Social and environmental impact of palm oil

File:Elaeis guineensis MS 3467.jpgs (Elaeis guineensis)]]

File:World Production Of Primary Crops, Main Commodities.svg

An estimated 1.5 million small farmers grow the crop in Indonesia, along with about 500,000 people directly employed in the sector in Malaysia, plus those connected with related industries.{{cite web | publisher = Malaysian Palm Oil Association | year = 2005 | title = MPOA and sustainable palm oil | url = http://www.rspo.org/PDF/Communications/Public%20Forum%20KL/MPOA%20&%20Sustainable%20Palm%20Oil%20(Vengeta%20Rao%20MPOA).pdf }}{{cite news|last=Nor Aini Bt Kamarul Zaman|first=Kamar|url=http://bepi.mpob.gov.my/news/detail.php?id=4537|title=Malaysian government not concerned with rising palm oil prices – minister|date=2007-12-16|agency=AFX News|work=Forbes Magazine|access-date=2020-03-17|archive-date=2022-12-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207033856/https://bepi.mpob.gov.my/news/detail.php?id=4537|url-status=dead}}

As of 2006, the cumulative land area of palm oil plantations is approximately {{convert|11,000,000|ha|sqmi}}.{{cite web | url=http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/forests/problems/forest_conversion_agriculture/orang_utans_palm_oil/index.cfm

| title=Palm oil plantations already estimated at occupying 11 million hectares

| publisher= WWF (Panda.org)

| access-date=2007-09-29

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071014093709/http://panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/forests/problems/forest_conversion_agriculture/orang_utans_palm_oil/index.cfm |archive-date = 2007-10-14}} In 2005 the Malaysian Palm Oil Association, responsible for about half of the world's crop, estimated that they manage about half a billion perennial carbon-sequestering palm trees. Demand for palm oil has been rising and is expected to climb further.

Between 1967 and 2000 the area under cultivation in Indonesia expanded from less than {{convert|2,000|km2|sqmi}} to more than {{convert|30,000|km2|sqmi}}. Deforestation in Indonesia for palm oil (and illegal logging) is so rapid that a 2007 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report said that most of the country's forest might be destroyed by 2022. The rate of forest loss has declined in the past decade.

Global production is forecast at a record 46.9m tonnes in 2010, up from 45.3m in 2009, with Indonesia providing most of the increase.{{cite news

|title=The other oil spill

|url=http://www.economist.com/node/16423833?story_id=16423833

|publisher=The Economist

|date=June 24, 2010

|access-date=1 August 2010}}

Oil palm is a valuable economic crop and provides a source of employment.{{cite news |title=Socio-Economic Impact Assessment of Palm Oil Production |last1=Budidarsono |first1=Suseno |last2=Dewi |first2=Sonya |last3=Sofiyuddin |first3=Muhammad |last4=Rahmanulloh |first4=Arif |url=http://www.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/publications/PDFs/TB12053.PDF |work=World Agroforestry Centre |access-date=15 January 2013}}{{cite web |url=http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-78Andriani.pdf |title=The local impacts of oil palm expansion in Malaysia |last1=Norwana |first1=Awang Ali Bema Dayang |last2=Kunjappan |first2=Rejani |year=2011 |work=cifor.org |publisher=Center for International Forestry Research |access-date=15 January 2013}} It allows small landholders to participate in the cash economy{{cite book |title=The Report: Malaysia 2011 |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford Business Group |isbn= 9781907065460|page=295 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ClCfNOWRjwC&q=SALCRA&pg=PA295 |access-date=24 August 2012}} and often results in improvements to local infrastructure and greater access to services such as schools and health facilities. In some areas, the cultivation of oil palm has replaced traditional practices, often due to the higher income potential of palm oil. The modernisation of cultivation practices has led to issues including food insecurity. This issue stems from the intensive use of land which leads to soil degradation.{{Cite journal |last1=Guillaume |first1=Thomas |last2=Holtkamp |first2=Anna Mareike |last3=Damris |first3=Muhammad |last4=Brümmer |first4=Bernhard |last5=Kuzyakov |first5=Yakov |author-link5=Yakov Kuzyakov |date=2016-09-16 |title=Soil degradation in oil palm and rubber plantations under land resource scarcity |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880916303619 |journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment |language=en |volume=232 |pages=110–118 |doi=10.1016/j.agee.2016.07.002 |bibcode=2016AgEE..232..110G |issn=0167-8809}} As a result, the ability for locals to produce their own food has dwindled and they are having to look for food in other areas as they can no longer rely exclusively on their land.{{Cite journal|last1=Rist|first1=Lucy|last2=Feintrenie|first2=Laurène|last3=Levang|first3=Patrice|date=2010-04-01|title=The livelihood impacts of oil palm: smallholders in Indonesia|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|language=en|volume=19|issue=4|pages=1009–1024|doi=10.1007/s10531-010-9815-z|bibcode=2010BiCon..19.1009R |issn=1572-9710|hdl=20.500.11850/16972|s2cid=23735927|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/313087/files/10531_2010_Article_9815.pdf |hdl-access=free}}

However, in some cases, land has been developed by oil palm plantations without consultation or compensation of the Indigenous Peoples occupying the land. This has occurred in Papua New Guinea, Colombia,{{Cite web |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004BE3B1/(httpInfoFiles)/B3EE02C81FE75923C125738A003536C9/$file/Colombia_press_release_nov07.pdf |title=Palm oil cultivation for biofuel blocks return of displaced people in Colombia |publisher=iDMC |access-date=2007-11-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127055013/http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004BE3B1/(httpInfoFiles)/B3EE02C81FE75923C125738A003536C9/$file/Colombia_press_release_nov07.pdf |archive-date=2007-11-27 }} and Indonesia. In the Sarawak state of Malaysian Borneo, there has been debate over whether there was an appropriate level of consultation with the Long Teran Kanan community prior to the development of local land for palm oil plantations.{{cite news |title=Free, Prior and Informed Consent in the Palm Oil Sector - Sarawak: IOI-Pelita and the community of Long Teran Kanan |last1=Colchester |first1=Marcus |last2=Jalong |first2=Thomas |last3= Meng Chuo |first3=Wong |url=http://www.forestpeoples.org/topics/palm-oil-rspo/publication/2012/free-prior-and-informed-consent-palm-oil-sector-sarawak-ioi-pe |newspaper=Forest Peoples Program |date=2 October 2012 |access-date=4 January 2013}} Appropriation of native lands has led to conflict between the plantations and local residents in each of these countries.

According to a 2008 report by NGOs including Friends of the Earth, palm oil companies have also reportedly used force to acquire land from Indigenous communities in Indonesia.{{cite news |title="Losing Ground" - report on indigenous communities and oil palm development from LifeMosaic, Sawit Watch and Friends of the Earth |url=http://www.forestpeoples.org/topics/palm-oil-rspo/publication/2012/losing-ground-report-indigenous-communities-and-oil-palm-devel |newspaper=Forest Peoples Programme |date=28 February 2008 |access-date=4 January 2013}} Additionally, some Indonesian oil palm plantations are dependent on imported labor or undocumented immigrants, which has raised concerns about the working conditions and social impacts of these practices.{{Cite web| url = http://environment.yale.edu/tfd/uploads/ghosts_on_our_own_land_txt_06_eng.pdf| title = Ghosts on our Own Land: Indonesian Oil Palm Smallholders and the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm| publisher = Forest Peoples Programme| access-date = 2012-10-20| archive-date = 2010-07-12| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100712222251/http://environment.yale.edu/tfd/uploads/ghosts_on_our_own_land_txt_06_eng.pdf| url-status = dead}} Issues regarding the exploitation of child labor have also been a major concern.{{Cite web|title='We gave our sweat and blood': Palm oil workers cite child labour, slavery and rape|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/7355279/palm-oil-forced-labour-top-brands-banks/|access-date=2021-02-16|website=Global News|language=en-US}}

The production of palm oil requires intensive deforestation and this has led to a gradual loss of flora and fauna in the areas where land is cleared for the cultivation of palm oil.{{Cite journal|last1=Wilcove|first1=David S.|last2=Koh|first2=Lian Pin|date=2010-04-01|title=Addressing the threats to biodiversity from oil-palm agriculture|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|language=en|volume=19|issue=4|pages=999–1007|doi=10.1007/s10531-009-9760-x|bibcode=2010BiCon..19..999W |s2cid=10728423|issn=1572-9710}} Tropical rainforests in countries including Malaysia and Indonesia have been the most ideal countries to have large palm oil plantations as they provide the most suitable climate with ample rainfall and sunshine throughout the year.{{Cite web|url=https://www.cabdirect.org/?target=%2fcabdirect%2fabstract%2f19940304579|title=The effects of season, rainfall and cycle on oil palm yield in Malaysia.|last=Chow|first=C. S.|website=www.cabdirect.org|access-date=2020-03-16}} Between the years 1990 and 2005, the total land in Malaysia used for palm oil cultivation increased by 2.4 million ha and reached 4.2 million ha.{{Cite journal|last1=Fitzherbert|first1=Emily B.|last2=Struebig|first2=Matthew J.|last3=Morel|first3=Alexandra|last4=Danielsen|first4=Finn|last5=Brühl|first5=Carsten A.|last6=Donald|first6=Paul F.|last7=Phalan|first7=Ben|date=2008-10-01|title=How will oil palm expansion affect biodiversity?|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534708002528|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|language=en|volume=23|issue=10|pages=538–545|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2008.06.012|pmid=18775582|bibcode=2008TEcoE..23..538F |issn=0169-5347}} During that period, over 1.1 million ha of tropical rainforest was lost. The diverse biodiversity that each rainforest possesses has been diminishing at a rapid rate as fauna is often very fragile and easily affected by deforestation.{{Cite journal|last1=Koh|first1=Lian Pin|last2=Wilcove|first2=David S.|date=2008|title=Is oil palm agriculture really destroying tropical biodiversity?|journal=Conservation Letters|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=60–64|doi=10.1111/j.1755-263X.2008.00011.x|issn=1755-263X|doi-access=free|bibcode=2008ConL....1...60K }} Animal wildlife has been most affected in areas where significant amounts of land, for commercial palm oil purposes, have been cleared to allow the trees to be planted.{{Cite journal|last1=Edwards|first1=David P.|last2=Hodgson|first2=Jenny A.|last3=Hamer|first3=Keith C.|last4=Mitchell|first4=Simon L.|last5=Ahmad|first5=Abdul H.|last6=Cornell|first6=Stephen J.|last7=Wilcove|first7=David S.|date=2010|title=Wildlife-friendly oil palm plantations fail to protect biodiversity effectively|journal=Conservation Letters|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=236–242|doi=10.1111/j.1755-263X.2010.00107.x|bibcode=2010ConL....3..236E |s2cid=54734376 |issn=1755-263X}} Animals have been forced to relocate and have increasingly come into contact with humans as they have started to roam around the surrounding villages in search for food.{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/palm-oil-and-biodiversity|title=Palm oil and biodiversity|date=2018-06-26|website=IUCN|language=en|access-date=2020-03-16}} Some animals have not been able to adapt and relocate elsewhere, leading to their populations decreasing significantly and this has disrupted the symbiotic relationships that the flora and fauna have with their habitat. Deforestation negatively affects biodiversity when forests are converted into plantations and leaves relatively low species richness in primary forests compared to undisturbed forests. One species of particular concern is the critically endangered Bornean orangutan. A notable study in 2018 showed that from 1999 to 2015, over 100,000 orangutans were lost due to unsustainable natural resource exploitation (including the palm oil industry). This number was obtained by tracking the number of nests over this 16 year study period. Results show that nests declined from 22.5 nests per kilometer at the start of the study, to 10.1 nests per kilometer by the end of the study.{{Cite journal|last1=Voigt|first1=Maria|last2=Wich|first2=Serge A.|last3=Ancrenaz|first3=Marc|last4=Meijaard|first4=Erik|last5=Abram|first5=Nicola|last6=Banes|first6=Graham L.|last7=Campbell-Smith|first7=Gail|last8=d’Arcy|first8=Laura J.|last9=Delgado|first9=Roberto A.|last10=Erman|first10=Andi|last11=Gaveau|first11=David|date=March 5, 2018|title=Global Demand for Natural Resources Eliminated More Than 100,000 Bornean Orangutans|journal=Current Biology|volume=28|issue=5|pages=761–769.e5|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2018.01.053|pmid=29456144|s2cid=3756682|issn=0960-9822|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018CBio...28E.761V }} On the other hand E. guineensis cultivation also helps to push species invasions further, e.g. Anoplolepis gracilipes in southeast Asia.{{cite journal | last1=Malhi | first1=Yadvinder | last2=Gardner | first2=Toby A. | last3=Goldsmith | first3=Gregory R. | last4=Silman | first4=Miles R. | last5=Zelazowski | first5=Przemyslaw | title=Tropical Forests in the Anthropocene | journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources | publisher=Annual Reviews | volume=39 | issue=1 | date=2014-10-17 | issn=1543-5938 | doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-030713-155141 | pages=125–159| doi-access=free }} Biodiversity suffers in almost all taxa {{endash}} Room 1975 and Fayle et al 2010 find so for ants, Danielsen and Heegaard 1995 for bats and primates, Liow et al 2001 for bees, Chung et al 2000 for beetles, Peh et al 2006 for birds, Davis and Philips 2005 for dung beetles, Hassall et al 2006 for isopods, Glor et al 2001 for lizards, Chang et al 1997 for mosquitoes, Chey 2006 for moths, and Bernard et al 2009 for small mammals.{{cite journal | last1=Foster | first1=William A. | last2=Snaddon | first2=Jake L. | last3=Turner | first3=Edgar C. | last4=Fayle | first4=Tom M. | last5=Cockerill | first5=Timothy D. | last6=Ellwood | first6=M. D. Farnon | last7=Broad | first7=Gavin R. | last8=Chung | first8=Arthur Y. C. | last9=Eggleton | first9=Paul | last10=Khen | first10=Chey Vun | last11=Yusah | first11=Kalsum M. | title=Establishing the evidence base for maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem function in the oil palm landscapes of South East Asia | journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | publisher=The Royal Society | volume=366 | issue=1582 | date=2011-11-27 | issn=0962-8436 | doi=10.1098/rstb.2011.0041 | pages=3277–3291| pmid=22006968 | pmc=3179631 }} Almost all taxa also suffer loss of abundance but there are exceptions, species which increase abundance but still lose species richness {{endash}} Davis and Philips 2005 find so in dung beetles, Hassall et al 2006 in isopods, Glor et al 2001 in lizards and Danielsen and Heegaard 1995 in bats. The very unusual exception is bees, which Liow et al 2001 find lose abundance but gain species diversity in oil palm.

The process of removing existing flora and planting palm oil trees is detrimental for the quality of the soil in the ground.{{Cite journal|last1=Khatun|first1=Rahima|last2=Reza|first2=Mohammad Imam Hasan|last3=Moniruzzaman|first3=M.|last4=Yaakob|first4=Zahira|date=2017-09-01|title=Sustainable oil palm industry: The possibilities|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032117304203|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|language=en|volume=76|pages=608–619|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.077|bibcode=2017RSERv..76..608K |issn=1364-0321}} When the existing flora is removed to make way for the new plants, the soil surrounding it is often eroded away.{{Cite journal|last=Hartemink|first=Alfred E.|title=Soil Erosion: Perennial Crop Plantations|journal=ISRIC–World Soil Information, Wageningen, the Netherlands}} When palm oil trees are planted, large amounts of fertilisers and pesticides are used to ensure rapid growth and the health of each tree.{{Cite journal|last1=Moser|first1=Stefan|last2=Mußhoff|first2=Oliver|date=2016|title=Ex-ante Evaluation of Policy Measures: Effects of Reward and Punishment for Fertiliser Reduction in Palm Oil Production|journal=Journal of Agricultural Economics|language=en|volume=67|issue=1|pages=84–104|doi=10.1111/1477-9552.12114|issn=1477-9552|hdl=10.1111/1477-9552.12114|hdl-access=free}} Younger palm oil trees absorb more valuable nutrients from the soil which degrades the quality of the soil.{{Cite journal|last1=Nkongho|first1=Raymond N.|last2=Feintrenie|first2=Laurène|last3=Levang|first3=Patrice|date=2014-03-01|title=Strengths and weaknesses of the smallholder oil palm sector in Cameroon|url=https://www.ocl-journal.org/articles/ocl/abs/2014/02/ocl130024/ocl130024.html|journal=OCL|language=en|volume=21|issue=2|pages=D208|doi=10.1051/ocl/2013043|issn=2257-6614|doi-access=free}} As the nutrients are absorbed by the young trees, there is a depletion in nutrients and consequently, there is a lower level of remaining nutrients for other trees.{{Cite journal|url=https://jopeh.com.my/index.php/jopecommon/article/view/39|title=Soil nutrient changes in Ultisols under oil palm in Johor, Malaysia {{!}} Kah Joo Goh {{!}} Journal of Oil Palm, Environment and Health (JOPEH)|website=jopeh.com.my|date=5 March 2012 |access-date=2020-03-16}} This problem is also another cause for the increased use of fertilisers during the palm oil production process. Distances between adjacent palm oil trees in plantations have also been designed to be very close in order to optimise use of the limited space available.{{Cite journal|last=McCarthy|first=John F.|date=2012-11-01|title=Certifying in Contested Spaces: private regulation in Indonesian forestry and palm oil|journal=Third World Quarterly|volume=33|issue=10|pages=1871–1888|doi=10.1080/01436597.2012.729721|s2cid=155041814|issn=0143-6597}} This has further impacted soil quality because as the trees grow, they require more minerals and water from the soil. Due to the close distances between trees, there is a limited supply of nutrients that the trees can depend on which leads to the plantation workers supplying the trees with higher amounts of fertilisers, pesticides and water.{{Cite journal|last1=Foong|first1=Steve Z. Y.|last2=Goh|first2=Carmen K. M.|last3=Supramaniam|first3=Christina V.|last4=Ng|first4=Denny K. S.|date=2019-01-01|title=Input–output optimisation model for sustainable oil palm plantation development|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352550918301209|journal=Sustainable Production and Consumption|language=en|volume=17|pages=31–46|doi=10.1016/j.spc.2018.08.010|bibcode=2019SusPC..17...31F |s2cid=134054489 |issn=2352-5509}} This process further harms the state of the soil and makes it challenging for existing flora and fauna to survive in the area.{{Cite journal|last1=Tarmizi|first1=A M|last2=Mohd Tayeb|first2=D|title=Nutrient Demands Of Tenera Oil Palm Planted On Inland Soils Of Malaysia|journal=Journal of Oil Palm Research|volume=18|pages=204–209|s2cid=73527301}} Tuma et al 2019 find replacement of forest with oil palm plantations reduces the number of bioturbator species, although not the actual volume of bioturbation performed.{{cite journal | last=Eggleton | first=Paul | title=The State of the World's Insects | journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources | publisher=Annual Reviews | volume=45 | issue=1 | date=2020-10-17 | issn=1543-5938 | doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-050035 | pages=61–82| s2cid=219736181 | doi-access=free }}

In tropical countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia, where a majority of palm oil plantations are located,{{Cite web|url=https://greenpalm.org/about-palm-oil/where-is-palm-oil-grown-2|title=GreenPalm :: Which countries grow and produce palm oil?|website=greenpalm.org|access-date=2020-03-16|archive-date=2022-03-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310225944/https://greenpalm.org/about-palm-oil/where-is-palm-oil-grown-2|url-status=dead}} there are continual rain showers and sun exposure throughout the day. Palm oil plantations that are geographically located close to rivers have exacerbated impacts on surrounding local communities. This is due to the increased use of fertilisers and pesticides which has led to higher amounts of both being washed away by the frequent rain into rivers.{{Cite journal|last1=Rulli|first1=Maria Cristina|last2=Casirati|first2=Stefano|last3=Dell’Angelo|first3=Jampel|last4=Davis|first4=Kyle Frankel|last5=Passera|first5=Corrado|last6=D’Odorico|first6=Paolo|date=2019-05-01|title=Interdependencies and telecoupling of oil palm expansion at the expense of Indonesian rainforest|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032118308529|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|language=en|volume=105|pages=499–512|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2018.12.050|bibcode=2019RSERv.105..499R |issn=1364-0321|hdl=11311/1084107|s2cid=117698015 |hdl-access=free}} This is an issue because rivers are central to the daily lives of local villagers.{{Cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/the-human-cost-of-palm-oil-development-121505|title=The human cost of palm oil development|last=Tømte|first=Aksel|website=The Conversation|date=11 September 2019 |language=en|access-date=2020-03-16}} They use water from the river for personal consumption and also use the river as a source of food, which makes them vulnerable to the residue from fertilisers and pesticides.{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cifor.org/library/3771/|title=The local impacts of oil palm expansion in Malaysia; An assessment based on a case study in Sabah State|last1=Dayang Norwana|first1=A. a. B.|last2=Kanjappan|first2=R.|date=2011|website=Working Paper|language=en|access-date=2020-03-16|last3=Chin|first3=M.|last4=Schoneveld|first4=G. C.|last5=Potter|first5=L.|last6=Andriani|first6=R.|doi=10.17528/cifor/003771 |doi-access=free}} The untreated water that the local villagers are exposed to can potentially cause detrimental health effects, including diseases such as cholera, E. coli and lead poisoning.{{Cite journal|last1=Walter|first1=A|last2=Wagai|first2=Samuel|last3=Arama|first3=Peter|last4=Ogur|first4=Joseph|date=2011|title=Antibacterial activity of Moringa oleifera and Moringa stenopetala methanol and n-hexane seed extracts on bacteria implicated in water borne diseases|journal=African Journal of Microbiology Research|s2cid=53500935}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.health.state.mn.us/communities/environment/risk/studies/metals.html|title=Heavy Metals in Fertilizers - EH: Minnesota Department of Health|website=www.health.state.mn.us|access-date=2020-03-17}}

The damage from soil erosion and poor soil quality has also affected the livelihoods of many local villagers that live close to these palm oil plantations as they can no longer depend solely on their land for the cultivation of food and timber.{{Cite journal|last1=Afandi|first1=A M|last2=Zuraidah|first2=Y|last3=Nurzuhaili|first3=H A Z A|last4=Zulkifli|first4=H|last5=Yaqin|title=Managing Soil Deterioration and Erosion under Oil Palm|journal=Oil Palm Bulletin|year=2018 |volume=75|pages=1–10|s2cid=195177630}} Local villagers are now inclined to find new sources of food and materials for shelter. As a result, local villagers have been indirectly forced to move out and relocate depending on the extent of the loss of the plants and animals native to the area.{{Cite journal|last=McElwee|first=Pamela D.|date=2006|title=Displacement and Relocation Redux: Stories from Southeast Asia|journal=Conservation and Society|volume=4|issue=3|pages=396–403|jstor=26396616|issn=0972-4923}} This has led to economic complications as governments now need to reallocate their resources to support these typically marginalised communities.

File:Mapa distribuicao pongo abelii.png in Indonesia]]

File:Orang-utan bukit lawang 2006.jpg, Indonesia]]

In Indonesia, rising demand for palm oil and timber has led to the clearing of tropical forest land in Indonesian national parks. According to a 2007 report published by UNEP, at the rate of deforestation at that time, an estimated 98 percent of Indonesian forest would be destroyed by 2022 due to legal and illegal logging, forest fires and the development of palm oil plantations.

Malaysia, the second largest producer of palm oil has pledged to conserve a minimum of 50 percent of its total land area as forests. As of 2010, 58 percent of Malaysia was forested.{{cite news |title=Malaysia Has Little Room for Expanding Palm-Oil Production, Minister Says |last1=Morales |first1=Alex |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-11-18/malaysia-has-little-room-for-palm-oil-expansion-plantation-minister-says.html |newspaper=Bloomberg |date=18 November 2010 |access-date=10 October 2012}}

Palm oil cultivation has been criticised for:

• Greenhouse gas emissions. Deforestation in tropical areas accounts for an estimated 10 percent of manmade CO2 emissions, and is a driver toward dangerous climate change.{{cite news |title=Deforestation Emissions May Be a Third of Prior Estimates |last1=Doom |first1=Justing |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-06-21/deforestation-emissions-may-be-a-third-of-prior-estimates.html |newspaper=Bloomberg |date=21 June 2012 |access-date=10 October 2012}}
• Habitat destruction, leading to the demise of critically endangered species (e.g. the Sumatran elephant, Sumatran tiger,{{Cite web|url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-indonesia-tiger-catchers-030109-2009mar01-story.html|title=Indonesian tiger catchers race against time|date=2009-03-02|website=San Diego Union-Tribune|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-17}} the Sumatran rhinoceros,{{cite web | url=http://www.rhinos-irf.org/torgamba/ | title=Torgamba's Story | publisher=International Rhino Foundation | access-date=2007-12-11

}} and the Sumatran orangutan).{{cite web |url=http://www.grida.no/_documents/orangutan/full_orangutanreport.pdf |title=The Last Stand of The Orangutan |editor-last=Nellemann |editor-first=Christian |date=6 February 2007 |work=grida.no |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |access-date=16 October 2012 |archive-date=13 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413233818/http://www.grida.no/_documents/orangutan/full_orangutanreport.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{cite web

| url=http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/reports/oil_for_ape_summary.pdf | title=The Oil for Ape Scandal: How Palm Oil is Threatening the Orang-utan | publisher=Friends of the Earth | access-date=2007-09-29| author=Helen Buckland}}{{Cite iucn | author=Ancrenaz, M.|author2= Gumal, M.|author3= Marshall, A.J.|author4= Meijaard, E.|author5= Wich , S.A. |author6= Husson, S. |name-list-style=amp |year=2023 |title= Pongo pygmaeus |amends= 2016 |page= e.T17975A247631797 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T17975A247631797.en |access-date=27 April 2024}}{{Cite iucn | author= Singleton, I.|author2= Wich , S.A.|author3= Nowak, M.|author4= Usher, G. |author5= Utami-Atmoko, S.S. |name-list-style=amp |year= 2023 |title= Pongo abelii |amends= 2017 |page= e.T121097935A247631244 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T121097935A247631244.en |access-date=27 April 2024}}

• Reduced biodiversity, including damage to biodiversity hotspots.{{cite web|url=http://www.cspinet.org/palm/PalmOilReport.pdf|title=Cruel Oil. How Palm oil Harms Health, Rainforest & Wildlife|last1=Brown|first1=Ellie|last2=Jacobson|first2=Michael F.|date=May 2005|publisher=Center for Science in the Public Interest}}[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/sundaland/Pages/default.aspx Conservation International: Biodiversity Hotspots]
• Cultivating crops on land that belongs to indigenous people in the Sarawak and Kalimantan states on the island of Borneo and the Malaysian state of Sabah.{{Cite web|url=http://www.forestpeoples.org/en/topics/palm-oil-rspo/publication/2010/land-life-land-rights-and-oil-palm-development-sarawak|title=Land is life: Land rights and oil palm development in Sarawak {{!}} Forest Peoples Programme|last1=Colchester|first1=Marcus|last2=Wee|first2=Aik Pang|website=www.forestpeoples.org|access-date=2020-03-17|last3=Wong|first3=Meng Chuo|last4=Jalong|first4=Thomas}}{{cite news |title=Indigenous community forcibly evicted for palm oil in Indonesian Borneo |url=http://news.mongabay.com/2011/1101-muara_tae.html |newspaper=Mongabay.com |date=1 November 2011 |access-date=10 October 2012}}
• The increase in outbreaks of zoonotic diseases is linked with deforestation in tropical countries.{{Cite journal|last1=Morand|first1=Serge|last2=Lajaunie|first2=Claire|date=2021|title=Outbreaks of Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases Are Associated With Changes in Forest Cover and Oil Palm Expansion at Global Scale|journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science|language=English|volume=8|page=661063|doi=10.3389/fvets.2021.661063|pmid=33842581|pmc=8024476|issn=2297-1769|doi-access=free}}

{{main|Water pollution}}

In some states where oil palm is established, lax enforcement of environmental legislation leads to encroachment of plantations into riparian strips,{{Cite web| url = http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1001069/cut_down_oil_palm_on_river_banks_plantations_warned/index.html | title = Cut Down Oil Palm on River Banks, Plantations Warned | date = 15 July 2007 | publisher = New Straits Times | access-date= 2007-12-01}} and release of pollutants such as palm oil mill effluent (POME) into the environment. POME is a waste product created during the final stages of palm oil extraction. The process of waste management can be highly difficult and costly. As a result, one common method of disposal involves discharge into nearby water reservoirs.{{Cite journal|last1=Osman|first1=Nurul Atiqah|last2=Ujang|first2=Farhana Aziz|last3=Roslan|first3=Ahmad Muhaimin|last4=Ibrahim|first4=Mohamad Faizal|last5=Hassan|first5=Mohd Ali|date=2020-04-20|title=The effect of Palm Oil Mill Effluent Final Discharge on the Characteristics of Pennisetum purpureum|url= |journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=6613|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-62815-0|issn=2045-2322|pmc=7171106|pmid=32313095|bibcode=2020NatSR..10.6613O }} POME contains high nutrient concentrations and can foster the growth of algae blooms, which deplete oxygen levels and can have negative implications for aquatic life, and consequently alter ecosystems.{{Cite journal|last1=Todd|first1=Peter A.|last2=Ong|first2=Xueyuan|last3=Chou|first3=Loke Ming|date=2010-04-01|title=Impacts of pollution on marine life in Southeast Asia|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-010-9778-0|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|language=en|volume=19|issue=4|pages=1063–1082|doi=10.1007/s10531-010-9778-0|bibcode=2010BiCon..19.1063T |s2cid=21207378|issn=1572-9710}}{{Cite journal|last1=Nur|first1=Muhamad Maulana Azimatun|last2=Swaminathan|first2=Manasveni Kilnagar|last3=Boelen|first3=P.|last4=Buma|first4=A. G. J.|date=2019-08-01|title=Sulfated exopolysaccharide production and nutrient removal by the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum growing on palm oil mill effluent|journal=Journal of Applied Phycology|language=en|volume=31|issue=4|pages=2335–2348|doi=10.1007/s10811-019-01780-2|s2cid=80628088|issn=1573-5176|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019JAPco..31.2335N }}

More environment-friendly practices have been developed.{{Cite web | url = http://www.sabah.gov.my/jpas/programs/ecd-cab/technical/OP211100.pdf | title = Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Guidelines for Oil Palm Plantation Development | access-date = 2007-11-29 | archive-date = 2008-02-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080227150606/http://www.sabah.gov.my/jpas/programs/ecd-cab/technical/OP211100.pdf | url-status = dead }}{{Cite web| url = http://www.rspo.org/default.aspx | title = Promoting the Growth and Use of Sustainable Palm Oil | publisher = RSPO | access-date= 2007-12-01 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070706035506/http://www.rspo.org/default.aspx |archive-date = 2007-07-06}} Among those approaches is anaerobic treatment of POME, which might allow for biogas (methane) production and electricity generation, but it is very difficult to maintain optimum growth conditions for the anaerobic organisms that break down acetate to methane (primarily Methanosaeta concilii, a species of Archaea).[http://www.ejbiotechnology.info/content/vol12/issue3/full/4/4.pdf PCR-Based DGGE and FISH Analysis of Methanogens in Anaerobic Closed Digester Tank Treating Palm Oil Mill Effluent.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808214403/http://www.ejbiotechnology.info/content/vol12/issue3/full/4/4.pdf |date=2017-08-08 }} Meisam Tabatabaei, Mohd Rafein Zakaria, Raha Abdul Rahim, André-Denis G. Wright, Yoshihito Shirai, Norhani Abdullah, Kenji Sakai, Shinya Ikeno, Masatsugu Mori, Nakamura Kazunori, Alawi Sulaiman and Mohd Ali Hassan, 2009, Electronic Journal of Biotechnology, Vol.12 No.3, Issue of 15 July 2009, {{ISSN|0717-3458}}

Damage to peatland, partly due to palm oil production, is claimed to contribute to environmental degradation, including four percent of global greenhouse gas emissions[http://www.greenpeace.org/international/news/palm-oil_cooking-the-climate Cooking the Climate] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100410195818/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/news/palm-oil_cooking-the-climate |date=2010-04-10 }} Greenpeace UK Report, November 15, 2007 and eight percent of all global emissions caused annually by burning fossil fuels,

[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/31/business/worldbusiness/31biofuel.html?pagewanted=1&ei=5088&en=e653a375e67e8e49&ex=1327899600&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss Once a Dream, Palm Oil May Be an Eco-Nightmare] The New York Times, January 31, 2007 due to the clearing of large areas of rainforest for palm oil plantations. Many Indonesian and Malaysian rainforests lie atop peat bogs that store great quantities of carbon. Forest removal and bog drainage to make way for plantations releases this carbon. A study reveals that the conversion of peatlands contributes between 16.6 and 27.9 percent of total greenhouse gas emissions from Malaysia and Indonesia combined.{{Cite journal|last1=Cooper|first1=Hannah V.|last2=Evers|first2=Stephanie|last3=Aplin|first3=Paul|last4=Crout|first4=Neil|last5=Dahalan|first5=Mohd Puat Bin|last6=Sjogersten|first6=Sofie|date=2020-01-21|title=Greenhouse gas emissions resulting from conversion of peat swamp forest to oil palm plantation|url= |journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=407|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-14298-w|issn=2041-1723|pmc=6972824|pmid=31964892|bibcode=2020NatCo..11..407C }} The process of draining peatlands and the growth of young palms results in 50 percent greater greenhouse gas emissions when compared to mature plantations. This is a growing concern among ecologists and environmentalists as more tropical peatlands are being converted into plantations due to land shortage, in order to meet the increasing demand for palm oil.{{Cite journal|last=Mutsaers|first=H. J. W.|date=2019-07-01|title=The challenge of the oil palm: Using degraded land for its cultivation|journal=Outlook on Agriculture|volume=48|issue=3|pages=190–197|language=en|doi=10.1177/0030727019858720|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019OutAg..48..190M }}

Researchers are looking for possible, more environmentally friendly, solutions and ways to help the situation and have suggested that if enough land is conserved and there remain large enough areas of primary forest reserves, the effects of the palm oil industry may not have as much of an impact on wildlife and biodiversity. Environmental groups like Greenpeace, the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, and Amnesty International are also taking part in advocating bans on unsustainable palm oil crops and the companies that purchase these exports.

Environmental groups such as Greenpeace claim that this deforestation produces far more emissions than biofuels remove.

Land Clearing and the Biofuel Carbon Debt.

Joseph Fargione, Jason Hill, David Tilman, Stephen Polasky, and Peter Hawthorne.

Published online 7 February 2008 {{doi|10.1126/science.1152747}} (in Science Express Reports)

Environment, the National Science Foundation DEB0620652, Princeton Environmental Institute, and the Bush Foundation. We thank T. Searchinger for valuable comments and insights, and J. Herkert for providing references. Supporting Online Material www.sciencemag.org.Abstract Supporting Online Material.{{

cite web

| title = Palm oil: Cooking the Climate

| publisher = Greenpeace

| date = 2007-11-08

| url = http://www.greenpeace.org/international/news/palm-oil_cooking-the-climate

| access-date = 2007-12-02 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071110170852/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/news/palm-oil_cooking-the-climate |archive-date = 2007-11-10}} Greenpeace identified Indonesian peatlands—unique tropical forests whose dense soil can be burned to release carbon emissions—which are being destroyed to make way for palm oil plantations. Greenpeace argues the peatlands represent massive carbon sinks, and they claim the destruction already accounts for four percent of annual global CO₂ emissions. However, according to the Tropical Peat Research Laboratory, at least one measurement has shown that oil palm plantations are carbon sinks because oil palms convert carbon dioxide into oxygen just as other trees do,{{cite news |title=The truth about oil palms and carbon sinks |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-186087678.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511104520/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-186087678.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 May 2013 |newspaper=New Straits Times |date=7 November 2010 |access-date=7 January 2013}} and, as reported in Malaysia's Second National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, oil palm plantations contribute to Malaysia's net carbon sink.{{Cite report |title=Malaysia: Second National Communication to the UNFCCC |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/malnc2.pdf |publisher=Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Malaysia |access-date=7 January 2013}}{{citation needed|reason=where does it say that? A page number would be helpful|date=February 2013}}

Greenpeace recorded peatland destruction in the Indonesian province of Riau on the island of Sumatra, home to 25 percent of Indonesia's palm oil plantations. Greenpeace claims this would have devastating consequences for Riau's peatlands, which have already been degraded by industrial development and store a massive 14.6 billion tonnes of carbon, roughly one year's greenhouse gas emissions.{{Cite web|url=http://www.greenpeace.org/seasia/ph/press/releases/greenpeace-hands-over-forest-d/|title=Greenpeace hands over Forest Defenders Camp in Riau to community, allies|website=Greenpeace Philippines|language=en-PH|access-date=2019-05-02}}

Environmentalists and conservationists have been called upon to team up with palm oil companies to purchase small tracts of existing palm plantation, so they can use the profits to create privately owned nature reserves.{{cite journal|title=Cashing in palm oil for conservation|journal=Nature|year=2007|author=Lian Pin Koh and David S. Wilcove|volume=448|issue=7157|pages=993–994|doi=10.1038/448993a|pmid=17728739|bibcode=2007Natur.448..993K|s2cid=4399026}} It has been suggested that this is a more productive strategy than the current confrontational approach that threatens the livelihoods of millions of smallholders.

[http://news.mongabay.com/2007/0829-palm_oil.html NGOs should use palm oil to drive conservation] Rhett A. Butler, Mongabay, 29 August 2007

{{Main|Southeast Asian haze}}

File:Haze in Kuala Lumpur.jpg in Kuala Lumpur. Southeast Asian haze is a recurrent issue linked to land clearing for palm oil and pulpwood.]]

Haze, a form of air pollution, is a major recurrent issue across Southeast Asia, partly linked to burning of rainforest and peat swamp forest to clear land for palm oil plantations.{{Cite web|last=Mayberry|first=Kate|title=Southeast Asia struggles to tackle haze despite long-term dangers|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/7/southeast-asia-struggles-to-tackle-haze-despite-long-term-dangers|access-date=2021-11-29|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}

File:Perkebunan kelapa sawit milik rakyat (12).JPG

{{Main|Palm oil production in Indonesia|Palm oil production in Malaysia}}

In the two countries responsible for over 80% of world oil palm production, Indonesia and Malaysia, smallholders account for 35–40% of the total area of planted oil palm and as much as 33% of the output. Elsewhere, as in West African countries that produce mainly for domestic and regional markets, smallholders produce up to 90% of the annual harvest.[http://www.iied.org/pubs/display.php?o=13533IIED Vermeulen and Goad. 2006. Towards better practice in smallholder palm oil production. IIED]

As a result of Malaysia's commitment to retain natural forest cover on at least 50% of the nation's land, the growth of new palm oil plantations has slowed in recent years. According to Malaysia's Plantation Industries and Commodities Minister Bernard Dompok, significant expansion of palm oil is no longer possible, therefore Malaysian farmers are now focusing on increasing production without expansion.

In January 2008, the CEO of the Malaysian Palm Oil Council wrote a letter to the Wall Street Journal stating that Malaysia was aware of the need to pursue a sustainable palm oil industry.[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB120122705116215667 Malaysian Palm Trees Are Fine and Green, Too]. January 25, 2008. OP-ED letter from the CEO of the Malaysian Palm Oil Council, WSJ online Since then the Malaysian government, along with palm oil companies, have increased production of certified sustainable palm oil (CSPO). Malaysia has been recognized by the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil as the largest producer of CSPO, producing 50% of the world's supply,{{cite news |title=RSPO names Malaysia as world's largest producer of sustainable palm oil |last1=McDougall |first1=Andrew |url=http://www.cosmeticsdesign-asia.com/Formulation-Science/RSPO-names-Malaysia-as-world-s-largest-producer-of-sustainable-palm-oil |newspaper=Cosmetics Design |date=22 June 2011 |access-date=10 October 2012}} and accounting for 40% of CSPO growers worldwide.{{cite news |title=Sustainable plam oil is good for business WWF study |url=http://www.wwf.org.my/media_and_information/newsroom_main/?uNewsID=13940 |newspaper=World Wildlife Federation |date=10 April 2012 |access-date=10 October 2012}} Indonesia produces 35% of the world's CSPO.{{cite news |title=Malaysia expected to maintain position as world's largest producer of Certified Sustainable Palm Oil |last1=Sarif |first1=Edy |url=http://biz.thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2011/6/17/business/8916226&sec=business |newspaper=The Malaysian Star |date=17 June 2011 |access-date=10 October 2012}}

In Indonesia, the Indigenous Peoples' Alliance of the Archipelago (AMAN) under the direction of Mina Susana Setra has fought for policies that find balance between economic need and indigenous people's rights. 99% of the palm oil concessions in the country concern land that is occupied by indigenous people.{{cite news|last1=Eshelman|first1=Robert S.|title=Indonesian government's concession policy prioritizes companies over forest communities|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2014/1103-sri-eshelman-indonesia-industrial-concessions.html|access-date=31 March 2015|publisher=Mongabay|date=November 3, 2014}} In 2012, AMAN led an advocacy team which won a Constitutional Court case recognizing customary land rights;{{cite news|last1=Media|first1=Tim|title=Mina Setra Wakili Regio Kalimantan|url=http://dkn.or.id/en/2014/05/08/mina-setra-wakili-regio-kalimantan/|access-date=31 March 2015|publisher=Dewan Kehutanan Nasional|date=May 8, 2014|language=id}} however, implementation of programs that protect indigenous rights, the environment and developers have failed to come to fruition except in limited cases.

In Africa, the situation is very different compared to Indonesia or Malaysia. In its Human Development Report 2007-2008, the United Nations Development Program says production of palm oil in West Africa is largely sustainable, mainly because it is undertaken on a smallholder level without resorting to diversity-damaging monoculture. The United Nations Food and Agriculture program is encouraging small farmers across Africa to grow palm oil, because the crop offers opportunities to improve livelihoods and incomes for the poor.

[http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Chapter3.pdf Human Development Report 2007 – 2008, Chapter III: Avoiding dangerous climate change: strategies for mitigation] United Nations Development Program

Food and cosmetics companies, including ADM, Unilever, Cargill, Procter & Gamble, Nestlé, Kraft and Burger King, are driving the demand for new palm oil supplies,

[https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/research/how-the-palm-oil-industry-is-c/ How the palm oil industry is Cooking the Climate] Greenpeace November 2007 demand was partly driven by a need for a replacement for high trans fat content oils.

[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304125555/https://www.reuters.com/article/grains-meeting-transfat-idUSN0318207820070303/ US soyoil, low in trans fat, faces palm threat], Reuters, 3 March 2007

Although palm oil is used in the production of biofuels and proposals have been made to use it in large installations,{{cite web|url=http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/press_releases/burning_palm_oil_fuels_cli_23082006.html|title=Burning palm oil fuels climate change|publisher=Friends of the Earth|date=Aug 23, 2006}} a 2012 report by the International Food Policy Research Institute concluded that the increase in palm oil production is related to food demands, not biofuel demands.{{Cite report |last1= Saunders |first1=Daniel J. |last2=Balagtas |first2=Joseph V. |last3=Gruere |first3=Guillaume |date=March 2012 |title=Revisiting the Palm Oil Boom in Southeast Asia |url=http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp01167.pdf |publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute |access-date=11 October 2012}}

Biodiesel made from palm oil grown on sustainable non-forest land and from established plantations reduces greenhouse gas emissions.{{cite web |url=http://www.csiro.au/resources/pf13o.html |title=The greenhouse and air quality emissions of biodiesel blends in Australia |date=26 November 2007 |work=csiro.au |publisher=The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation |access-date=16 October 2012}} According to Greenpeace, clearing peatland to plant oil palms releases large amounts of greenhouse gasses, and that biodiesel produced from oil palms grown on this land may not result in a net reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.{{cite web |url=http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/forests/faq-palm-oil-forests-and-climate-change |title=FAQ: Palm oil, forests and climate change |work=greenpeace.org.uk |publisher=Greenpeace UK |access-date=16 October 2012 |archive-date=24 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170624050456/http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/forests/faq-palm-oil-forests-and-climate-change |url-status=dead }} However, research by Malaysia's Tropical Peat Research Unit has found that oil palm plantations developed on peatland produce lower carbon dioxide emissions than forest peat swamp. However, it has been suggested that this research unit was commissioned by politicians who have interests in the palm oil industry.{{cite news |title=Less carbon dioxide from oil palm estates |author=Jack Wong |url=http://biz.thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2010/9/20/business/7042775 |work=The Star |date=20 September 2010 |access-date=7 January 2013}}

In 2011, eight of Malaysia's Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) plantations were certified under the International Sustainability and Carbon Certification System (ISCC), becoming part of Asia's first ISCC certified supply and production chain for palm biodiesel. This certification system complies with the European Union's Renewable Energy Directive (RED).{{cite news |title=Mission achieves ISCC certification, loses contract with Chevron |author=Erin Vogele |url=http://www.biodieselmagazine.com/articles/7671/mission-achieves-iscc-certification-loses-contract-with-chevron |work=Biodiesel Magazine |date=16 March 2011 |access-date=15 January 2013}} In 2012, the European Commission approved the RSPO's biofuel certification scheme allowing certified sustainable palm oil biofuel to be sold in Europe.{{cite press release |title=RSPO Announcement: On the Approval from the European Commission of RSPO-RED, the Biofuels Certification Scheme of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil |url=http://www.rspo.org/news_details.php?nid=137 |publisher=RSPO |date=28 November 2012 |access-date=10 January 2013}}

File:Palm forest.jpg

At least 17.4% of palm oil fruit produced globally in 2016 complied with voluntary sustainability standards such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, Rainforest Alliance, and organic.{{Cite web|last=Voora, V., Larrea, C., Bermudez, S., and Baliño, S.|date=2019|title=Global Market Report: Palm Oil|url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/palm-oil-coverage/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives}}

The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), founded in 2004, works to promote the production of sustainably sourced palm oil through involvement with growers, processors, food companies, investors and NGOs. Beginning in 2008, palm oil that meets RSPO introduced standards has been designated "certified sustainable palm oil" (CSPO). Within two years of implementation, CSPO-designated palm oil comprised 7 percent of the global palm oil market.{{cite news |title=A shot in the arm for CSPO |last1=Adnan |first1=Hanim |url=http://biz.thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?sec=business&file=/2011/3/28/business/8360810 |newspaper=The Star Online |date=28 March 2011 |access-date=16 October 2012}} As of October 2012, 12 percent of palm oil has been certified by the RSPO.{{cite news |title=WWF: Industry should buy into GreenPalm today, or it will struggle to source fully traceable sustainable palm oil tomorrow |last1=Watson |first1=Emma |url=http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Market/WWF-Industry-should-buy-into-GreenPalm-today-or-it-will-struggle-to-source-fully-traceable-sustainable-palm-oil-tomorrow |newspaper=Food Navigator |date=5 October 2012 |access-date=16 October 2012}} However, in the first year of CSPO certification only 30 percent of sustainable oil was marketed as CSPO.

In The Economist in 2010, the RSPO was criticized for not setting standards for greenhouse-gas emissions for plantations and because its members account for only 40 percent of palm oil production. In a 2007 report, Greenpeace was critical of RSPO-member food companies saying that they are "dependent on suppliers that are actively engaged in deforestation and the conversion of peatlands".{{cite web |url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/Global/international/planet-2/report/2007/11/palm-oil-cooking-the-climate.pdf |title=How the Palm Oil Industry is Cooking the Climate |year=2007 |work=greenpeace.org |publisher=Greenpeace International |access-date=18 October 2012}}

Following a contribution of $1 billion from Norway, in May 2010, Indonesia announced a two-year suspension on new agreements to clear natural forests and peatlands. Additionally, Indonesia announced plans to create its own organization similar to the RSPO, which, as a government certification system, will introduce mandatory regulation for all Indonesian palm oil producers.{{cite news |title=ISPO, RSPO: Two sides of the same coin? |last1=Gillespie |first1=Piers |last2=Harjanthi |first2=Rahayu Siti |url=http://www2.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/11/02/ispo-rspo-two-sides-same-coin.html |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=2 November 2012 |access-date=7 January 2013 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305013731/http://www2.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/11/02/ispo-rspo-two-sides-same-coin.html |url-status=dead }}

In 2011, Malaysia began developing a national certification, the "Malaysia sustainable palm oil" (MSPO) certification, to improve involvement in sustainable palm oil production nationwide.{{cite news |title=Having own palm oil certification hailed |url=http://www.dailyexpress.com.my/news.cfm?NewsID=79183 |newspaper=Daily Express |date=14 September 2011 |access-date=7 January 2013}} The certification program, aimed at small and medium-sized producers, is expected to be launched in 2014.[http://www.thestar.com.my/Business/Business-News/2013/09/04/Govt-expected-to-launch-palm-oil-standard-by-next-year.aspx Hanim Adnan. (2013, September 4). "Malaysia to launch palm oil standard by next year,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013032627/http://www.thestar.com.my/Business/Business-News/2013/09/04/Govt-expected-to-launch-palm-oil-standard-by-next-year.aspx |date=2013-10-13 }} The Star. Accessed: October 5, 2013. Malaysia has initiated its own environmental assessment on oil palm industry based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approaches. LCA has been applied to assess the environmental impact of production of oil palm seedlings,{{Cite journal|last1=Muhamad|first1=Halimah|last2=Sahid|first2=Ismail Bin|last3=Surif|first3=Salmijah|last4=Ai|first4=Tan Yew|last5=May|first5=Choo Yuen|date=May 2012|title=A Gate-to-gate Case Study of the Life Cycle Assessment of an Oil Palm Seedling|journal=Tropical Life Sciences Research|volume=23|issue=1|pages=15–23|issn=1985-3718|pmc=3799395|pmid=24575222}} oil palm fresh fruit bunches,{{Cite journal|last1=Muhamad|first1=Halimah|last2=Ai|first2=Tan Yew|last3=Khairuddin|first3=Nik Sasha Khatrina|last4=Amiruddin|first4=Mohd Din|last5=May|first5=Choo Yuen|date=December 2014|title=Life Cycle Assessment for the Production of Oil Palm Seeds|journal=Tropical Life Sciences Research|volume=25|issue=2|pages=41–51|issn=1985-3718|pmc=4814145|pmid=27073598}} crude palm oil, crude palm kernel oil and refined palm oil.{{Cite journal|last1=Yew|first1=Ai Tan|last2=Muhammad|first2=Halimah|last3=Hashim|first3=Zulkifli|last4=Subramaniam|first4=Vijaya|last5=Puah|first5=Chiew Wei|last6=Chong|first6=Chiew Let|last7=Ma|first7=Ah Ngan|last8=Choo|first8=Yuen May|date=22 December 2010|title=Life Cycle Assessment Of Refined Palm Oil Production and Fractionation (Part 4)|url=http://gallery.mpob.gov.my/upload/docs/Technical%20Paper/mpobDoc1363730068.pdf|journal=Journal of Oil Palm Research|volume=22|pages=913–926}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The assessment on downstream industries such as bio-diesel,Puah C. W., Choo Y. M. And Ma A. N. 2010. Life Cycle Assessment for the Production and Use of Palm Biodiesel (Part 5). Journal of Oil Palm Research 22:927-933. was also conducted.

In July 2020 scientists show via detailed analysis of satellite images that certified "sustainable" palm oil production resulted in deforestation of tropical forests of Sumatra and Borneo and endangered mammals' habitat degradation in the past 30 years.{{cite news |title=Certified 'sustainable' palm oil fields endanger mammal habitats and biodiverse tropical forests over 30 years |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-07-certified-sustainable-palm-oil-fields.html |access-date=16 August 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en}}{{cite journal |last1=Cazzolla Gatti |first1=Roberto |last2=Velichevskaya |first2=Alena |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=10 November 2020 |volume=742 |pages=140712 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140712 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969720342340|title=Certified "sustainable" palm oil took the place of endangered Bornean and Sumatran large mammals habitat and tropical forests in the last 30 years |pmid=32721759 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.74240712C |s2cid=220852123 |access-date=16 August 2020 |language=en |issn=0048-9697}}

Oil palm producers are eligible to take part in Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) programs in which developed nations invest in clean energy projects in developing nations to earn carbon credits to offset their own greenhouse gas emissions and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions worldwide.{{cite news |title=Developing countries play role to minimise global warming |last1=Chiew |first1=Hilary |url=http://thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=/2008/4/1/lifefocus/20318588&sec=lifefocus |newspaper=The Star |date=1 April 2008 |access-date=2 January 2013}}

Investors have been cautious about investing in palm oil biofuel projects because of the impact the expansion of oil palm plantations has had on tropical rain forests,[http://www.asria.org/news/press/1195793283 Carbon market takes sides in palm oil battle] Carbon Finance, 23 November 2007 but according to the South East Asian CDM development company YTL-SV Carbon, many CDM projects in the palm oil sector focus on improving use of waste products to reduce gas emissions and do not contribute to the establishment of new oil palm plantations.{{cite news |last1=Varming |first1=Soeren |last2=Dutschke |first2=Michael |date=14 May 2008 |title=CDM is promoting sustainable palm oil |url=http://www.ytl-svcarbon.com/news.php?newsID=19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928051007/https://www.ytl-svcarbon.com/news_inner.asp?newsid=4 |archive-date=28 September 2021 |access-date= |work=Point Carbon Newsletter: CDM & JI Monitor}}

File:Climate_Resilience_Model.PNG

Palm oil output has been gradually increasing since the end of the twentieth century, with a 15-fold rise between 1980 and 2014. (IUCN, 2021). Aside from the main producing countries of Indonesia and Malaysia, Latin American countries are beginning to play a larger role in the global palm oil industry.

SPOTT is a free, online platform that evaluates commodity producers, processors, and traders on their public disclosure on environmental, social, and governance (ESG) issues.{{Cite web |title=Palm oil: ESG policy transparency assessments |url=https://www.spott.org/palm-oil/ |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=SPOTT.org |language=en-GB}}

SPOTT evaluates the public disclosure of 100 palm oil producers, processors, and traders in terms of their organization, policies, and practices relating to environmental, social, and governance (ESG) issues. To track their growth over time, each company is given a percentage score.

For palm oil, timber and pulp, and natural rubber companies, SPOTT assessments follow three complete frameworks of best practice indicators. Each framework includes precise scoring criteria for over 100 indicators that are grouped into ten categories.

The SPOTT indicators were created by ZSL in consultation with technical consultants to ensure that they are closely matched with related programs such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

For a more detailed explanation of assessment scores, [https://www.spott.org/palm-oil/ click here]

Policies and pledges made by the company may not be carried out effectively on the ground. Although the media monitor on each company's page may provide some insight, independent due diligence should include measures to analyze implementation levels.

{{Update span|The World Wildlife Foundation (WWF) publishes an annual report on the use of sustainable palm oil by major corporations. In the 2011 report, 31 of the 132 companies surveyed received a top score for their use of sustainable palm oil. This represents an increase from 2009, the first year the report was issued, where no companies received top scores.{{cite web |year=2011 |title=2011 Palm Oil Buyers' Scorecard |url=http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/footprint/agriculture/palm_oil/solutions/responsible_purchasing/scorecard2011/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113164713/http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/footprint/agriculture/palm_oil/solutions/responsible_purchasing/scorecard2011/ |archive-date=13 January 2016 |access-date=3 January 2013 |work=wwf.panda.org |publisher=World Wildlife Foundation}}|reason=But they never mentioned it again...|date=April 2023}}

{{Update span|The WWF reports that 87 companies have committed to using only sustainable palm oil by 2015, including Unilever and Nestlé, both of which committed to exclusively using sustainable palm oil following demonstrations and urgings from environmental organizations in the late 2000s.

[http://www.foodnavigator.com/news/ng.asp?n=85047-unilever-greenpeace-palm-oil-carbon-emissions-sustainable Unilever commits to sustainable palm oil] Food Navigator.com 2 May 2008 However, according to the WWF, the overall growth in the use of sustainable palm oil is too slow. |reason=But they never mentioned it again...|date=April 2023}}

Retailers who have made commitments to offering products containing sustainable oil, including Walmart and Carrefour, have attributed the slow rate of growth in the availability of sustainable palm oil to a lack of consumer interest and awareness in products made with sustainable palm oil. These companies have expressed concern about the potential impact of low consumer demand on the cost and future availability of sustainable palm oil.{{cite news |last1=Watson |first1=Elaine |date=21 June 2011 |title=Certified sustainable palm oil derivatives 'prohibitively expensive' in US |newspaper=Food Navigator |url=http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Market/Certified-sustainable-palm-oil-derivatives-prohibitively-expensive-in-US |access-date=3 January 2013}}{{cite news |last1=Lingga |first1=Vincent |date=1 November 2012 |title=Consumer response to certified palm oil products still weak |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |url=http://www2.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/11/01/consumer-response-certified-palm-oil-products-still-weak.html |access-date=3 January 2013 |archive-date=15 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315230105/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/11/01/consumer-response-certified-palm-oil-products-still-weak.html |url-status=dead }}

It may be possible to persuade governments of nations that produce competing products to enact protectionist legislation against the products of deforestation, an approach that was presented in a report by the National Farmers Union (United States) and Avoided Deforestation Partners. The 2010 report estimates that protecting the {{convert|13,000,000|ha|sqmi}} of mostly tropical forest that are lost annually worldwide would boost American agricultural revenue by $190–270 billion between 2012 and 2030. However, several conservation groups, including Conservation International, Environmental Defense Fund, National Wildlife Federation, and The Nature Conservancy, presented a rebuttal to the report, stating that it was "based on the assumption, totally unfounded, that deforestation in tropical countries can be easily interrupted, and its conclusions are therefore also unrealistic."{{cite report |url=http://www.dgardiner.com/doc/ADP_Report_052410%20FINAL.pdf |title=Farms Here, Forests There: Tropical Deforestation and U.S. Competitiveness in Agriculture and Timber |last=Freedman |first=Shari |date=May 2010 |publisher=David Gardner and Assoc. |access-date=1 August 2010 |archive-date=11 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311084802/http://www.dgardiner.com/doc/ADP_Report_052410%20FINAL.pdf |url-status=dead }}

• 2015 Southeast Asian haze
• Environmental issues with energy
• Food vs. fuel
• Southeast Asian haze
• Sustainable biofuel
• The Burning Season, a 2008 documentary that highlights deforestation in Indonesia for palm oil plantations

Companies:

• Criticisms of Cargill
• Wilmar International

{{Reflist|2}}

• {{cite journal|last=Butler|first=R. A.|author2=Laurance, W. F|title=Is oil palm the next emerging threat to the Amazon?|journal=Tropical Conservation Science|volume=2|issue=1|pages=1–10|url=http://tropicalconservationscience.mongabay.com/content/v2/09-03-23_butler-laurance_1-10.pdf|doi=10.1177/194008290900200102|year=2009|s2cid=37419639|doi-access=free}}
• {{cite book|title=How the Palm Oil Industry is Cooking the Climate|url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/Global/international/planet-2/report/2007/11/cooking-the-climate-full.pdf|date=November 2007|publisher=Greenpeace International|location=Netherlands}}
• {{cite journal|title=Burning down the House: How Unilever and other global brands continue to fuel Indonesia's fires|url=https://www.greenpeace.org/malaysia/publication/2620/burning-down-the-house-how-unilever-and-other-global-brands-continue-to-fuel-indonesias-fires/}}
• {{cite book |title=Planet Palm: How Palm Oil Ended Up in Everything―and Endangered the World |year=2021 |first=Jocelyn C. |last=Zuckerman |publisher=The New Press |isbn=978-1620975237}}

• [http://news.mongabay.com/2011/0126-palm_oil.html Greening the World with Palm Oil?] – an in-depth analysis on palm oil's impact on the environment, Mongabay.com, January 26, 2011
• [http://www.greenpeace.org/cookingtheclimate Cooking the Climate] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122162033/http://www.greenpeace.org/cookingtheclimate |date=2008-11-22 }} – a Greenpeace report on the palm oil industry
• [http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/asia-pacific/Palm-oil-reports/ Palm oil publications] from Greenpeace
• [https://regeneration.org/nexus/palm-oil Palm Oil] from Project Regeneration
• [http://www.bbc.co.uk/tribe/tribes/penan/index.shtml Bruce Parry's Penan documentary showing the social and environmental impact of palm plantations in Malaysia]
• [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/nov/06/1 "The slippery business of palm oil"] – The Guardian, November 6, 2008
• [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/apr/04/energy.indonesia "Palm oil: the biofuel of the future driving an ecological disaster now"] – The Guardian, April 4, 2006
• [http://www.ucsusa.org/global_warming/solutions/stop-deforestation/palm-oil-and-forests.html "Palm Oil and Tropical Deforestation: Is There a Sustainable Solution?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120135757/http://www.ucsusa.org/global_warming/solutions/stop-deforestation/palm-oil-and-forests.html |date=2016-11-20 }} – Union of Concerned Scientists

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