPsychologyResources/attachments/Donner_et_al_Balancin.pdf |journal= Professional Psychology: Research and Practice |department= Focus on Ethics |year= 2008 |volume= 39 |issue= 3 |pages= 369–76 |doi= 10.1037/0735-7028.39.3.369 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140109182529/http://faculty.winthrop.edu/armisteadl/SchoolPsychologyResources/attachments/Donner_et_al_Balancin.pdf |archive-date= 9 January 2014 |df= dmy-all |access-date= 9 January 2014 }}

{{See also|Online counseling|Use of technology in treatment of mental disorders}}

Research on computer-supported and computer-based interventions has increased significantly over the course of the last two decades.{{Cite journal|last=Andersson|first=Gerhard|date=28 March 2016|title=Internet-delivered psychological treatments|journal=Annual Review of Clinical Psychology|volume=12|issue=1|pages=157–179|doi=10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093006|pmid=26652054|issn=1548-5943}}{{Cite journal|last=Hedman|first=Erik|date=2014|title=Cognitive behavior therapy via the Internet: a systematic review of applications, clinical efficacy and cost–effectiveness|journal=Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics & Outcomes Research|volume=12|issue=6|pages=745–764|doi=10.1586/erp.12.67|pmid=23252357|s2cid=12867169}} The following applications frequently have been investigated:

• Virtual reality: VR is a computer-generated scenario that simulates experience. The immersive environment, used for simulated exposure, can be similar to the real world or it can be fantastical, creating a new experience.{{Cite journal|last1=Miloff|first1=Alexander|last2=Lindner|first2=Philip|last3=Hamilton|first3=William|last4=((Reuterskiöld))|first4=Lena|last5=Andersson|first5=Gerhard|last6=Carlbring|first6=Per|date=2 February 2016|title=Single-session gamified virtual reality exposure therapy for spider phobia vs. traditional exposure therapy: study protocol for a randomized controlled non-inferiority trial|journal=Trials|volume=17|pages=60|doi=10.1186/s13063-016-1171-1|issn=1745-6215|pmc=4736108|pmid=26833396 |doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal|last1=Riva|first1=Giuseppe|last2=Baños|first2=Rosa M.|last3=Botella|first3=Cristina|last4=Mantovani|first4=Fabrizia|last5=Gaggioli|first5=Andrea|date=2016|title=Transforming experience: The potential of augmented reality and virtual reality for enhancing personal and clinical change|journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry|volume=7|pages=164|doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00164|issn=1664-0640|pmc=5043228|pmid=27746747|doi-access=free}}
• Computer-based interventions (or online interventions or internet interventions): These interventions can be described as interactive self-help. They usually entail a combination of text, audio or video elements.{{Cite journal|last1=Richards|first1=Derek|last2=Richardson|first2=Thomas|date=June 2012|title=Computer-based psychological treatments for depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Clinical Psychology Review|volume=32|issue=4|pages=329–342 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2012.02.004|pmid=22466510|issn=0272-7358|hdl=2262/63861|hdl-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last=Berger|first=Thomas|date=2017|title=The therapeutic alliance in internet interventions: A narrative review and suggestions for future research.|pmid=26732852|journal=Psychotherapy Research|volume=27 |issue=5|pages=511–524|via=Taylor & Francis Online|doi=10.1080/10503307.2015.1119908|s2cid=4769067}}
• Computer-supported therapy (or blended therapy): Classical psychotherapy is supported by means of online or software application elements. The feasibility of such interventions has been investigated for individual{{Cite journal|last1=Erbe|first1=Doris|last2=Eichert|first2=Hans-Christoph|last3=Riper|first3=Heleen|last4=Ebert|first4=David Daniel|date=15 September 2017|title=Blending face-to-face and internet-based interventions for the treatment of mental disorders in adults: Systematic review|journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research|volume=19|issue=9|pages=e306|doi=10.2196/jmir.6588|issn=1438-8871|pmc=5622288|pmid=28916506 |doi-access=free }} and group therapy.{{Cite journal|last1=Schuster|first1=Raphael|last2=Fichtenbauer|first2=Isabelle|last3=Sparr|first3=Verena Maria|last4=Berger|first4=Thomas|last5=Laireiter|first5=Anton-Rupert|date=1 March 2018|title=Feasibility of a blended group treatment (bGT) for major depression: uncontrolled interventional study in a university setting|url= http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/8/3/e018412|journal=BMJ Open|volume=8|issue=3|pages=e018412|doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2017-018412|issn=2044-6055|pmc=5857649|pmid=29530905|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180425032024/http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/8/3/e018412|archive-date=25 April 2018}}{{Cite journal|last1=Schuster|first1=Raphael|last2=Sigl|first2=Sophia|last3=Berger|first3=Thomas|last4=Laireiter|first4=Anton-Rupert|date=11 July 2018|title=Patients' Experiences of Web- and Mobile-Assisted Group Therapy for Depression and Implications of the Group Setting: Qualitative Follow-Up Study|journal=JMIR Mental Health|volume=5|issue=3|pages=e49|doi=10.2196/mental.9613|pmid=29997106|pmc=6060305|issn=2368-7959 |doi-access=free }}

{{Excerpt|Telepsychiatry}}

There is considerable controversy about whether, or when, psychotherapy efficacy is best evaluated by randomized controlled trials or more individualized idiographic methods.{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/10/science/for-psychotherapy-s-claims-skeptics-demand-proof.html |title= For psychotherapy's claims, skeptics demand proof |first= Benedict |last= Carey |newspaper= The New York Times |date= 10 August 2004 |access-date= 25 December 2016 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160419175005/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/10/science/for-psychotherapy-s-claims-skeptics-demand-proof.html |archive-date= 19 April 2016 |df= dmy-all }}

One issue with trials is what to use as a placebo treatment group or non-treatment control group. Often, this group includes patients on a waiting list, or those receiving some kind of regular non-specific contact or support. Researchers must consider how best to match the use of inert tablets or sham treatments in placebo-controlled studies in pharmaceutical trials. Several interpretations and differing assumptions and language remain.[https://books.google.com/books?id=SPPr7HN7yugC Talking Cures and Placebo Effects] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723051735/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SPPr7HN7yugC |date=23 July 2015 }} David A. Jopling OUP Oxford, 29 May 2008 Another issue is the attempt to standardize and manualize therapies and link them to specific symptoms of diagnostic categories, making them more amenable to research. Some report that this may reduce efficacy or gloss over individual needs. Fonagy and Roth's opinion is that the benefits of the evidence-based approach outweighs the difficulties.Roth A., and Fonagy P. (2005) What Works for Whom: A critical review of psychotherapy research. Second Edition. The Guildford Press

There are several formal frameworks for evaluating whether a psychotherapist is a good fit for a patient. One example is the Scarsdale Psychotherapy Self-Evaluation (SPSE).{{cite web|url=http://howtherapyworks.com/the-scarsdale-psychotherapy-self-evaluation-spse/|title=The Scarsdale Psychotherapy Self-Evaluation (SPSE)|work=Integrative Psycotherapy |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414233901/http://howtherapyworks.com/the-scarsdale-psychotherapy-self-evaluation-spse/|archive-date=14 April 2018}} However, some scales, such as the SPS, elicit information specific to certain schools of psychotherapy alone (e.g. the superego).

Many psychotherapists believe that the nuances of psychotherapy cannot be captured by questionnaire-style observation, and prefer to rely on their own clinical experiences and conceptual arguments to support the type of treatment they practice. Psychodynamic therapists increasingly believe that evidence-based approaches are appropriate to their methods and assumptions, and have increasingly accepted the challenge to implement evidence-based approaches in their methods.{{Cite journal |last= Silverman |first= Doris K. |title= What Works in Psychotherapy and How Do We Know?: What Evidence-Based Practice Has to Offer |journal= Psychoanalytic Psychology |volume= 22 |issue= 2 |year= 2005 |pages= 306–12 |doi= 10.1037/0736-9735.22.2.306}}

A pioneer in investigating the results of different psychological therapies was psychologist Hans Eysenck, who argued that psychotherapy does not produce any improvement in patients. He held that behavior therapy is the only effective one. However, it was revealed that Eysenck (who died in 1997) falsified data in his studies about this subject, fabricating data that would indicate that behavioral therapy enables achievements that are impossible to believe. Fourteen of his papers were retracted by journals in 2020, and journals issued 64 statements of concern about publications by him. Rod Buchanan, a biographer of Eysenck, has argued that 87 publications by Eysenck should be retracted.Eysenck, H. J. & Grossarth-Maticek, R. (1991). Creative novation behaviour therapy as a prophylactic treatment for cancer and coronary heart disease: II. Effects of treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29, 1, 17–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(09)80003-XKing's College London (May 2019). King's College London enquiry into publications authored by Professor Hans Eysenck with Professor Ronald Grossarth-Maticek. https://retractionwatch.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/HE-Enquiry.pdfMarks, D. F. (2019). The Hans Eysenck affair: Time to correct the scientific record. Journal of Health Psychology, 1–12.Marks, D. F. & Buchanan, R. D. (2020). King's College London's enquiry into Hans J. Eysenck's 'unsafe' publications must be properly completed. Journal of Health Psychology, 25, 1, 3–6.O'Grady, C. (15 July 2020). Misconduct allegations push psychology hero off his pedestal. Science Mag. https://www.science.org/content/article/misconduct-allegations-push-psychology-hero-his-pedestalPelosi, A. J. (2019). Personality and fatal diseases: Revisiting a scientific scandal. Journal of Health Psychology, 24, 4, 421–439.Rolls, G. (2015). Classic case studies in psychology. Routledge Taylor & Francis.

The response rate of psychotherapy varies, no reliable changes due to psychotherapy can be found in up to 33% of patients.{{cite journal | last=Wolpert | first=Miranda | title=Failure is an option | journal=The Lancet Psychiatry | volume=3 | issue=6 | date=2016 | doi=10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30075-X | pages=510–512}}

Large-scale international reviews of scientific studies have concluded that psychotherapy is effective for numerous conditions. A 2022 umbrella review of 102 meta-analyses found that most effect sizes reported for both psychotherapies and pharmacotherapies, compared to treatment-as-usual or placebo, were small for most disorders and treatments, and concluded that a "paradigm shift in research" was needed to advance the field and improve treatment strategies for mental disorders.{{cite journal |last1=Leichsenring |first1=Falk |last2=Steinert |first2=Christiane |last3=Rabung |first3=Sven |last4=Ioannidis |first4=John P. A. |author-link4=John Ioannidis |date=February 2022 |title=The efficacy of psychotherapies and pharmacotherapies for mental disorders in adults: an umbrella review and meta-analytic evaluation of recent meta-analyses |journal=World Psychiatry |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=133–145 |pmid=35015359 |pmc=8751557 |doi=10.1002/wps.20941 |doi-access=free}}

One line of research consistently found that supposedly different forms of psychotherapy show similar effectiveness. According to the 2008 edition of The Handbook of Counseling Psychology: "Meta-analyses of psychotherapy studies have consistently demonstrated that there are no substantial differences in outcomes among treatments". The handbook stated that "little evidence suggests that any one treatment consistently outperforms any other for any specific psychological disorders".{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780470096222/page/250|url-access=registration|title=Handbook of Counseling Psychology|edition=4th|editor-first1=Steven D.|editor-last1=Brown|editor-first2=Robert W.|editor-last2=Lent|date=2008|location=Hoboken, NJ|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-09622-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780470096222/page/250 250]}} This is sometimes called the Dodo bird verdict after a scene/section in Alice in Wonderland where every competitor in a race was called a winner and is given prizes.

Further analyses seek to identify the factors that the psychotherapies have in common that seem to account for this, known as common factors theory; for example the quality of the therapeutic relationship, interpretation of problem, and the confrontation of painful emotions.{{cite book|last1=Nolen-Hoeksema|first1=Susan|title=Abnormal Psychology|date=2014|publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education|location=University in New Haven, Connecticut|isbn=978-0077349165|pages=53–54|edition=Sixth}}{{cite book |title=The Great Psychotherapy Debate: The Evidence for What Makes Psychotherapy Work |first1=Bruce E. |last1=Wampold |author-link1=Bruce Wampold |last2=Imel |first2=Zac E. |year=2015 |orig-year=2001 |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780805857085 |oclc=227918397 |doi=10.4324/9780203582015|s2cid=202248258 }}{{cite journal |last1=Benish |first1=Steven G. |last2=Imel |first2=Zac E. |last3=Wampold |first3=Bruce E. |author-link3=Bruce Wampold |year=2008 |title=The relative efficacy of bona fide psychotherapies for treating posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis of direct comparisons |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=746–58 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2007.10.005 |pmid=18055080}}{{cite journal |last1= Miller |first1= Scott D. |last2= Wampold |first2= Bruce E. |author-link2= Bruce Wampold |last3= Varhely |first3= Katelyn |year= 2008 |title= Direct comparisons of treatment modalities for youth disorders: A meta-analysis |url= http://scottdmiller.com/wp-content/uploads/Direct%20Comparisons%20%28Journal%20Copy%29.pdf |journal= Psychotherapy Research |volume= 18 |issue= 1 |pages= 5–14 |pmid= 18815962 |doi= 10.1080/10503300701472131 |s2cid= 13004118 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140109200806/http://scottdmiller.com/wp-content/uploads/Direct%20Comparisons%20%28Journal%20Copy%29.pdf |archive-date= 9 January 2014 |df= dmy-all }}

Outcome studies have been critiqued for being too removed from real-world practice in that they use carefully selected therapists who have been extensively trained and monitored, and patients who may be non-representative of typical patients by virtue of strict inclusionary/exclusionary criteria. Such concerns impact the replication of research results and the ability to generalize from them to practicing therapists.{{cite journal | vauthors = Leichsenring F, Abbass A, Hilsenroth MJ, Leweke F, Luyten P, Keefe JR, Midgley N, Rabung S, Salzer S, Steinert C | title = Biases in research: risk factors for non-replicability in psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy research | journal = Psychological Medicine | volume = 47 | issue = 6 | pages = 1000–1011 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 27955715 | doi = 10.1017/s003329171600324x | s2cid = 1872762 | df = dmy-all | url = http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1532689/1/Replicability%2033%20Psychological%20Medicine.pdf }}

However, specific therapies have been tested for use with specific disorders,Norcross, J.C. (Ed.). (2002). Psychotherapy relationships that work. OUP. and regulatory organizations in both the UK and US make recommendations for different conditions.{{cite web|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/guidancemenu/conditions-and-diseases/mental-health-and-behavioural-conditions|title=Mental health and behavioural conditions – Guidance and guideline topic – NICE|website=www.nice.org.uk|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150730130920/http://www.nice.org.uk/guidancemenu/conditions-and-diseases/mental-health-and-behavioural-conditions|archive-date=30 July 2015}}{{cite web|url=http://www.apa.org/about/offices/directorates/guidelines/clinical-practice.aspx|title=APA Clinical Practice Guideline Development|website=apa.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003204648/http://www.apa.org/about/offices/directorates/guidelines/clinical-practice.aspx|archive-date=3 October 2015}}{{cite web|url=http://psychiatryonline.org/guidelines|title=American Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines|website=psychiatryonline.org}}

The Helsinki Psychotherapy Study was one of several large long-term clinical trials of psychotherapies that have taken place. Anxious and depressed patients in two short-term therapies (solution-focused and brief psychodynamic) improved faster, but five years long-term psychotherapy and psychoanalysis gave greater benefits. Several patient and therapist factors appear to predict suitability for different psychotherapies.{{cite journal | vauthors = Knekt P, Lindfors O, Sares-Jäske L, Virtala E, Härkänen T | title = Randomized trial on the effectiveness of long- and short-term psychotherapy on psychiatric symptoms and working ability during a 5-year follow-up | journal = Nordic Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 67 | issue = 1 | pages = 59–68 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 22563790 | doi = 10.3109/08039488.2012.680910 | s2cid = 30877764 | url = https://www.thl.fi/en/web/thlfi-en/research-and-expertwork/projects-and-programmes/helsinki-psychotherapy-study/results | url-access = subscription }}

Meta-analyses have established that cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and psychodynamic psychotherapy are equally effective in treating depression.{{cite web|url=http://alert.psychnews.org/2017/05/psychodynamic-psychotherapy-is.html|title=Psychodynamic Therapy Is Equivalent to CBT, Meta-Analysis Finds|website=alert.psychnews.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413185813/http://alert.psychnews.org/2017/05/psychodynamic-psychotherapy-is.html|archive-date=13 April 2018}}

A 2014 meta analysis over 11,000 patients reveals that Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT) is of comparable effectiveness to CBT for depression but is inferior to the latter for eating disorders.{{cite journal|title=Interpersonal psychotherapy for mental health problems: A comprehensive meta-analysis|first1=Pim|last1=Cuijpers|first2=Tara|last2=Donker|first3=Myrna M.|last3=Weissman|first4=Paula|last4=Ravitz|first5=Ioana A.|last5=Cristea|date=1 July 2016|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=173|issue=7|pages=680–687|doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15091141|pmid=27032627|doi-access=free|hdl=1871.1/e5f03ebe-ef61-42c8-af16-0a6e951d6d92|hdl-access=free}} For children and adolescents, interpersonal psychotherapy and CBT are the best methods according to a 2014 meta analysis of almost 4000 patients.{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhou X, Hetrick SE, Cuijpers P, Qin B, Barth J, Whittington CJ, Cohen D, Del Giovane C, Liu Y, Michael KD, Zhang Y, Weisz JR, Xie P | title = Comparative efficacy and acceptability of psychotherapies for depression in children and adolescents: A systematic review and network meta-analysis | journal = World Psychiatry | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 207–22 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 26043339 | pmc = 4471978 | doi = 10.1002/wps.20217 }}

Research on adverse effects of psychotherapy has been limited, yet worsening of symptoms may be expected to occur in 3% to 15% of patients, with variability across patient and therapist characteristics.{{cite journal |last1=Hardy |first1=Gillian E. |last2=Bishop-Edwards |first2=Lindsey |last3=Chambers |first3=Eleni |last4=Connell |first4=Janice |last5=Dent-Brown |first5=Kim |last6=Kothari |first6=Gemma |last7=O'hara |first7=Rachel |last8=Parry |first8=Glenys D. |date=April 2019 |title=Risk factors for negative experiences during psychotherapy |journal=Psychotherapy Research |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=403–414 |pmid=29078740 |doi=10.1080/10503307.2017.1393575 |s2cid=22336500 |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/123234/3/NegTherapyExperiences%20Accepted%20version%20.pdf |quote=Estimates of 'unwanted effects,' including long-lasting effects, of psychotherapy have ranged from 3% to 15%. Few empirical studies have been conducted in this area.}}{{cite book |last=Farquharson |first=Lorna |date=2020 |chapter=Adverse effects of psychological therapies |editor1-last=Tribe |editor1-first=Rachel |editor2-last=Morrissey |editor2-first=Jean |title=The handbook of professional, ethical and research practice for psychologists, counsellors, psychotherapists and psychiatrists |edition=3rd |location=Abingdon; New York |publisher=Routledge |pages=129–140 |isbn=9781138352070 |oclc=1130376524 |doi=10.4324/9780429428838-11 |s2cid=216525848 |chapter-url=https://repository.uel.ac.uk/item/8897x |quote=5–10% of all clients experience adverse effects of therapy (Crawford et al., 2016; Lambert, 2013; Hatfield et al, 2010; Hannan et al., 2005). However, there can be considerable variability across therapists (Saxon et al., 2017; Mohr, 1995) and according to client characteristics (Saxon et al., 2017; Crawford et al., 2016; Mohr, 1995).}}{{cite news |last=Jarrett |first=Christian |date=10 March 2016 |title=How often does psychotherapy make people feel worse? |url=https://digest.bps.org.uk/2016/03/10/how-often-does-psychotherapy-make-people-feel-worse/ |newspaper=Research Digest |publisher=British Psychological Society |access-date=30 October 2021 |quote=Data is thin on the ground, but best estimates suggest that between 5 to 10 per cent of therapy clients experience a worsening of their symptoms.}} Potential problems include deterioration of symptoms or developing new symptoms, strains in other relationships, social stigma, and therapy dependence. Some techniques or therapists may carry more risks than others, and some client characteristics may make them more vulnerable. Side-effects from properly conducted therapy should be distinguished from harms caused by malpractice.{{cite journal | last1 = Linden | first1 = Michael | last2 = Schermuly-Haupt | first2 = Marie-Luise | title = Definition, assessment and rate of psychotherapy side effects | journal = World Psychiatry | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 306–9 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25273304 | pmc = 4219072 | doi = 10.1002/wps.20153 }}

Patient adherence to a course of psychotherapy—continuing to attend sessions or complete tasks—is a major issue.

The dropout level—early termination—ranges from around 30% to 60%, depending partly on how it is defined. The range is lower for research settings for various reasons, such as the selection of clients and how they are inducted. Early termination is associated on average with various demographic and clinical characteristics of clients, therapists and treatment interactions.Jennifer L. Strauss, Vito S. Guerra, Christine E. Marx, A. Meade Eggleston Ph.D, Patrick S. Calhoun Ph.D [https://books.google.com/books?id=uiuXxI6wBSQC&pg=PA215 Chapter 9: Improving Patient Treatment Adherence: A Clinician's Guide] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416081953/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uiuXxI6wBSQC&pg=PA215 |date=16 April 2016 }} In: Improving Patient Treatment Adherence: A Clinician's Guide. Edited by Hayden Bosworth. Springer Science & Business Media, 3 July 2010{{Cite journal |last1= Wierzbicki |first1= Michael |last2= Pekarik |first2= Gene |title= A meta-analysis of psychotherapy dropout |journal= Professional Psychology: Research and Practice |volume= 24 |issue= 2 |pages= 190–5 |year= 1993 |doi= 10.1037/0735-7028.24.2.190}} The high level of dropout has raised some criticism about the relevance and efficacy of psychotherapy.{{cite journal |last= Egan |first= Jonathan |title= Dropout and related factors in therapy |url= http://www.lenus.ie/hse/bitstream/10147/121474/1/DropoutRelatedfactorsPSI.pdf |journal= The Irish Psychologist |year= 2005 |volume= 32 |issue= 2 |pages= 27–30 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110721125420/http://www.lenus.ie/hse/bitstream/10147/121474/1/DropoutRelatedfactorsPSI.pdf |archive-date= 21 July 2011 |df= dmy-all }}

Most psychologists use between-session tasks in their general therapy work, and cognitive behavioral therapies in particular use and see them as an "active ingredient". It is not clear how often clients do not complete them, but it is thought to be a pervasive phenomenon.

From the other side, the adherence of therapists to therapy protocols and techniques—known as "treatment integrity" or "fidelity"—has also been studied, with complex mixed results.{{cite book |author1= Dinger Ulrike |author2= Zilcha-Mano Sigal |author3= Dillon Justina |author4= Barber Jacques P |year= 2015 |title = Therapist Adherence and Competence in Psychotherapy Research |journal= The Encyclopedia of Clinical Psychology |pages= 1–5|doi= 10.1002/9781118625392.wbecp340 |isbn= 9781118625392 }} In general, however, it is a hallmark of evidence-based psychotherapy to use fidelity monitoring as part of therapy outcome trials and ongoing quality assurance in clinical implementation.

It is not yet understood how psychotherapies can succeed in treating mental illnesses.{{Cite journal|last1=Cuijpers|first1=Pim|last2=Reijnders|first2=Mirjam|last3=Huibers|first3=Marcus J.H.|date=7 May 2019|title=The Role of Common Factors in Psychotherapy Outcomes|journal=Annual Review of Clinical Psychology|volume=15|issue=1|pages=207–231|doi=10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050718-095424|pmid=30550721|issn=1548-5943|doi-access=free|hdl=1871.1/fc5d7d73-48fb-40f3-9c56-05a7995d9888|hdl-access=free}} Different therapeutic approaches may be associated with particular theories about what needs to change in a person for a successful therapeutic outcome.

In general, processes of emotional arousal and memory have long been held to play an important role. One theory combining these aspects proposes that permanent change occurs to the extent that the neuropsychological mechanism of memory reconsolidation is triggered and is able to incorporate new emotional experiences.{{cite journal |last1=Centonze |first1=Diego |last2=Siracusano |first2=Alberto |last3=Calabresi |first3=Paolo |last4=Bernardi |first4=Giorgio |date=October 2005 |title=Removing pathogenic memories: a neurobiology of psychotherapy |journal=Molecular Neurobiology |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=123–132 |doi=10.1385/MN:32:2:123 |pmid=16215277|s2cid=20176022 }}{{cite book |last1=Ecker |first1=Bruce |last2=Ticic |first2=Robin |last3=Hulley |first3=Laurel |date=2012 |title=Unlocking the Emotional Brain: Eliminating Symptoms at Their Roots Using Memory Reconsolidation |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415897167 |oclc=772112300 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fQpd13K0gHUC}} But for a more hesitant view of the role of memory reconsolidation in psychotherapy that criticizes some of the claims of Ecker et al., see: {{cite journal |last=Alberini |first=Cristina M. |author-link1=Cristina Alberini |date=April 2015 |title=Commentary on Tuch |journal=Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=317–330 |doi=10.1177/0003065115579720 |pmid=25922379|s2cid=207597244 }}{{cite journal |last=Welling |first=Hans |date=June 2012 |title=Transformative emotional sequence: towards a common principle of change |journal=Journal of Psychotherapy Integration |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=109–136 |doi=10.1037/a0027786 |url=http://www.integra.pt/textos/tes.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035355/http://www.integra.pt/textos/tes.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 |citeseerx=10.1.1.1004.236 }}For a more hesitant view of the role of memory reconsolidation in psychotherapy, see the objections in some of the invited comments in: {{cite journal |last1=Lane |first1=Richard D. |last2=Ryan |first2=Lee |last3=Nadel |first3=Lynn |author-link3=Lynn Nadel |last4=Greenberg |first4=Leslie S. |author-link4=Les Greenberg |date=2015 |title=Memory reconsolidation, emotional arousal and the process of change in psychotherapy: new insights from brain science |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=38 |pages=e1 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X14000041 |url=http://www.coherencetherapy.org/files/Ecker-etal_2015_Minding-the-Findings.pdf |pmid=24827452 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117022253/http://www.coherencetherapy.org/files/Ecker-etal_2015_Minding-the-Findings.pdf |archive-date=17 November 2015 }}

Some critics are skeptical of the healing power of psychotherapeutic relationships.{{cite book |last=Masson |first=Jeffrey M. |author-link=Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson |year=1988 |title=Against therapy: emotional tyranny and the myth of psychological healing |location=New York |publisher=Atheneum |isbn=978-0689119293 |oclc=17618782|title-link=Against Therapy }}{{cite book |last=Epstein |first=William M. |date=1995 |title=The illusion of psychotherapy |location=New Brunswick, NJ |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1560002154 |oclc=32086626}}{{cite book |editor-last=Feltham |editor-first=Colin |date=1999 |title=Controversies in psychotherapy and counselling |location=London; Thousand Oaks, CA |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0761956402 |oclc=45002563}} Some dismiss psychotherapy altogether in the sense of a scientific discipline requiring professional practitioners,{{cite book |last=Dawes |first=Robyn M. |author-link=Robyn Dawes |date=1994 |title=House of cards: psychology and psychotherapy built on myth |location=New York |publisher=Free Press |isbn=978-0029072059 |oclc=28675086 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/houseofcardspsyc00dawerich }} instead favoring either nonprofessional help or biomedical treatments.{{cite book |last1=Watters |first1=Ethan |last2=Ofshe |first2=Richard |date=1999 |title=Therapy's delusions, the myth of the unconscious and the exploitation of today's walking worried |location=New York |publisher=Scribner |isbn=9780684835846 |oclc=40467398 |url=https://archive.org/details/therapysdelusion00etha_0 }} Others have pointed out ways in which the values and techniques of therapists can be harmful as well as helpful to clients (or indirectly to other people in a client's life).{{multiref2 | {{cite journal |title=Special section on negative effects from psychological treatments |date=January 2010 |journal=American Psychologist |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=13–49 |doi=10.1037/a0015643 |pmid=20063906 |last1=Barlow |first1=D. H. }} | {{cite book |last=Dorpat |first=Theodore L. |date=1996 |title=Gaslighting, the double whammy, interrogation, and other methods of covert control in psychotherapy and psychoanalysis |location=Northvale, NJ |publisher=Jason Aronson |isbn=978-1568218281 |oclc=34548677}} | {{cite journal |last=Basseches |first=Michael |date=April 1997 |title=A developmental perspective on psychotherapy process, psychotherapists' expertise, and 'meaning-making conflict' within therapeutic relationships: part II |journal=Journal of Adult Development |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=85–106 |doi=10.1007/BF02510083|s2cid=143991100 }} Basseches coined the term "theoretical abuse" as a parallel to "sexual abuse" in psychotherapy. }}

Many resources available to a person experiencing emotional distress—the friendly support of friends, peers, family members, clergy contacts, personal reading, healthy exercise, research, and independent coping—all present considerable value. Critics note that humans have been dealing with crises, navigating severe social problems and finding solutions to life problems long before the advent of psychotherapy.{{cite book |first=Frank |last=Furedi |author-link=Frank Furedi |year=2004 |edition=Reprint |title=Therapy culture: cultivating vulnerability in an uncertain age |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=9780415321600 |oclc=52166272}}

On the other hand, some argue psychotherapy is under-utilized and under-researched by contemporary psychiatry despite offering more promise than stagnant medication development. In 2015, the US National Institute of Mental Health allocated only 5.4% of its budget to new clinical trials of psychotherapies (medication trials are largely funded by pharmaceutical companies), despite plentiful evidence they can work and that patients are more likely to prefer them.{{cite news |last=Friedman |first=Richard A. |date=19 July 2015 |title=Psychiatry's identity crisis |newspaper=The New York Times |page=SR5 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/19/opinion/psychiatrys-identity-crisis.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231043810/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/19/opinion/psychiatrys-identity-crisis.html |archive-date=31 December 2016 }}

Further critiques have emerged from feminist, constructionist and discourse-analytical sources.{{cite book |last=Cushman |first=Philip |date=1995 |title=Constructing the self, constructing America: a cultural history of psychotherapy |location=Boston |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=978-0201626438 |oclc=30976460 |url=https://archive.org/details/constructingself00cush }}{{cite book |last=Rose |first=Nikolas S. |author-link=Nikolas Rose |date=1996 |title=Inventing our selves: psychology, power, and personhood |series=Cambridge studies in the history of psychology |location=Cambridge, UK; New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521434140 |oclc=33440952 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511752179}}{{cite book |editor-last=Loewenthal |editor-first=Del |date=2015 |title=Critical psychotherapy, psychoanalysis and counselling: implications for practice |location=Houndmills, Hampshire; New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9781137460578 |oclc=898925104 |doi=10.1057/9781137460585}} Key to these is the issue of power.{{cite journal |last=House |first=Richard |date=June 2012 |title=Psychotherapy, politics and the 'common factor' of power |journal=Psychotherapy and Politics International |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=157–160 |doi=10.1002/ppi.1260}} In this regard there is a concern that clients are persuaded—both inside and outside the consulting room—to understand themselves and their difficulties in ways that are consistent with therapeutic ideas. This means that alternative ideas (e.g., feminist,{{cite journal |last=McLellan |first=Betty |date=August 1999 |title=The prostitution of psychotherapy: a feminist critique |journal=British Journal of Guidance & Counselling |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=325–337 |doi=10.1080/03069889908256274}} economic,{{cite journal |last=Pavón-Cuéllar |first=David |date=October 2014 |title=The Freudo-Marxist tradition and the critique of psychotherapeutic ideology |journal=Psychotherapy and Politics International |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=208–219 |doi=10.1002/ppi.1336}} spiritual{{cite book |last1=Moodley |first1=Roy |last2=West |first2=William |date=2005 |title=Integrating traditional healing practices into counseling and psychotherapy |series=Multicultural aspects of counseling and psychotherapy |volume=22 |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0761930464 |oclc=57283684}}) are sometimes implicitly undermined.{{cite journal |last=House |first=Richard |date=August 1999 |title='Limits to therapy and counselling': deconstructing a professional ideology |journal=British Journal of Guidance & Counselling |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=377–392 |doi=10.1080/03069889908256278}} Critics suggest that we idealize the situation when we think of therapy only as a helping relationship—arguing instead that it is fundamentally a political practice, in that some cultural ideas and practices are supported while others are undermined or disqualified, and that while it is seldom intended, the therapist–client relationship always participates in society's power relations and political dynamics.{{cite book |last=Epstein |first=William M. |date=2006 |title=Psychotherapy as religion: the civil divine in America |location=Reno, NV |publisher=University of Nevada Press |isbn=978-0874176780 |oclc=62889079}}{{cite book |last=Throop |first=Elizabeth A. |date=2009 |title=Psychotherapy, American culture, and social policy: immoral individualism |series=Culture, mind, and society |location=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0230609457 |oclc=226357146 |doi=10.1057/9780230618350}} A noted academic who espoused this criticism was Michel Foucault.{{multiref2 | {{cite journal |last=Marks |first=Sarah |date=April 2017 |title=Psychotherapy in historical perspective |journal=History of the Human Sciences |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=3–16 |doi=10.1177/0952695117703243 |pmid=28690369 |pmc=5484460 |quote=Michel Foucault, in what has perhaps become the most well-known critique of psychiatric and therapeutic interventions, identified a shift in the way western society conceptualized madness with the establishment of 'moral treatment' at the end of the 18th century... }} | {{cite journal |last=Guilfoyle |first=Michael |date=February 2005 |title=From therapeutic power to resistance? Therapy and cultural hegemony |journal=Theory & Psychology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=101–124 |doi=10.1177/0959354305049748 |s2cid=145491324 |quote=Foucault's views have been used to highlight problems of power in a variety of 'mental health' fields: in nursing (e.g. Clinton & Hazelton, 2002), social work (e.g. Foote & Frank, 1999), psychiatry (e.g. Ali, 2002), and in the cross-disciplinary practices of psychotherapy (most notably in narrative therapy—e.g. Flaskas & Humphreys, 1993; Swann, 1999; White & Epston, 1990). However, there is no single 'Foucauldian' approach to power, or indeed to therapy, and his ideas are used, as he intended, more in the manner of a 'tool kit' of ideas than as a coherent theoretical account.}} | {{cite book |last1=Isack |first1=Sharonne |last2=Hook |first2=Derek |chapter=The psychological imperialism of psychotherapy |date=20 October 1995 |title=1st Annual South African Qualitative Methods Conference: "A spanner in the works of the factory of truth" |url=http://www.criticalmethods.org/spanner.htm |publisher=Critical Methods Society |chapter-url=http://www.criticalmethods.org/hook.htm |location=Johannesburg, South Africa |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419043338/http://www.criticalmethods.org/spanner.htm |archive-date=19 April 2014 }} }}

• {{annotated link|Improving Access to Psychological Therapies}}
• {{annotated link|List of psychotherapy journals}}
• {{annotated link|Physical therapy}}
• {{annotated link|Psychosomatic medicine}}

{{reflist}}

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{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=psychotherapy}}

• {{cite book |title=When You Don't Know Where to Turn: A Self-diagnosing Guide to Counseling and Therapy |date=1987 |last=Bartlett |first=Steven J. |publisher=Contemporary Books |isbn=9780809248292 |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44926}}
• {{cite book |title=Introduction to the Psychotherapies |edition=4th |date=2006 |last=Bloch |first=Sidney |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0198520921}}
• {{cite book |title=Handbook of Racial-Cultural Psychology and Counseling |date=2005 |editor-last=Carter |editor-first=Robert T. |oclc=54905669}} Two volumes.
• {{cite book |title=Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy |edition=10th |date=2015 |last=Corey |first=Gerald |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=9781305263727}}
• {{cite book |title=The Neuroscience of Psychotherapy: Healing the Social Brain |edition=3rd |date=2017 |last=Cozolino |first=Louis |publisher=National Geographic Books |isbn=9780393712643}}
• {{cite book |title=Handbook of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity in Counseling and Psychotherapy |date=2017 |publisher=American Psychological Association |editor1-last=DeBord |editor1-first=Kurt A. |editor2-last=Fischer |editor2-first=Ann R. |editor3-last=Bieschke |editor3-first=Kathleen J. |editor4-last=Perez |editor4-first=Ruperto M. |isbn=9781433823060}}
• {{cite book |title=A Critical History of Psychotherapy |date=2023 |last1=Foschi |first1=Renato |last2=Innamorati |first2=Marco |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781032364025}} Two volumes.
• {{cite book |title=International Perspectives on Psychotherapy |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |editor-last=Hofmann |editor-first=Stefan G. |isbn=9783319561936}}
• {{cite book |title=The Complete Adult Psychotherapy Treatment Planner |edition=6th |date=2021 |last1=Jongsma |first1=Arthur E. |last2=Peterson |first2=L. Mark |last3=Bruce |first3=Timothy J. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1118067864}}
• {{cite book |title=Culturally Alert Counseling: A Comprehensive Introduction |editor-last=McAuliffe |editor-first=Garrett J. |edition=3rd |date=2021 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=9781483378213}}
• {{cite book |title=Systems of Psychotherapy: A Transtheoretical Analysis |edition=9th |date=2018 |last1=Prochaska |first1=James O. |last2=Norcross |first2=John C. |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190880415}}
• {{cite book |title=Voices of Color: First-Person Accounts of Ethnic Minority Therapists |date=2005 |editor1-last=Rastogi |editor1-first=Mudita |editor2-last=Wieling |editor2-first=Elizabeth |isbn=0761928901}}
• {{cite book |title=Psychotherapy: An Introduction for Psychiatry Residents and Other Mental Health Trainees |date=2005 |last=Slavney |first=Phillip R. |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=0801880963}}
• {{cite book |title=The Basics of Psychotherapy: An Introduction to Theory and Practice |edition=2nd |date=2019 |last=Wampold |first=Bruce E. |publisher=American Psychological Association |isbn=9781433830198}}

{{Medical resources

| ICD11 = {{ICD11|QB95.4}}

| ICD10 = {{ICD10|Z50.4}}

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| PatientUK =

| MeshID = D011613

| NCI =

| Scholia = Q183257

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{{Psychology}}

{{Psychotherapy}}

{{Authority control}}