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Romanian literature#Beginnings

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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}

{{Culture of Romania}}

Romanian literature ({{Langx|ro|Literatura română}}) is the entirety of literature written by Romanian authors, although the term may also be used to refer to all literature written in the Romanian language or by any authors native to Romania.

Early Romanian literature includes religious texts and historical chronicles written in Old Church Slavonic. Romanian literature throughout history has been influenced both by international European movements, such as Humanism and Enlightenment, and by the local geopolitical context and major national events such as the Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia and the Union of Transylvania with Romania. In addition to literature created by individual authors, Romania also has a rich tradition of folk literature which is part of the Romanian folklore. In 2009, the Nobel Prize for Literature was awarded to Herta Müller.

Old Romanian literature

The development of Romanian literature has taken place in parallel with that of the rich Romanian folklore – lyric, epic, dramatic and didactic – which continues in modern times.{{cite encyclopedia |title=Romanian literature |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=britannica.com |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Romanian-literature |access-date=18 April 2021 }} Romanian oral literature includes doine (lyric songs), balade (ballads), hore (dance songs), colinde (carols), basme (fairy tales), snoave (anecdotes), vorbe (proverbs), and ghicitori (riddles). The folk pastoral ballad Miorița is one of the best known examples of Romanian folk literature.

=Medieval Slavonic literature=

The Script of Old Church Slavonic began to be used in the territories of current day Romania as early as the 10th Century, with the oldest surviving manuscripts being dated as far back as the 12th Century. The earliest dated texts in Slavonic, originally from Wallachia and Moldavia, consist of a series of Religious Songs by Nicodim & Filotei and a Hagiographical text by Grigore Țamblâc, all being dated between 1385 and 1391. Also by the 15th century many copies of medieval Slavonic texts have been created by the scribes of the Danubian Principalities.{{Cite journal |last=Deletant |first=D. J. |date=1980 |title=Slavonic Letters in Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania from the Tenth to the Seventeenth Centuries |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4207969 |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |jstor=4207969 |issn=0037-6795}}

File:Saint Neagoe Basarab and his son Teodosie.jpg and his son Teodosie]]

In the meantime numerous Slavonic and Greek translations of popular medieval romances were in circulation across the Danubian Principalities, like the Alexander Romance and Barlaam and Josaphat.{{cite report|language=ro|url=https://www.bibnat.ro/dyn-doc/lucrari-clasice-anonime.pdf|title=Lucrări Clasice anonime în literatura română|trans-title=Anonymous Classic Works in Romanian Literature|first=Victor|last=Duÿescu}}

Particularly of note is The Teachings of Neagoe Basarab to his son Theodosie: a series of teachings on morality and politics, written between 1519 and 1521, by the Wallachian Lord Neagoe Basarab,{{Cite web |title=Neagoe Basarab (1481–1521) (II) |url=http://argesexpres.ro/index.php/cultura/13447-neagoe-basarab-1481-1521-ii |access-date=2023-04-27 |website=argesexpres.ro |date=29 January 2017 |language=ro-ro}} a work written in the spirit of the Renaissance{{Cite journal |last=Grigore |first=Mihai-D. |date=1 September 2012 |title=Ruling Christian; Neagoe Basarab and the Beginning of 'Political Proto-Modernity' in Sixteenth-century Wallachia: a Case Study |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09637494.2012.692929 |journal=Religion, State and Society |volume=40 |issue=3–4 |pages=286–300 |doi=10.1080/09637494.2012.692929 |s2cid=143220377 |issn=0963-7494|url-access=subscription }} and considered one of the oldest great works of Southeastern European literature.{{Cite web |last=Belu |first=Catalin |title=PORTRET: 500 de ani de la moartea lui Neagoe Basarab, domn al Ţării Româneşti (1512–1521) {{!}} Agenția de presă Rador |date=15 September 2021 |url=https://www.rador.ro/2021/09/15/portret-500-de-ani-de-la-moartea-lui-neagoe-basarab-domn-al-tarii-romanesti-1512-1521/ |access-date=2023-04-27 |language=ro-RO}}

Moldavian historical chronicles written by court order in the 16th century include the chronicles of Macarie, Azarie and Eftimie.https://biblioteca-digitala.ro/reviste/Acta-Moldaviae-Meridionalis/40_Acta-Moldaviae-Meridionalis_XXXIX-I_2019_058.pdf

=Beginning of writing and publishing in Romanian=

{{Reformationliterature}}

Image:Neacşu's letter.jpg]]

The earliest books in Romanian were translated from Slavonic religious texts in the 15th century. Psaltirea Hurmuzaki, Codicele Voronețean, Psaltirea Voronețeană, Psaltirea Scheiană, and others are religious texts from Moldavia that carry evidence of being translations of manuscripts written in the other languages in the Banat-Hunedoara area.{{Cite book |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/26754 |title=The Syntax of Old Romanian |date=3 March 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-178089-9 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198712350.001.0001 |editor-last=Pană Dindelegan |editor-first=Gabriela |editor-link=Gabriela Pană Dindelegan}} Of them, Hurmuzaki Psalter, a Romanian copy of a bilingual Church Slavonic - Romanian Psalter,Iosif Camară, [https://mld.uaic.ro/RSS/RSS12_Camara.pdf Originea celui mai vechi text românesc [The origin of the oldest Romanian text]], in Reception of the Holy Scriptures: at the crossroads between philology, hermeneutics and translation studies, XII, Iași, Editura Universității „Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, 2023, p. 111-140. has been dated between 1491–1504 by watermarks,Iosif Camară, [https://www.academia.edu/128007318/Data_alc%C4%83tuirii_celui_mai_vechi_text_rom%C3%A2nesc_Filigranul_de_tip_corabie_din_Psaltirea_Hurmuzaki_The_Date_When_the_Oldest_Romanian_Text_Was_Written_The_ship_Watermark_of_the_Hurmuzaki_Psalter Data alcătuirii celui mai vechi text românesc. Filigranul de tip corabie din Psaltirea Hurmuzaki [The Date When the Oldest Romanian Text Was Written. The ship Watermark of the Hurmuzaki Psalter]], in Zamfirei Mihail: omagiu, Academia Română. Institutul de Studii Sud-est Europene, eds. Lia Brad Chisacof, Simona Nicolae, Cătălina Vătășescu. Cluj-Napoca: Scriptor / Mega, 2024, pp. 151-165. making it the oldest preserved manuscript in Romanian.{{Cite book |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199677108.001.0001 |title=The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages |date=2016-06-30 |page=95 |publisher=Oxford University PressOxford |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199677108.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-967710-8 |editor-last=Ledgeway |editor-first=Adam |editor-last2=Maiden |editor-first2=Martin}}

The earliest surviving document in Romanian that can be precisely dated is Neacșu's letter written in 1521, to the jude ("judge and mayor") of Brașov, Hans Benkner.{{Citation |last=Iliescu |first=Maria |title=History of the Romanian Lexicon |date=26 May 2021 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.471 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics |access-date=2023-08-22 |publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.471 |isbn=978-0-19-938465-5 |url-access=subscription }}

The first book printed in Wallachia was a Slavonic religious book, printed in 1508 at Târgoviște.{{Cite web |last=Erich |first=Agnes |date=2010 |title=The Appearance of Printing Activity in the Romanian Space: an Integral Part of a European Phenomenon |url=https://www.academia.edu/66545583 |access-date=6 March 2024 |website=academia.edu}} The first book printed in the Romanian language was Catehismul românesc by Filip Moldoveanul in 1544.{{Cite journal |last=Esanu |first=Valentina |date=2021-12-09 |title=Filip Moldoveanul (?-1553) Și Începuturile Scrisului În Limba Română |url=https://www.academia.edu/116679451/Filip_Moldoveanul_1553_%C8%98i_%C3%8Enceputurile_Scrisului_%C3%8En_Limba_Rom%C3%A2n%C4%83 |journal=Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)}}{{Cite book |last=Petroaia |first=Lucian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-SBEAAAQBAJ |title=Hieratikon, a Treasure of Orthodox Culture and Spirituality: Study on Romanian Editions |date=28 December 2022 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-91502-3 |pages=356 |language=en}} Other translations from Greek and Slavonic books were printed later in the 16th century.{{Cite web |last=Groza |first=Mihai-Octavian |date=31 August 2021 |title=Diaconul Coresi, un vrednic tipograf și ctitor al limbii române literare |url=https://radiorenasterea.ro/diaconul-coresi-un-vrednic-tipograf-si-ctitor-al-limbii-romane-literare/ |access-date=2023-04-30 |language=ro-RO}} Dosoftei, a Moldavian Bishop, in 1673, published the first Romanian metrical psalter, the earliest collection of poems written in Romanian.{{Cite web |date=10 May 2007 |title=Dosoftei, sfantul invatat {{!}} Jurnalul National |url=http://www.jurnalul.ro/articol_57316/dosoftei__sfantul_invatat.html |access-date=2023-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510053756/http://www.jurnalul.ro/articol_57316/dosoftei__sfantul_invatat.html |archive-date=2007-05-10 }}{{Cite web |title="Psaltirea în versuri": în Mănăstirea Unievului, cu ajutorul tiparului s-a reprodus |url=https://historia.ro/sectiune/general/psaltirea-in-versuri-in-manastirea-unievului-565872.html |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=historia.ro |language=ro}}

File:Stamp of Moldova md046st.jpg in Chișinău]]

Early efforts to publish the Bible in Romanian started with the 1582 printing in the small town of Orăștie of the so-called Palia de la Orăștie – a translation of the first books of the Old Testament – printed by Deacon Șerban (the son of Deacon Coresi) and Marien Diacul (Marien the Scribe). Palia was translated by Bishop Mihail Tordaș et al. from the Pentateuch printed at Kolozsvár in 1551 by Gáspár Heltai and a version of Vulgate.{{Cite journal |last=Chivu |first=Gheorghe |date=July 2022 |title=Palia de la Orăștie |url=https://biblacad.ro/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/TEZAUR-NR07-2022-07.pdf |journal=Tezaur |issue=7 |pages=2–3 |via=Romanian Academy}}

The entire Bible was not published in Romanian until the end of the 17th century, when the Metropolitanate's Press of Bucharest printed Biblia de la București ("The Bucharest Bible") in 1688,{{Cite web |title=Biblia de la Bucuresti – 1688 |url=https://www.crestinortodox.ro/editoriale/biblia-la-bucuresti-1688-70436.html |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=www.crestinortodox.ro}} compiled by the Greceanu Brothers.{{Cite web |date=11 November 2021 |title=333 de ani de la tipărirea Bibliei de la București: A contribuit la unificarea limbii și culturii românilor |url=http://doxologia.ro/333-de-ani-de-la-tiparirea-bibliei-de-la-bucuresti-contribuit-la-unificarea-limbii-culturii |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=Doxologia – Portal Crestin Ortodox |language=ro}}

In Transylvania, there was also an attestation of the explicit use of a Latin model, with the appearance of the first Romanian dictionary, Dictionarium Valachico-Latinum (Caransebeș, about 1650), while the first grammar of the Romanian language written in Latin was Institutiones linguae Valachicae (Crișana, circa 1770).{{cite journal |last=Chivu |first=Gheorghe |date=2015 |title=The Latin Model in early Romanian linguistic writing |url=https://www.diacronia.ro/ro/indexing/details/A20369 |journal=Diversité et Identité Culturelle en Europe |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages=7–16 |issn=2067-0931 |access-date=20 April 2021}}

= Humanism =

File:Dimitrie_Cantemir_-_Portrait_from_Descriptio_Moldaviae,_1716_(crop).jpg]]

The first appearances of humanism in Moldavia and Wallachia were in the 16th century with the likes of {{interlanguage link|Luca Stroici|ro}} and Petru Cercel, but it took another century for these ideas to fully flourish. This delay can be attributed to the continuation of Byzantine culture in the Danubian Principalities, or to the different social classes compared to Western Europe.{{Cite book |last=Cândea |first=Virgil |title=Rațiunea Dominantă. Contribuții la istoria umanismului românesc |publisher=Editura Dacia |year=1979 |location=Cluj-Napoca |pages=12–14 |language=Romanian}}

File:Hierogliphyc History Cantemir.jpg]]

During the 17th century, humanism spread to Moldavia via Poland and its Jesuit schools, having as representatives the likes of Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, and Ion Neculce with their chronicles on the history of Moldavia.{{Cite web |date=13 January 2014 |title=Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, Ion Neculce {{!}} Бельцы Сити |url=https://beltsymd.ru/study/romana/grigore-ureche-miron-costin-ion-neculce |access-date=2023-06-26 |website=Бельцы Сити – новостной медиапортал |language=ru-RU}} Following the example of Petro Movilă's Kyiv Colegium, the Lords Matei Basarab and Vasile Lupu established Neoclassical schools such as the Schola Graeca et Latina and the Iași Colegiu.{{Cite book |last=Cândea |first=Virgil |title=Rațiunea Dominantă. Contribuții la istoria umanismului românesc |publisher=Editura Dacia |year=1979 |location=Cluj-Napoca |pages=15 |language=Romanian}} In Wallachia, Mihail Moxa, Kyr Gavriil and Stoica Ludescu wrote historical chronicles; while the Cronica Buzeștilor (The Chronicle of the Buzești House) was written by an anonymous writer.George Călinescu, “Istoria literaturii române (compendiu)”, Editura Litera, 2001, pag. 30-31

Constantin Cantacuzino was a nobleman and historian and a notable humanist scholar. Nicolae Milescu was a Moldavian-born writer, diplomat and traveler, who lived and worked in the Tsardom of Russia.

The most significant Romanian humanist was Dimitrie Cantemir, who wrote histories of Wallachia, Moldavia and the Ottoman Empire, and philosophical and religious treaties such as {{ill|The Divan|ro|Divanul sau gâlceava înțeleptului cu lumea}}, The Indescribable Image of Sacred Science, and The Little Compendium of Logic.{{Cite web |title=Dimitrie Cantemir – filosof și umanist ortodox român |url=https://poruncaiubirii.agaton.ro/articol/3448/dimitrie-cantemir-filosof-și-umanist-ortodox-român |access-date=2023-06-26 |website=poruncaiubirii.agaton.ro}}{{Cite journal |last=Ciulei |first=Tomiţă |date=5 September 2014 |title=Profile of an East-European Thinker. Dimitrie Cantemir's Humanism |journal=Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences |series=LUMEN 2014 – From Theory to Inquiry in Social Sciences, Iasi, Romania, 10–12 April 2014 |language=en |volume=149 |pages=189–194 |doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.08.186 |issn=1877-0428|doi-access=free }} He also wrote the Roman à clef A Hieroglyphic History in 1705.{{citation|last=Cantemir|first=Dimitrie|title=Istoria ieroglifică|language=ro}}

=Enlightenment=

File:Monument Școala Ardeleană, Cluj-Napoca.jpg monument in Cluj-Napoca, depicting Petru Maior, Gheorghe Șincai, and Samuil Micu-Klein.]]

In 18th century Transylvania, throughout the Blaj Schools of Inocențiu Micu-Klein, a Latinist and Enlightenment movement, the Școala Ardeleană emerged, producing philological studies of the Romantic origin of the Romanian language.{{Cite web |title=Şcoala Ardeleană, expresie a iluminismului românesc (1) |url=https://www.revistaromaniamare.ro/scoala-ardeleana-expresie--a-iluminismului-romanesc-1-m6 |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=Revista Romania mare |language=ro}} Among the many works on Romanian history and the Romanian language by Samuil Micu-Klein, Gheorghe Șincai and Petru Maior,{{Cite web |title=radioromaniacultural.ro |url=https://www.radioromaniacultural.ro/sectiuni-articole/literatura/portret-gheorghe-sincai-reprezentant-de-marca-al-scolii-ardelene-id16973.html |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=radioromaniacultural.ro |language=ro}} the "Heroic-comic-satiric Poem" Țiganiada by Ion Budai-Deleanu, can also be found, promoting democratic and enlightenment ideals.{{Cite web |last=admin |date=3 February 2019 |title="Țiganiada", lucrare de o modernitate cuceritoare – Ziarul Metropolis |url=https://www.ziarulmetropolis.ro/tiganiada-de-ion-budai-deleanu-lucrare-de-o-modernitate-cuceritoare/ |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=Ziarul Metropolis |language=ro}}

In Wallachia and Moldavia, the Enlightenment can be seen in the Poems and Prose of Iancu Văcărescu,{{Cite web |title=Iancu Văcărescu – Poezii |url=https://poetii-nostri.ro/iancu-vacarescu-autor-232/ |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=Poetii Nostri |language=ro}} Costache Conachi,{{Cite web |last=Cana |first=Dora |date=28 November 2015 |title=Costache Conachi – un boier "luminat" şi unul dintre cei mai de seamă cărturari ai epocii |url=https://destepti.ro/costache-conachi-un-boier-luminat-si-unul-dintre-cei-mai-de-seama-carturari-ai-epocii/ |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=Deștepți.ro |language=ro-RO}} and Dinicu Golescu.{{Cite web |title=radioromaniacultural.ro |url=https://www.radioromaniacultural.ro/sectiuni-articole/istorie-filozofie-psihologie/portret-dinicu-golescu-boierul-iluminist-id24939.html |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=radioromaniacultural.ro |language=ro}}

National awakening

In 1829, in Wallachia, Ion Heliade Rădulescu founded the first Romanian-language Newspaper, Curierul Românesc,{{Cite web |date=8 April 2023 |title="Curierul românesc", primul periodic în limba română din Ţara Românească (8 aprilie 1829) |url=https://leviathan.ro/curierul-romanesc-primul-periodic-in-limba-romana-din-tara-romaneasca-8-aprilie-1829/ |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Revista Culturală Leviathan |language=ro-RO}} and cofounded the Philharmonic Society which later created the National Theatre of Bucharest.{{Cite web |last=Ionescu |first=Sofia |date=16 September 2022 |title=Cine a fost Ion Heliade Rădulescu |url=https://www.libertatea.ro/lifestyle/cine-a-fost-ion-heliade-radulescu-4279028 |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Libertatea |language=ro}} Albina Românească, a similar publication to Curierul Românesc was started contemporaneously by Gheorghe Asachi in Moldavia.{{Cite web |date=30 October 2011 |title=Albina Românească – primul ziar în limba română din Moldova (sub redacția lui Gheorghe Asachi) |url=https://tiparituriromanesti.wordpress.com/2011/10/30/albina-romaneasca-primul-ziar-in-limba-romana-din-moldova/ |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Tipărituri vechi |language=ro-RO}}

=Pașoptism=

File:Constantin_Daniel_Stahi_-_Portretul_lui_Vasile_Alecsandri.jpg]]

File:Constantin Negruzzi - Foto02.jpg]]

In the 1800s, the revolutionary ideas of nationalism spreading in Europe were also circulating among Romanians who desired national independence from the Ottoman Empire. These nationalistic attitudes led to the revolutions of 1821 and 1848.{{Cite web |title=Revoluţia paşoptistă, 170 de ani. Direcţie-cheie: «A familiariza pe oameni cu ideea unei Românii întregi» |url=https://historia.ro/sectiune/general/revolutia-pasoptista-170-de-ani-directie-cheie-570236.html |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=historia.ro |language=ro}} These ideas were mainly propagated by Mihail Kogălniceanu's publication, Dacia Literară, which was adapting French Romanticism to Romanian writing with the purpose of creating an original national literature.{{Cite web |last=Sinca |first=Camelia |date=17 February 2021 |title=Pașoptismul – trăsături și scriitori reprezentanți |url=https://www.libertatea.ro/lifestyle/pasoptismul-trasaturi-si-scriitori-reprezentanti-3419140 |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=Libertatea |language=ro}}

File:Th. Aman - Lăpuşneanu arătând soţiei sale capetele boierilor.jpg illustration of Alexandru Lăpușneanul]]

The works of these writers, later dubbed Pașoptists (after the Revolution of 1848), have been shown not only to contain Romantic but also Neoclassical and Realist traits. Vasile Alecsandri was a prolific writer, contributing to Romanian literature with poetry, prose, the Chirița plays (1850–1875), historical dramas such as Despot Vodă (1879), and collections of Romanian folklore.{{Cite web |title=Vasile Alecsandri {{!}} Marea Loja Regulara – Phoenix |url=https://www.mlnar.ro/masoni-celebri/vasile-alecsandri |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=www.mlnar.ro}} Also, taking inspiration from history, Constantin Negruzzi wrote the novella {{interlanguage link|Alexandru Lăpușneanul (short story)|lt=Alexandru Lăpușneanul|ro|Alexandru Lăpușneanul (nuvelă)}} (1840).{{Cite web |last=Sinca |first=Camelia |date=15 February 2021 |title=Costache Negruzzi – biografia și operele prozatorului român |url=https://www.libertatea.ro/lifestyle/costache-negruzzi-biografie-3416800 |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Libertatea |language=ro}} Other Pașoptist writers include Vasile Cârlova, Grigore Alexandrescu, Anton Pann, and Alecu Donici.

=Junimea=

File:Convorbiri Literare - prima pagina - 1 mai 1885.jpg 1 May 1885]]

File:George_Cosbuc_-_Foto02.jpg]]

The literary circle Junimea, founded in Iași in 1863 by Titu Maiorescu, Petre P. Carp, Vasile Pogor, Theodor Rosetti and Iacob Negruzzi began publishing the magazine Convorbiri Literare in1867, which eventually became the most important Romanian language literary publication in the 2nd half of the 19th century and 1st half of the 20th century.{{Cite web |title=Revista "Convorbiri literare" – 150 de ani în slujba culturii române – Apostolul |url=https://www.slineamt.ro/apostolul/eveniment/revista-convorbiri-literare-150-de-ani-in-slujba-culturii-romane/ |access-date=2023-07-16 |language=ro-RO}} Through his links with Junimea, literary critic Titu Maiorescu set the direction of synchronizing Romanian literature both with other European literary movements and with Romanian folklore.{{Cite web |last=Sinca |first=Camelia |date=28 January 2021 |title=Titu Maiorescu – viața și activitatea literară a pedagogului român |url=https://www.libertatea.ro/lifestyle/titu-maiorescu-biografie-3394678 |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Libertatea |language=ro}}{{Cite web |title=Junimea, punct de cotitură în evoluția societății românești |url=https://historia.ro/sectiune/actualitate/junimea-punct-de-cotitura-in-evolutia-societatii-584351.html |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=historia.ro |language=ro}}

Many outstanding Romanian writers, including George Coșbuc{{Cite web |title=George Cosbuc |url=https://nemira.ro/george-cosbuc |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=nemira.ro}} and Barbu Ştefănescu Delavrancea, published their works in Convorbiri Literare.{{Cite web |last=stormers |date=29 May 2017 |title=Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea |url=https://culturainiasi.ro/barbu-stefanescu-delavrancea/ |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Cultura in Iasi |language=ro-RO}}

Other notable authors of this era are Nicolae Bălcescu, Dimitrie Bolintineanu, Alecu Russo, Nicolae Filimon, Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, Alexandru Odobescu, Grigore Alexandrescu and Petre Ispirescu.

=The beginnings of the Romanian novel=

The first Romanian novel is considered to be Manoil (published in 1855) by Dimitrie Bolintineanu (if one excludes from the definition of novel the allegorical literary work {{interlanguage link|Istoria ieroglifică|ro}} by Dimitrie Cantemir, which was written between 1703 – 1705).{{cite web | url=https://www.observatorcultural.ro/articol/pionieri-ai-romanului-romanesc/ | title=Pionieri ai romanului românesc }} Bolintineanu also published the novel Elena (1862). However these two novels are largely forgotten, although they are considered relevant from the point of view of describing Romanian society in the mid-19th century. Nicolae Filimon is considered the father of the Romanian novel,{{cite web | url=https://www.romania-actualitati.ro/arhiva-emisiuni/nume-mari/nicolae-filimon-primul-autor-de-roman-romanesc-id71220.html | title=Nicolae Filimon – primul autor de roman românesc }} having written the influential novel {{interlanguage link|Ciocoii vechi și noi|ro}} (1863).

=The great classics=

File:Eminescu.jpg]]

File:Ion_Luca_Caragiale_-_Foto02.jpg]]

File:Ion_Creanga-Foto03.jpg]]

File:Ioan Slavici.jpg]]

Among the many writers of Junimea, four are considered to be the Great Classics of Romanian Literature: the poet Mihai Eminescu, the satirist Ion Luca Caragiale, Ioan Slavici, and Ion Creangă.{{Cite web |title=CEI PATRU MARI (ȘI APROPIAȚI) CLASICI AI LITERATURII ROMÂNE – Bistrita culturala – informatii culturale din Orasul Bistrita |url=http://www.bistritaculturala.ro/stire/cei-patru-mari-i-apropia-i-clasici-ai-literaturii-rom-ne-3605.html |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=www.bistritaculturala.ro}}{{Cite web |title=Epoca Marilor Clasici |url=https://liceunet.ro/epoci-perioade-literare/epoca-marilor-clasici |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=liceunet.ro}}

Mihai Eminescu is considered by many critics to be the most important and influential Romanian poet.{{Cite web |date=15 January 2019 |title=Mihai Eminescu, Romania's Most Celebrated Poet – RoDiscover |url=https://www.rodiscover.com/culture/mihai-eminescu-romanias-most-celebrated-poet/ |access-date=2023-07-16 |language=en-US}} His lyrical poetry has its roots in Romanian folklore intertwined with Kantian{{Cite web |last=Popescu |first=N. |date=23 February 2013 |title=Preocupări filosofice la Mihai Eminescu |url=https://foaienationala.ro/preocupri-filosofice-la-mihai-eminescu.html |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Foaie Națională |language=ro-RO}} and Schopenhauer's philosophy{{Cite web |title=Filosoful care i-a influenţat pe Eminescu şi Cioran s-a născut acum 160 de ani. Este considerat ultimul mare reprezentant al idealismului german |url=https://mariustuca.ro/article-56804.html |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=mariustuca.ro}} and Buddhist cosmology.{{Cite web |date=28 July 2017 |title=Mihai Eminescu şi fascinaţia faţă de spiritualitatea indiană: "Eu sunt budist" |url=https://adevarul.ro/stiri-locale/focsani/mihai-eminescu-si-fascinatia-fata-de-1800511.html |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=adevarul.ro |language=ro}} Among his greatest poems are the romantic poems Floare Albastră (1872) and Luceafărul, as well as the series of five philosophical poems called Letters (1881–1890).{{Cite web |last=Sinca |first=Camelia |date=26 January 2021 |title=Mihai Eminescu – viața și operele celui mai cunoscut poet și prozator român |url=https://www.libertatea.ro/lifestyle/mihai-eminescu-biografie-3391645 |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Libertatea |language=ro}}{{Cite web |title=Mihai Eminescu {{!}} Opere – Liceunet.ro |url=https://liceunet.ro/mihai-eminescu |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=liceunet.ro}}

Ioan Slavici is one of the best known Romanian novella writers.{{Cite web |last=Sinca |first=Camelia |date=27 January 2021 |title=Ioan Slavici – viața și operele pedagogului român |url=https://www.libertatea.ro/lifestyle/ioan-slavici-biografie-3393291 |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Libertatea |language=ro}} His works can be categorized as Realist{{Cite web |title=Locul nuvelisticii lui ioan slavici in contextul operei sale |url=https://www.qdidactic.com/didactica-scoala/literatura/locul-nuvelisticii-lui-ioan-slavici-in-contextul-ope418.php |access-date=2023-07-21 |website=www.qdidactic.com}} Bildungsromans. They are mainly set in Transylvania and have Moralistic psychological undertones.{{Cite book |last=Manolescu |first=Nicolae |title=Istoria Critică a Literaturii Române |pages=444–445 |language=Romanian}} His most famous works are the novellas Moara cu noroc and {{interlanguage link|Popa Tanda|es||ro}}, and the novel Mara.{{Cite web |title=Monografia in operele lui Ioan Slavici |url=https://www.scrigroup.com/educatie/literatura-romana/Monografia-in-operele-lui-Ioan44814.php |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=www.scrigroup.com}}

Ion Luca Caragiale, wrote some of the best Romanian comedies, sketches and farces.{{Cite web |title=radioromaniacultural.ro |url=https://www.radioromaniacultural.ro/sectiuni-articole/literatura/portret-i-l-caragiale-povestea-celui-mai-mare-dramaturg-roman-id21511.html |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=radioromaniacultural.ro |language=ro}} Among his best known plays are O Noapte Furtunoasă (1879), O Scrisoare Pierdută (1884), and D-ale Carnavalului (1885).{{Cite web |last=Sinca |first=Camelia |date=21 January 2021 |title=Ion Luca Caragiale – viața și operele dramaturgului român |url=https://www.libertatea.ro/lifestyle/ion-luca-caragiale-biografie-3385323 |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Libertatea |language=ro}}

Ion Creangă wrote personalized retellings of folkloric tales,{{Cite book |last=Nicolae |first=Manolescu |title=Istoria critică a literaturii române |pages=410–414 |language=Romanian}} of which some of the best known are Povestea lui Harap Alb (1877), Păcală (1880), and Făt-Frumos fiul Iepei (1877).{{Cite web |last=Sinca |first=Camelia |date=21 January 2021 |title=Ion Creangă – viața și operele scriitorului |url=https://www.libertatea.ro/lifestyle/ion-creanga-biografie-3383705 |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Libertatea |language=ro}} Of further note are his autobiographical memoirs from Amintiri din copilarie.{{Cite web |date=9 August 2014 |title=AMINTIRI DIN COPILĂRIE" – O IMPORTANTĂ SURSĂ ETNOGRAFICĂ © |url=https://www.ziartarguneamt.ro/amintiri-din-copilarie-o-importanta-sursa-etnografica |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Ziar Targu Neamt |language=ro-RO}}

=Sămănătorism and Poporanism=

File:Duiliu_Zamfirescu_-_Foto01.jpg]]

From 1901 to 1910, through the activity of the publication Sămănătorul, founded by George Coșbuc and Alexandru Vlahuță, and later under the editorial watch of historian Nicolae Iorga, a new literary movement formed.{{Cite web |title=Samanatorism vs. Modernism |url=https://www.scrigroup.com/educatie/literatura-romana/Samanatorism-vs-Modernism51131.php |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=www.scrigroup.com}}{{Cite web |title=Perioada de tranzitie |url=https://liceunet.ro/epoci-perioade-literare/epoca-de-tranzitie |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=liceunet.ro}} A movement concentrated on preserving traditional values and idealising rural life,{{Cite web |last=Razes |first=Alexandru |date=18 March 2011 |title=Samanatorismul. Contextul istoric al aparitiei si orientari teoretice |url=https://foaienationala.ro/samanatorismul-contextul-istoric-al-aparitiei-si-orientari-teoretice.html |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Foaie Națională |language=ro-RO}} a continuation Eminescu's Romanticism.

Among Sămănătorul's authors were George Coșbuc a poet, translator, teacher, and journalist, best known for his verses describing, praising and eulogizing rural life, author of Pașa Hasan, Nunta Zamfirei and Moartea lui Fulger; but also Alexandru Vlahuță, Octavian Goga, Duiliu Zamfirescu, Ștefan O. Iosif, Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea, Ion Agârbiceanu and Alexandru Macedonski. Although Goga and Agârbiceanu have become later associated with Poporanism and the publication, Viața Românească.{{Cite web |date=24 February 2019 |title=Începuturile revistei "Viața Românească", văzute azi |url=https://www.viataromaneasca.eu/revista/2019/02/inceputurile-revistei-viata-romaneasca-vazute-azi/ |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Viața Românească |language=ro-RO}}

Interbellum literature

After achieving national unity in 1918, Romanian literature entered what can be called a golden age, characterized by two opposite literary movements, Traditionalism and Modernism, and by the development of the Romanian novel.{{Cite web |title=Perioada Interbelica in Literatura Romana |url=https://liceunet.ro/epoci-perioade-literare/perioada-interbelica |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=liceunet.ro}}{{Cite web |title=Mari prozatori români ai perioadei interbelice – 1. Literatura română în perioada interbelică – Wattpad |url=https://www.wattpad.com/91076418-mari-prozatori-rom%C3%A2ni-ai-perioadei-interbelice-1 |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=www.wattpad.com |language=ro}}{{Cite web |title=Literaria |url=https://literaria.info/resources/articles/presa-literara-in-perioada-interbelica.html |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=literaria.info}} The interwar period of Romanian literature was a very rich and creative time, with numerous literary works being published during that period, addressing a variety of themes, including historical novels, novels depicting rural life, war, romantic love, social class and existential themes .{{Cite web | title=Perioada Interbelica in Literatura Romana | url=https://liceunet.ro/epoci-perioade-literare/perioada-interbelica | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803120046/https://liceunet.ro/epoci-perioade-literare/perioada-interbelica | access-date=2025-02-26 | archive-date=2020-08-03}}{{cite web | url=https://www.wattpad.com/91076418-mari-prozatori-rom%C3%A2ni-ai-perioadei-interbelice-1 | title=Mari prozatori români ai perioadei interbelice – 1. Literatura română în perioada interbelică – Wattpad }}

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[[File:Bucuresti,_Romania,_Muzeul_Taranului_Roman;_B-II-m-A-18985_(Lucian_Blaga).JPG|thumb|150px|left|

Lucian Blaga]]

Traditional society and recent political events influenced works such as Liviu Rebreanu's Răscoala ("The Uprising", 1932), which was inspired by the 1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt, and Pădurea Spânzuraților ("Forest of the Hanged"), published in 1922 and inspired by Romanian participation in World War I. Rebreanu's novel Ion, published in 1920, presents the life of peasants and intellectuals in early twentieth century Transylvania, and is said to be the most read Romanian novel.{{cite web | url=https://www.libertatea.ro/opinii/de-ce-a-ajuns-ion-de-liviu-rebreanu-cel-mai-citit-si-cel-mai-prost-inteles-roman-din-literatura-romana-si-de-ce-cred-ca-e-cazul-sa-puneti-din-nou-mana-pe-el-3272966 | title=100 de ani de când a fost publicat. De ce a ajuns "Ion", de Liviu Rebreanu, cel mai citit și cel mai prost înțeles roman din literatura română | date=22 November 2020 }} The dawn of the modern novel can be seen in Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu's Concert din muzică de Bach ("A Bach Concert"), Camil Petrescu's Ultima noapte de dragoste, întâia noapte de război ("The Last Night of Love, the First Night of War") and Mateiu Caragiale’s Craii de Curtea-Veche ("The Rakes of Old Court"). George Călinescu is another complex personality of Romanian literature: novelist, playwright, poet, literary critic and historian, essayist, journalist. He published authoritative monographs about Eminescu and Creangă, and a monumental (almost 1,000 pages in quarto) history of Romanian literature from its origin to the time of his writing (1941). He is also the author of the novel Enigma Otliei ("The Enigma of Otilia").

File:Mihail_Sadoveanu1.jpg]]

An important realist writer was Mihail Sadoveanu, who wrote mainly novels which took place at various times in the history of Moldova. But probably the most important writers were Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga, and Mircea Eliade. Arghezi revolutionized Romanian poetry 50 years after Eminescu, creating new pillars for the modern Romanian poem. Blaga, one of the country's most important artistic personalities, developed through his writings a complex system of philosophy, still not perfectly understood today. Eliade is today considered the greatest historian in the field of religions. His novels reveal a mystical, pre-Christian symbolism paving the way for contemporary Romanian art.File:Tudor_Arghezi.jpg]]

Born in Romania, Tristan Tzara, a poet and essayist, is the main founder of Dada, a nihilistic revolutionary movement in the arts, and may have been responsible for its name (Romanian for "Yes yes"). Later he abandoned nihilism for Surrealism and Marxism. For the first time in its history, Romanian culture was fully connected to Western culture, while Dadaism is the first Romanian artistic and literary movement to become international. Dadaism and Surrealism are fundamental parts of the avant-garde, the most revolutionary form of modernism. The Romanian avant garde is very well represented by Ion Minulescu, Gherasim Luca, Urmuz, Perpessicius, Tristan Tzara, Grigore Cugler, Geo Bogza, Barbu Fundoianu, Gellu Naum, Ilarie Voronca, and Ion Vinea. Max Blecher was a novelist whose life was cut short by health problems.

File:George_Bacovia.jpg]]

George Bacovia was a symbolist poet. While he initially belonged to the local Symbolist movement, his poetry came to be seen as a precursor of Romanian Modernism. Some important literary figures of this period were also active in other domains. Vasile Voiculescu was a Romanian poet, short-story writer, playwright, and physician. Ion Barbu was a poet, as well as an important mathematician.

Cezar Petrescu was a journalist, novelist, and children's writer. He is especially remembered for his children's book Fram, ursul polar ("Fram, the polar bear"; the circus animal character was named after Fram, the ship used by Fridtjof Nansen on his expeditions). Elena Farago was also a children's writer and poet.

Ion Agârbiceanu was a writer, as well as a politician, theologian and Greek-Catholic priest. Gala Galaction was another writer, who was also an Eastern Orthodox clergyman and theologian.

Other literary figures of this era include Mihail Sebastian, Ionel Teodoreanu, Panait Istrati, Gib Mihăescu, Anton Holban, Otilia Cazimir, Ion Pillat and George Topîrceanu.

Postbellum Literature

File:Marin_Preda.jpg]]

Marin Preda is an important post-World War II Romanian novelist. His novel, Moromeții ("The Moromete Family"), describes the life and difficulties of an ordinary peasant family in pre-war Romania, and later during the advent of Communism in Romania. His most important book remains Cel mai iubit dintre pământeni ("The Most Beloved of Earthlings"), a cruel description of communist society. Zaharia Stancu published his first important novel, Desculț (Barefoot), in 1948. Both Preda and Stancu depicted rural life in Southern Romania (both writers were born in Teleorman County).

Some of the most important poets are Nichita Stănescu, Marin Sorescu, Ana Blandiana, Leonid Dimov, and Ștefan Augustin Doinaș.{{cite book | first1=Adam J. | last1=Sorkin | first2=Kurt W. | last2=Treptow | title=An Anthology of Romanian Women Poets | location=New York | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=1994 | page=73 | isbn=978-0-88033-294-1}} An important novelist of this era was Radu Tudoran. Mircea Nedelciu was a short-story writer, novelist, essayist and literary critic. Constantin Chiriță was a writer whose works were mainly targeted to the young public, and who remains best known for his five-volume cycle entitled Cireșarii.

Outside Romania, Eugène Ionesco and Emil Cioran represented the national spirit at the highest level. Ionesco is one of the foremost playwrights of the Theatre of the Absurd. Beyond ridiculing the most banal situations, Ionesco's plays depict in a tangible way the solitude of humans and the insignificance of one's existence. Cioran was a writer and philosopher.

Contemporary literature

File:Herta Müller (2019).jpg]]

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File:Gabriela Adameșteanu, Göteborg Book Fair 2013 1 (crop).jpg]]

Some Romanian contemporary writers:

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Chronology: 19th century – present

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=Translations of Romanian literature=

See also

{{Portal|Romania|Literature}}

References

{{Reflist}}

  • George Călinescu, Istoria literaturii române de la origini până în prezent ("The History of the Romanian Literature from its origins until present day"), 1941
  • Nicolae Iorga, Istoria literaturii românești ("The History of the Romanian Literature"), 1929
  • Alex Ștefănescu, Istoria literaturii române contemporane, 1941–2000 ("The History of the Contemporary Romanian Literature, 1941–2000"), 2005
  • Dan C Mihăilescu, Literatura română în postceaușism, Vol II, Proza. Prezentul ca dezumanizare, Editura Polirom, 2006 Vol II, Proza. Prezentul ca dezumanizare, Ed. Polirom, 2006

External links

{{Wikisourcelang|ro|Categorie:Autori români|Romanian Authors (original works in Romanian)}}

  • [http://www.romanianvoice.com/poezii/ Romanian poetry]
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20060715130343/http://www.ici.ro/romania/ro/cultura/literatura.html Romanian literature]
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20030218023104/http://www.mlr.ro/ Website of the Romanian Museum of Literature]
  • [http://linguaromana.byu.edu Lingua Romana, a journal on Romanian literature]
  • [https://www.academia.edu/s/6c804bcc07 Beyond the Iron Curtain: Revisiting the Literary System of Communist Romania (Introduction)]

{{Romanian topics}}

{{Literature of Europe}}

{{Authority control}}