Streptomyces#Medicine

{{See also|List of Streptomyces species}}

When Selman Waksman and Arthur Henrici in 1943 divided Actinomyces genus into narrower genera, they failed to find a valid generic name for aerobic sporulating species so had to coin a new one.{{cite journal | vauthors = Waksman SA, Henrici AT | title = The Nomenclature and Classification of the Actinomycetes | journal = Journal of Bacteriology | volume = 46 | issue = 4 | pages = 337–341 | date = October 1943 | pmid = 16560709 | pmc = 373826 | doi = 10.1128/jb.46.4.337-341.1943 }}

Streptomyces is the type genus of the family Streptomycetaceae{{cite journal | vauthors = Anderson AS, Wellington EM | title = The taxonomy of Streptomyces and related genera | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 51 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 797–814 | date = May 2001 | pmid = 11411701 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-51-3-797 | doi-access = free }} and currently covers more than 700 species with the number increasing every year.{{cite journal | vauthors = Labeda DP | title = Multilocus sequence analysis of phytopathogenic species of the genus Streptomyces | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 61 | issue = Pt 10 | pages = 2525–2531 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21112986 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.028514-0 | doi-access = free }} It is estimated that the total number of Streptomyces species is close to 1600. Acidophilic and acid-tolerant strains that were initially classified under this genus have later been moved to Kitasatospora (1997) {{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang Z, Wang Y, Ruan J | title = A proposal to revive the genus Kitasatospora (Omura, Takahashi, Iwai, and Tanaka 1982) | journal = International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology | volume = 47 | issue = 4 | pages = 1048–54 | date = October 1997 | pmid = 9336904 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-47-4-1048 | doi-access = free }} and Streptacidiphilus (2003).{{cite journal | vauthors = Kim SB, Lonsdale J, Seong CN, Goodfellow M | title = Streptacidiphilus gen. nov., acidophilic actinomycetes with wall chemotype I and emendation of the family Streptomycetaceae (Waksman and Henrici (1943)AL) emend. Rainey et al. 1997 | journal = Antonie van Leeuwenhoek | volume = 83 | issue = 2 | pages = 107–16 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12785304 | doi = 10.1023/A:1023397724023 | s2cid = 12901116 }} Species nomenclature are usually based on their color of hyphae and spores.

Saccharopolyspora erythraea was formerly placed in this genus (as Streptomyces erythraeus).

The genus Streptomyces includes aerobic, Gram-positive, multicellular, filamentous bacteria that produce well-developed vegetative hyphae (between 0.5-2.0 μm in diameter) with branches. They form a complex substrate mycelium that aids in scavenging organic compounds from their substrates. Although the mycelia and the aerial hyphae that arise from them are amotile, mobility is achieved by dispersion of spores. Spore surfaces may be hairy, rugose, smooth, spiny or warty.{{cite journal | vauthors = Dietz A, Mathews J | title = Classification of Streptomyces spore surfaces into five groups | journal = Applied Microbiology | volume = 21 | issue = 3 | pages = 527–33 | date = March 1971 | pmid = 4928607 | pmc = 377216 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.21.3.527-533.1971 }} In some species, aerial hyphae consist of long, straight filaments, which bear 50 or more spores at more or less regular intervals, arranged in whorls (verticils). Each branch of a verticil produces, at its apex, an umbel, which carries from two to several chains of spherical to ellipsoidal, smooth or rugose spores.{{cite book | vauthors = Chater K, Losick R |title= Microbial development|chapter= Morphological and physiological differentiation in Streptomyces|chapter-url=http://cshmonographs.org/index.php/monographs/article/view/4367 |access-date= 2012-01-19|doi=10.1101/0.89-115|year= 1984 |volume= 16|isbn= 978-0-87969-172-1 |pages= 89–115|doi-broken-date= 12 July 2025 }}

Some strains form short chains of spores on substrate hyphae. Sclerotia-, pycnidia-, sporangia-, and synnemata-like structures are produced by some strains.

The complete genome of "S. coelicolor strain A3(2)" was published in 2002.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bentley SD, Chater KF, Cerdeño-Tárraga AM, Challis GL, Thomson NR, James KD, Harris DE, Quail MA, Kieser H, Harper D, Bateman A, Brown S, Chandra G, Chen CW, Collins M, Cronin A, Fraser A, Goble A, Hidalgo J, Hornsby T, Howarth S, Huang CH, Kieser T, Larke L, Murphy L, Oliver K, O'Neil S, Rabbinowitsch E, Rajandream MA, Rutherford K, Rutter S, Seeger K, Saunders D, Sharp S, Squares R, Squares S, Taylor K, Warren T, Wietzorrek A, Woodward J, Barrell BG, Parkhill J, Hopwood DA | title = Complete genome sequence of the model actinomycete Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) | journal = Nature | volume = 417 | issue = 6885 | pages = 141–7 | date = May 2002 | pmid = 12000953 | doi = 10.1038/417141a | s2cid = 4430218 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2002Natur.417..141B }} At the time, the "S. coelicolor" genome was thought to contain the largest number of genes of any bacterium. The chromosome is 8,667,507 bp long with a GC-content of 72.1%, and is predicted to contain 7,825 protein-encoding genes. In terms of taxonomy, "S. coelicolor A3(2)" belongs to the species S. violaceoruber, and is not a validly described separate species; "S. coelicolor A3(2)" is not to be mistaken for the actual S. coelicolor (Müller), although it is often referred to as S. coelicolor for convenience.{{cite journal | vauthors = Chater KF, Biró S, Lee KJ, Palmer T, Schrempf H | title = The complex extracellular biology of Streptomyces | journal = FEMS Microbiology Reviews | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 171–98 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 20088961 | doi = 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2009.00206.x | doi-access = free }} The transcriptome and translatome analyses of the strain A3(2) were published in 2016.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jeong Y, Kim JN, Kim MW, Bucca G, Cho S, Yoon YJ, Kim BG, Roe JH, Kim SC, Smith CP, Cho BK | title = The dynamic transcriptional and translational landscape of the model antibiotic producer Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | article-number = 11605 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 27251447 | pmc = 4895711 | doi = 10.1038/ncomms11605 | bibcode = 2016NatCo...711605J }}

The first complete genome sequence of S. avermitilis was completed in 2003.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ikeda H, Ishikawa J, Hanamoto A, Shinose M, Kikuchi H, Shiba T, Sakaki Y, Hattori M, Omura S | title = Complete genome sequence and comparative analysis of the industrial microorganism Streptomyces avermitilis | journal = Nature Biotechnology | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 526–31 | date = May 2003 | pmid = 12692562 | doi = 10.1038/nbt820 | doi-access = free }} Each of these genomes forms a chromosome with a linear structure, unlike most bacterial genomes, which exist in the form of circular chromosomes.{{cite book| vauthors = Dyson P |title=Streptomyces: Molecular Biology and Biotechnology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3z9_QwFumi8C|access-date=16 January 2012|date=1 January 2011|publisher=Horizon Scientific Press|isbn=978-1-904455-77-6|page=5}} The genome sequence of S. scabiei, a member of the genus with the ability to cause potato scab disease, has been determined at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. At 10.1 Mbp long and encoding 9,107 provisional genes, it is the largest known Streptomyces genome sequenced, probably due to the large pathogenicity island.{{cite web|url=http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects/S_scabies|title=Streptomyces scabies|publisher=Sanger Institute|access-date=2001-02-26}}

The genomes of the various Streptomyces species demonstrate remarkable plasticity, via ancient single gene duplications, block duplications (mainly at the chromosomal arms) and horizontal gene transfer.{{cite journal | vauthors = McDonald BR, Currie CR | title = Lateral Gene Transfer Dynamics in the Ancient Bacterial Genus Streptomyces | journal = mBio | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = e00644–17 | date = June 2017 | pmid = 28588130 | pmc = 5472806 | doi = 10.1128/mBio.00644-17 }} The size of their chromosome varies from 5.7-12.1 Mbps (average: 8.5 Mbps), the number of chromosomally encoded proteins varies from 4983-10,112 (average: 7130), whereas their high GC content varies from 68.8-74.7% (average: 71.7%). The 95% soft-core proteome of the genus consists of approximately 2000-2400 proteins. The pangenome is open.{{cite journal | vauthors = Caicedo-Montoya C, Manzo-Ruiz M, Ríos-Estepa R | title = Pan-Genome of the Genus Streptomyces and Prioritization of Biosynthetic Gene Clusters With Potential to Produce Antibiotic Compounds | journal = Frontiers in Microbiology | volume = 12 | pages = 677558 | date = 2021 | pmid = 34659136 | pmc = 8510958 | doi = 10.3389/fmicb.2021.677558 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Otani H, Udwary DW, Mouncey NJ | title = Comparative and pangenomic analysis of the genus Streptomyces | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | article-number = 18909 | date = November 2022 | pmid = 36344558 | pmc = 9640686 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-022-21731-1 | bibcode = 2022NatSR..1218909O }} In addition, significant genomic plasticity is observed even between strains of the same species, where the number of accessory proteins (at the species level) ranges from 250 to more than 3000. Intriguingly, a correlation has been observed between the number of carbohydrate-active enzymes and secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters (siderophores, e-Polylysin and type III lanthipeptides) that are related to competition among bacteria, in Streptomyces species. Streptomycetes are major biomass degraders, mainly via their carbohydrate-active enzymes.{{cite journal | vauthors = Chater KF, Biró S, Lee KJ, Palmer T, Schrempf H | title = The complex extracellular biology of Streptomyces | journal = FEMS Microbiology Reviews | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 171–198 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 20088961 | doi = 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2009.00206.x | doi-access = free }} Thus, they also need to evolve an arsenal of siderophores and antimicrobial agents to suppress competition by other bacteria in these nutrient-rich environments that they create. Several evolutionary analyses have revealed that the majority of evolutionarily stable genomic elements are localized mainly at the central region of the chromosome, whereas the evolutionarily unstable elements tend to localize at the chromosomal arms.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lorenzi JN, Lespinet O, Leblond P, Thibessard A | title = Subtelomeres are fast-evolving regions of the Streptomyces linear chromosome | journal = Microbial Genomics | volume = 7 | issue = 6 | pages = 000525 | date = September 2019 | pmid = 33749576 | pmc = 8627663 | doi = 10.1099/mgen.0.000525 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Tidjani AR, Lorenzi JN, Toussaint M, van Dijk E, Naquin D, Lespinet O, Bontemps C, Leblond P | title = Massive Gene Flux Drives Genome Diversity between Sympatric Streptomyces Conspecifics | journal = mBio | volume = 10 | issue = 5 | pages = e01533–19 | date = September 2019 | pmid = 31481382 | pmc = 6722414 | doi = 10.1128/mBio.01533-19 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Volff JN, Altenbuchner J | title = Genetic instability of the Streptomyces chromosome | journal = Molecular Microbiology | volume = 27 | issue = 2 | pages = 239–246 | date = January 1998 | pmid = 9484880 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.00652.x | s2cid = 20438399 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen CW, Huang CH, Lee HH, Tsai HH, Kirby R | title = Once the circle has been broken: dynamics and evolution of Streptomyces chromosomes | journal = Trends in Genetics | volume = 18 | issue = 10 | pages = 522–529 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12350342 | doi = 10.1016/s0168-9525(02)02752-x }} Thus, the chromosomal arms emerge as the part of the genome that is mainly responsible for rapid adaptation at both the species and strain level.

Biotechnology researchers have used Streptomyces species for heterologous expression of proteins. Traditionally, Escherichia coli was the species of choice to express eukaryotic genes, since it was well understood and easy to work with.{{cite journal | vauthors = Brawner M, Poste G, Rosenberg M, Westpheling J | title = Streptomyces: a host for heterologous gene expression | journal = Current Opinion in Biotechnology | volume = 2 | issue = 5 | pages = 674–81 | date = October 1991 | pmid = 1367716 | doi = 10.1016/0958-1669(91)90033-2 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Payne GF, DelaCruz N, Coppella SJ | title = Improved production of heterologous protein from Streptomyces lividans | journal = Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology | volume = 33 | issue = 4 | pages = 395–400 | date = July 1990 | pmid = 1369282 | doi = 10.1007/BF00176653 | s2cid = 19287805 }} Expression of eukaryotic proteins in E. coli may be problematic. Sometimes, proteins do not fold properly, which may lead to insolubility, deposition in inclusion bodies, and loss of bioactivity of the product.{{cite journal | vauthors = Binnie C, Cossar JD, Stewart DI | title = Heterologous biopharmaceutical protein expression in Streptomyces | journal = Trends in Biotechnology | volume = 15 | issue = 8 | pages = 315–20 | date = August 1997 | pmid = 9263479 | doi = 10.1016/S0167-7799(97)01062-7 }} Though E. coli strains have secretion mechanisms, these are of low efficiency and result in secretion into the periplasmic space, whereas secretion by a Gram-positive bacterium such as a Streptomyces species results in secretion directly into the extracellular medium. In addition, Streptomyces species have more efficient secretion mechanisms than E.coli. The properties of the secretion system is an advantage for industrial production of heterologously expressed protein because it simplifies subsequent purification steps and may increase yield. These properties among others make Streptomyces spp. an attractive alternative to other bacteria such as E. coli and Bacillus subtilis. In addition, the inherently high genomic instability suggests that the various Streptomycetes genomes may be amenable to extensive genome reduction for the construction of synthetic minimal genomes with industrial applications.

Several species belonging to this genus have been found to be pathogenic to plants:

1. S. scabiei
2. S. acidiscabies
3. S. europaeiscabiei
4. S. luridiscabiei
5. S. niveiscabiei
6. S. puniciscabiei
7. S. reticuliscabiei
8. S. stelliscabiei
9. S. turgidiscabies (scab disease in potatoes)
10. S. ipomoeae (soft rot disease in sweet potatoes)
11. S. brasiliscabiei (first species identified in Brazil){{cite journal | vauthors = Corrêa DB, do Amaral DT, da Silva MJ, Destéfano SA | title = Streptomyces brasiliscabiei, a new species causing potato scab in south Brazil | journal = Antonie van Leeuwenhoek | volume = 114 | issue = 7 | pages = 913–931 | date = July 2021 | pmid = 33881637 | doi = 10.1007/s10482-021-01566-y }}
12. S. hilarionis and S. hayashii (new species identified in Brazil){{cite journal | vauthors = Vitor L, Amaral DT, Corrêa DB, Ferreira-Tonin M, Lucon ET, Appy MP, Tomaseto AA, Destéfano SA | title = Streptomyces hilarionis sp. nov. and Streptomyces hayashii sp. nov., two new strains associated with potato scab in Brazil | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 73 | issue = 6 | date = June 2023 | pmid = 37319004 | doi = 10.1099/ijsem.0.005916 }}

Streptomyces is the largest antibiotic-producing genus, producing antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic drugs, and also a wide range of other bioactive compounds, such as immunosuppressants.{{cite journal | vauthors = Watve MG, Tickoo R, Jog MM, Bhole BD | title = How many antibiotics are produced by the genus Streptomyces? | journal = Archives of Microbiology | volume = 176 | issue = 5 | pages = 386–90 | date = November 2001 | pmid = 11702082 | doi = 10.1007/s002030100345 | s2cid = 603765 }} Almost all of the bioactive compounds produced by Streptomyces are initiated during the time coinciding with the aerial hyphal formation from the substrate mycelium.

{{See also|Polyene antimycotic}}

Streptomycetes produce numerous antifungal compounds of medicinal importance, including nystatin (from S. noursei), amphotericin B (from S. nodosus),{{cite journal | vauthors = Procópio RE, Silva IR, Martins MK, Azevedo JL, Araújo JM | title = Antibiotics produced by Streptomyces | journal = The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases | volume = 16 | issue = 5 | pages = 466–71 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22975171 | doi = 10.1016/j.bjid.2012.08.014 | doi-access = free }} and natamycin (from S. natalensis).

Members of the genus Streptomyces are the source for numerous antibacterial pharmaceutical agents; among the most important of these are:

• Chloramphenicol (from S. venezuelae){{cite journal | vauthors = Akagawa H, Okanishi M, Umezawa H | title = A plasmid involved in chloramphenicol production in Streptomyces venezuelae: evidence from genetic mapping | journal = Journal of General Microbiology | volume = 90 | issue = 2 | pages = 336–46 | date = October 1975 | pmid = 1194895 | doi = 10.1099/00221287-90-2-336 | doi-access = free }}
• Daptomycin (from S. roseosporus){{cite journal | vauthors = Miao V, Coëffet-LeGal MF, Brian P, Brost R, Penn J, Whiting A, Martin S, Ford R, Parr I, Bouchard M, Silva CJ, Wrigley SK, Baltz RH | title = Daptomycin biosynthesis in Streptomyces roseosporus: cloning and analysis of the gene cluster and revision of peptide stereochemistry | journal = Microbiology | volume = 151 | issue = Pt 5 | pages = 1507–1523 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15870461 | doi = 10.1099/mic.0.27757-0 | doi-access = free }}
• Fosfomycin (from S. fradiae){{cite journal | vauthors = Woodyer RD, Shao Z, Thomas PM, Kelleher NL, Blodgett JA, Metcalf WW, van der Donk WA, Zhao H | title = Heterologous production of fosfomycin and identification of the minimal biosynthetic gene cluster | journal = Chemistry & Biology | volume = 13 | issue = 11 | pages = 1171–82 | date = November 2006 | pmid = 17113999 | doi = 10.1016/j.chembiol.2006.09.007 | doi-access = }}
• Lincomycin (from S. lincolnensis){{cite journal | vauthors = Peschke U, Schmidt H, Zhang HZ, Piepersberg W | title = Molecular characterization of the lincomycin-production gene cluster of Streptomyces lincolnensis 78-11 | journal = Molecular Microbiology | volume = 16 | issue = 6 | pages = 1137–56 | date = June 1995 | pmid = 8577249 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2958.1995.tb02338.x | s2cid = 45162659 }}
• Neomycin (from S. fradiae){{cite journal | vauthors = Dulmage HT | title = The production of neomycin by Streptomyces fradiae in synthetic media | journal = Applied Microbiology | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 103–6 | date = March 1953 | pmid = 13031516 | pmc = 1056872 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.1.2.103-106.1953 }}
• Nourseothricin {{citation needed|date= August 2015}}
• Puromycin (from S. alboniger){{cite journal | vauthors = Sankaran L, Pogell BM | title = Biosynthesis of puromycin in Streptomyces alboniger: regulation and properties of O-demethylpuromycin O-methyltransferase | journal = Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy | volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = 721–32 | date = December 1975 | pmid = 1211926 | pmc = 429454 | doi = 10.1128/AAC.8.6.721 }}
• Streptomycin (from S. griseus){{cite journal | vauthors = Distler J, Ebert A, Mansouri K, Pissowotzki K, Stockmann M, Piepersberg W | title = Gene cluster for streptomycin biosynthesis in Streptomyces griseus: nucleotide sequence of three genes and analysis of transcriptional activity | journal = Nucleic Acids Research | volume = 15 | issue = 19 | pages = 8041–56 | date = October 1987 | pmid = 3118332 | pmc = 306325 | doi = 10.1093/nar/15.19.8041 }}
• Tetracycline (from S. rimosus and S. aureofaciens){{cite book| vauthors = Nelson M, Greenwald RA, Hillen W |title=Tetracyclines in biology, chemistry and medicine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHNW4tFhZD4C&pg=PA8|access-date=17 January 2012|year=2001|publisher=Birkhäuser|isbn=978-3-7643-6282-9|pages=8–}}
• Oleandomycin (from S. antibioticus){{cite web|title=What are Streptomycetes?|url=http://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/mbiotech/hosenkin_lab/Strepto-E.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052228/https://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/mbiotech/hosenkin_lab/Strepto-E.html | archive-date = 4 March 2016 |website=Hosenkin Lab; Hiroshima-University|access-date=10 August 2015}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Swan DG, Rodríguez AM, Vilches C, Méndez C, Salas JA | title = Characterisation of a Streptomyces antibioticus gene encoding a type I polyketide synthase which has an unusual coding sequence | journal = Molecular & General Genetics | volume = 242 | issue = 3 | pages = 358–62 | date = February 1994 | pmid = 8107683 | doi = 10.1007/BF00280426 | s2cid = 2195072 | hdl = 10651/41900 | hdl-access = free }}{{cite web|title= Finto: MeSH: Streptomyces antibioticus|url=http://finto.fi/mesh/en/page/D013303|website=finto: Finnish Thesaurus and Ontology Service|access-date=10 August 2015}}
• Tunicamycin (from S. torulosus){{cite journal| vauthors = Atta HM |title=Biochemical studies on antibiotic production from Streptomyces sp.: Taxonomy, fermentation, isolation and biological properties|journal=Journal of Saudi Chemical Society|date=January 2015|volume=19|issue=1|pages=12–22|doi=10.1016/j.jscs.2011.12.011|doi-access=free}}
• Mycangimycin (from Streptomyces sp. SPB74 and S. antibioticus){{cite journal | vauthors = Oh DC, Scott JJ, Currie CR, Clardy J | title = Mycangimycin, a polyene peroxide from a mutualist Streptomyces sp | journal = Organic Letters | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = 633–6 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19125624 | pmc = 2640424 | doi = 10.1021/ol802709x }}
• Boromycin (from S. antibioticus){{cite journal| vauthors = Chen TS, Chang CJ, Floss HG |title=Biosynthesis of boromycin|journal=The Journal of Organic Chemistry |date=June 1981 |volume=46 |issue=13 |pages=2661–2665 |doi=10.1021/jo00326a010 }}
• Bambermycin (from S. bambergiensis and S. ghanaensis, the active compound being moenomycins A and C){{cite web | publisher = National Center for Biotechnology Information. | work = PubChem Compound Database | title = CID=53385491 | url = https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/53385491 | access-date = 8 March 2017 }}
• Vulgamycin{{Cite journal | vauthors = Babczinski P, Dorgerloh M, Löbberding A, Santel HJ, Schmidt RR, Schmitt P, Wünsche C |date=1991 |title=Herbicidal activity and mode of action of vulgamycin |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ps.2780330406 |journal=Pesticide Science |language=en |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=439–446 |doi=10.1002/ps.2780330406|url-access=subscription }}

Clavulanic acid (from S. clavuligerus) is a drug used in combination with some antibiotics (like amoxicillin) to block and/or weaken some bacterial-resistance mechanisms by irreversible beta-lactamase inhibition.

Novel antiinfectives currently being developed include Guadinomine (from Streptomyces sp. K01-0509),{{cite journal | vauthors = Holmes TC, May AE, Zaleta-Rivera K, Ruby JG, Skewes-Cox P, Fischbach MA, DeRisi JL, Iwatsuki M, Ōmura S, Khosla C | title = Molecular insights into the biosynthesis of guadinomine: a type III secretion system inhibitor | journal = Journal of the American Chemical Society | volume = 134 | issue = 42 | pages = 17797–806 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 23030602 | pmc = 3483642 | doi = 10.1021/ja308622d }} a compound that blocks the Type III secretion system of Gram-negative bacteria.

S. avermitilis is responsible for the production of one of the most widely employed drugs against nematode and arthropod infestations, avermectin,{{cite journal | vauthors = Martín JF, Rodríguez-García A, Liras P | title = The master regulator PhoP coordinates phosphate and nitrogen metabolism, respiration, cell differentiation and antibiotic biosynthesis: comparison in Streptomyces coelicolor and Streptomyces avermitilis | journal = The Journal of Antibiotics | volume = 70 | issue = 5 | pages = 534–541 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28293039 | doi = 10.1038/ja.2017.19 | publisher = Japan Antibiotics Research Association (Nature Portfolio) | s2cid = 1881648 | doi-access = free }} and thus its derivatives including ivermectin.

File:Saptomycin D and E Structures.svg

Less commonly, streptomycetes produce compounds used in other medical treatments: migrastatin (from S. platensis) and bleomycin (from S. verticillus) are antineoplastic (anticancer) drugs; boromycin (from S. antibioticus) exhibits antiviral activity against the HIV-1 strain of HIV, as well as antibacterial activity. Staurosporine (from S. staurosporeus) also has a range of activities from antifungal to antineoplastic (via the inhibition of protein kinases).

S. hygroscopicus and S. viridochromogenes produce the natural herbicide bialaphos.

Saptomycins and Legonmycins are chemical compounds isolated from Streptomyces.{{cite journal | vauthors = Abe N, Nakakita Y, Nakamura T, Enoki N, Uchida H, Munekata M | title = Novel antitumor antibiotics, saptomycins. I. Taxonomy of the producing organism, fermentation, HPLC analysis and biological activities | journal = The Journal of Antibiotics | volume = 46 | issue = 10 | pages = 1530–1535 | date = October 1993 | pmid = 8244880 | doi = 10.7164/antibiotics.46.1530 | doi-access = free }}

Sirex wasps cannot perform all of their own cellulolytic functions and so some Streptomyces do so in symbiosis with the wasps.{{cite journal | vauthors = Li H, Young SE, Poulsen M, Currie CR | title = Symbiont-Mediated Digestion of Plant Biomass in Fungus-Farming Insects | journal = Annual Review of Entomology | volume = 66 | issue = 1 | pages = 297–316 | date = January 2021 | pmid = 32926791 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-ento-040920-061140 | publisher = Annual Reviews | osti = 1764729 | s2cid = 221724225 }} Book et al. have investigated several of these symbioses. Book et al., 2014 and Book et al., 2016 identify several lytic isolates. The 2016 study isolates Streptomyces sp. Amel2xE9 and Streptomyces sp. LamerLS-31b and finds that they are equal in activity to the previously identified Streptomyces sp. SirexAA-E.

• Antimycin A – Chemical compound produced by Streptomyces used as a piscicide
• {{Annotated link|Geosmin}}
• Streptomyces isolates
• List of bacterial orders
• List of bacteria genera
• raiA-hairpin RNA motif

{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Refbegin}}

• {{cite book | vauthors = Baumberg S | title = Genetics and Product Formation in Streptomyces | publisher = Kluwer Academic | year = 1991 | isbn= 978-0-306-43885-1 }}
• {{cite book | vauthors = Gunsalus IC | title = Bacteria: Antibiotic-producing Streptomyces | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1986 | isbn= 978-0-12-307209-2 | author-link = Irwin Gunsalus }}
• {{cite book | vauthors = Hopwood DA | title = Streptomyces in Nature and Medicine: The Antibiotic Makers | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2007 | isbn= 978-0-19-515066-7 }}
• {{cite book | veditors = Dyson P | title = Streptomyces: Molecular Biology and Biotechnology | publisher = Caister Academic Press | year = 2011 | isbn= 978-1-904455-77-6 }}

{{Refend}}

• {{cite web | url = http://www.micron.ac.uk/organisms/sco.html | title = Current research on Streptomyces coelicolor | work = Norwich Research Park | date = 3 January 2018 }}
• {{cite web | url = http://www.openwetware.org/wiki/Streptomyces | title = Some current Streptomyces Research & Methods / Protocols / Resources | work = www.openwetware.org }}
• {{cite web | url = http://avermitilis.ls.kitasato-u.ac.jp/ | title = S. avermitilis genome homepage | work = Kitasato Institute for Life Sciences }}
• {{cite web | url = http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects/S_coelicolor/ | title = S. coelicolor A3(2) genome homepage | work = Sanger Institute }}
• {{cite web | url = http://streptomyces.org.uk/ | title = Streptomyces.org.uk homepage | work = John Innes Centre }}
• {{cite web | url = http://strepdb.streptomyces.org.uk/ | title = StrepDB - the Streptomyces genomes annotation browser }}
• {{cite web | url = http://www.genomesonline.org/search.cgi?colcol=all&goldstamp=ALL&gen_type=ALL&org_name1=genus&gensp=Streptomyces&org_domain=ALL&org_status=ALL&size2=ALL&org_size=Kb&gen_gc=ALL&phylogeny2=ALL&gen_institution=ALL&gen_funding=ALL&gen_data=ALL&cont=ALL&gen_country=ALL&gen_pheno=ALL&gen_eco=ALL&gen_disease=ALL&gen_relevance=ALL&gen_avail=ALL&selection=submit+search | title = Streptomyces Genome Projects | work = Genomes OnLine Database }}

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Category:Bacteria genera