Sultanate of Rum

{{Further|Timeline of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum}}

Since the 1030s, migratory Turkish groups in search of pastureland had penetrated Byzantine borders into Anatolia.A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 12. In the 1070s, after the battle of Manzikert, the Seljuk commander Suleiman ibn Qutulmish, a distant cousin of Alp Arslan and a former contender for the throne of the Seljuk Empire, came to power in western Anatolia. Between 1075 and 1081, he gained control of the Byzantine cities of Nicaea (present-day İznik) and briefly also Nicomedia (present-day İzmit). Around two years later, he established a principality that, while initially a Byzantine vassal state, became increasingly independent after six to ten years.Sicker, Martin, The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna, (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), 63–64.A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 72. Nevertheless, it seems that Suleiman was tasked by Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos in 1085 to reconquer Antioch and the former travelled there on a secret route, presumably guided by the Byzantines.{{sfn|Frankopan|2013|p=51}}

Suleiman tried, unsuccessfully, to conquer Aleppo in 1086, and died in the Battle of Ain Salm, either fighting his enemies or by suicide.{{sfn|Frankopan|2013|p=52}} In the aftermath, Suleiman's son Kilij Arslan I was imprisoned and a general of his, Abu'l-Qasim, took power in Nicaea.Sicker, Martin, The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna , (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), 65. Following the death of sultan Malik Shah in 1092, Kilij Arslan was released and established himself in his father's territories between 1092 and 1094, possibly with the approval of Malik Shah's son and successor Berkyaruq.{{sfn|Frankopan|2013|pp=68–69}}

Kilij Arslan, although victorious against the People's Crusade of 1096, was defeated by soldiers of the First Crusade and driven back into south-central Anatolia, where he set up his state with its capital in Konya. He defeated three Crusade contingents in the Crusade of 1101. In 1107, he ventured east and captured Mosul but died the same year fighting Malik Shah's son, Mehmed Tapar. He was the first Muslim commander against the crusades.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

Meanwhile, another Rum Seljuk, Malik Shah (not to be confused with the Seljuk sultan of the same name), captured Konya. In 1116 Kilij Arslan's son, Mesud I, took the city with the help of the Danishmends.{{Cn|date=January 2021}} Upon Mesud's death in 1156, the sultanate controlled nearly all of central Anatolia.

File:Seljuk bas-relief of two Turkic warrior. Sultanate of Rum, Konya citadel, 12th century, Turkey.jpg, 12-13th century.{{cite book |last1=Konstam |first1=Angus |title=Historical atlas of the Crusades |date=2002 |publisher=New York : Checkmark Books |isbn=978-0-8160-4919-6 |page=40 |url=https://archive.org/details/historicalatlaso0000kons_y1p6/page/40/mode/2up?view=theater |quote=A Seljuk bas-relief of two Turkish warriors}}]]

The Second Crusade was announced by Pope Eugene III, and was the first of the crusades to be led by European kings, namely Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, with help from a number of other European nobles. The armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe. After crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia, both armies were separately defeated by the Seljuk Turks. The main Western Christian source, Odo of Deuil, and Syriac Christian sources claim that the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos secretly hindered the crusaders' progress, particularly in Anatolia, where he is alleged to have deliberately ordered Turks to attack them. However, this alleged sabotage of the Crusade by the Byzantines was likely fabricated by Odo, who saw the Empire as an obstacle, and moreover Emperor Manuel had no political reason to do so. Louis and Conrad and the remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem and participated in 1148 in an ill-advised attack on Damascus, which ended in their retreat. In the end, the crusade in the east was a failure for the crusaders and a victory for the Muslims. It would ultimately have a key influence on the fall of Jerusalem and give rise to the Third Crusade at the end of the 12th century.

File:Sultan Kilij Arslan II enthroned in a tile from Alaeddin Palace, Konya, 1156-92.jpg enthroned, Alaeddin Palace, Konya, 1156–1192.{{cite book |title=The Art and architecture of Turkey |date=1980 |publisher=New York : Rizzoli |isbn=978-0-8478-0273-9 |page=178 [https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo0000unse_z1s3/page/178/mode/2up?q=%22119%22&view=theater note on plate 119], [https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo0000unse_z1s3/page/186/mode/2up?q=%22119%22&view=theater Plate 119] |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo0000unse_z1s3/page/178/mode/2up?q=%22119%22&view=theater |quote=Page 178 Plate 119: "Throne scene on a star-shaped tile, Iranian-Seljuk minai technique, Alaeddin Palace, Konya, 1156—92 (Kilicarslan II period), D. 8.5 cm. The sultan, sitting cross-legged on his throne, is holding a pomegranate in one hand; there are tiraz bands on his arms and two guards next to him. Karatay Madrasah Museum, Konya.}}]]

Mesud's son, Kilij Arslan II, is the first known Seljuk ruler who is known to have used the title of sultanA.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 73. and captured the remaining territories around Sivas and Malatya from the last of the Danishmends. At the Battle of Myriokephalon in 1176, Kilij Arslan II also defeated a Byzantine army led by Manuel I Komnenos. Despite a temporary occupation of Konya in 1190 by the Holy Roman Empire's forces of the Third Crusade, the sultanate was quick to recover and consolidate its power.Anatolia in the period of the Seljuks and the "beyliks", Osman Turan, The Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton and Bernard Lewis, (Cambridge University Press, 1995), 244–245. During the last years of Kilij Arslan II's reign, the sultanate experienced a civil war with Kaykhusraw I fighting to retain control and losing to his brother Suleiman II in 1196.A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 29.

Following Kilij Arslan II's death, the sultanate was divided amongst his sons.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}} Elbistan was given to Tughril ibn Kılıç Arslan II, but when Erzurum was taken from the Saltukids at the start of the thirteenth century, he was installed there.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|pp=137–138}} Tughril governed Erzurum from 1192 to 1221.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|pp=137–138}} During 1211–1212, he broke free from the Seljuk state.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|pp=137–138}} In 1230, Jahan Shah bin Tughril who was allied to the Khwarazmshah Jalal al-Din, lost the Battle of Yassıçemen, allowing for Erzurum to be annexed by the Seljuk sultanate.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|pp=137–138}}

File:Anatolia1200.png

Suleiman II rallied his vassal emirs and marched against Georgia, with an army of 150,000–400,000 and encamped in the Basiani valley. Tamar of Georgia quickly marshaled an army throughout her possessions and put it under command of her consort, David Soslan. Georgian troops under David Soslan made a sudden advance into Basiani and assailed the enemy's camp in 1203 or 1204. In a pitched battle, the Seljukid forces managed to roll back several attacks of the Georgians but were eventually overwhelmed and defeated. Loss of the sultan's banner to the Georgians resulted in a panic within the Seljuk ranks. Süleymanshah himself was wounded and withdrew to Erzurum. Both the Rum Seljuk and Georgian armies suffered heavy casualties, but coordinated flanking attacks won the battle for the Georgians.Alexander Mikaberidze, Historical Dictionary of Georgia, (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015), 184.{{bsn|date=November 2021}}

Suleiman II died in 1204Claude Cahen, The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rum: Eleventh to Fourteenth, transl. & ed. P.M. Holt, (Pearson Education Limited, 2001), 42. and was succeeded by his son Kilij Arslan III, whose reign was unpopular. Kaykhusraw I seized Konya in 1205 reestablishing his reign. Under his rule and those of his two successors, Kaykaus I and Kayqubad I, Seljuk power in Anatolia reached its apogee. Kaykhusraw's most important achievement was the capture of the harbour of Attalia (Antalya) on the Mediterranean coast in 1207. His son Kaykaus captured Sinop{{sfn|Tricht|2011|p=355}} and made the Empire of Trebizond his vassal in 1214.{{sfn|Ring|Watson|Schellinger|1995|p=651}} He also subjugated Cilician Armenia but in 1218 was forced to surrender the city of Aleppo, acquired from al-Kamil. Kayqubad continued to acquire lands along the Mediterranean coast from 1221 to 1225.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

In the 1220s, he sent an expeditionary force across the Black Sea to Crimea.A.C.S. Peacock, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25188622 "The Saliūq Campaign against the Crimea and the Expansionist Policy of the Early Reign of'Alā' al-Dīn Kayqubād"], Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 16 (2006), pp. 133–149. In the east he defeated the Mengujekids and began to put pressure on the Artuqids.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

{{main|Mongol conquest of Anatolia}}

File:Seljuks of Anatolia, horseman relief, Konya Palace, 13th century.jpg, 1156-1192.{{cite book |title=Turks: a journey of a thousand years, 600-1600 |date=2005 |publisher=Royal Academy of Arts ; Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Harry N. Abrams |location=London : New York |isbn=978-1903973578 |pages=114, 392}}]]

Kaykhusraw II (1237–1246) began his reign by capturing the region around Diyarbakır, but in 1239 he had to face an uprising led by a popular preacher named Baba Ishak. After three years, when he had finally quelled the revolt, the Crimean foothold was lost and the state and the sultanate's army had weakened. It is in these conditions that he had to face a far more dangerous threat, that of the expanding Mongols. The forces of the Mongol Empire took Erzurum in 1242 and in 1243, the sultan was crushed by Baiju in the Battle of Köse Dağ (a mountain between the cities of Sivas and Erzincan), resulting in the Seljuk Turks being forced to swear allegiance to the Mongols and became their vassals. The sultan himself had fled to Antalya after the battle, where he died in 1246; his death started a period of tripartite, and then dual, rule that lasted until 1260.

The Seljuk realm was divided among Kaykhusraw's three sons. The eldest, Kaykaus II (1246–1260), assumed the rule in the area west of the river Kızılırmak. His younger brothers, Kilij Arslan IV (1248–1265) and Kayqubad II (1249–1257), were set to rule the regions east of the river under Mongol administration. In October 1256, Bayju defeated Kaykaus II near Aksaray and all of Anatolia became officially subject to Möngke Khan. In 1260 Kaykaus II fled from Konya to Crimea where he died in 1279. Kilij Arslan IV was executed in 1265, and Kaykhusraw III (1265–1284) became the nominal ruler of all of Anatolia, with the tangible power exercised either by the Mongols or the sultan's influential regents.

File:Anatolian Beyliks in 1300.png, and the emerging beyliks, c. 1300]]

The Seljuk state had started to split into small emirates (beyliks) that increasingly distanced themselves from both Mongol and Seljuk control. In 1277, responding to a call from Anatolia, the Mamluk Sultan Baibars raided Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Elbistan,{{sfn|Kastritsis|2013|p=26}} temporarily replacing them as the administrator of the Seljuk realm. Following the ensuing chaos, the Karamanids under Shams al-Din Mehmed managed to capture Konya, briefly installing Jimri as a puppet ruler of the Sultanate of Rum. Since the native forces who had called him to Anatolia did not manifest themselves for the defense of the land, Baibars soon had to return to his home base in Egypt, and the Mongol administration was re-assumed, officially and severely. Also, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia captured the Mediterranean coast from Selinos to Seleucia, as well as the cities of Marash and Behisni, from the Seljuk in the 1240s.

Near the end of his reign, Kaykhusraw III could claim direct sovereignty only over lands around Konya. Some of the beyliks (including the early Ottoman state) and Seljuk governors of Anatolia continued to recognize, albeit nominally, the supremacy of the sultan in Konya, delivering the khutbah in the name of the sultans in Konya in recognition of their sovereignty, and the sultans continued to call themselves Fahreddin, the Pride of Islam. When Kaykhusraw III was executed in 1284, the Seljuk dynasty suffered another blow from internal struggles which lasted until 1303 when the son of Kaykaus II, Mesud II, established himself as sultan in Kayseri. He was murdered in 1308 and his son Mesud III soon afterwards. A distant relative to the Seljuk dynasty momentarily installed himself as emir of Konya, but he was defeated and his lands conquered by the Karamanids in 1328. The sultanate's monetary sphere of influence lasted slightly longer and coins of Seljuk mint, generally considered to be of reliable value, continued to be used throughout the 14th century, once again, including by the Ottomans.

The Seljuk dynasty of Rum, as successors to the Great Seljuks, based its political, religious and cultural heritage on the Turco-Persian tradition and Greco-Roman world,Saljuqs: Saljuqs of Anatolia, Robert Hillenbrand, The Dictionary of Art, Vol.27, Ed. Jane Turner, (Macmillan Publishers Limited, 1996), 632. even to the point of naming their sons with New Persian names.Rudi Paul Lindner, Explorations in Ottoman Prehistory, (University of Michigan Press, 2003), 3. The Seljuks of Rum had inherited the administrative method of Persian statecraft from the Seljuk Empire, which they would later pass on to the Ottomans.{{sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=48}} Despites such influences, Seljuk art remained essentially Central Asian in character.{{cite book |title=Turks: a journey of a thousand years, 600-1600 |date=2005 |publisher=Royal Academy of Arts ; Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Harry N. Abrams |location=London : New York |isbn=978-1903973578 |page=106|quote=Despite the undoubted influence of Iranian culture on the Great Seljuks and the Anatolian Seljuks, Seljuk art remained essentially Central Asian in character.}}

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| image1 = Konya Karatay Ceramics Museum Kubad Abad Palace tile 2389.jpg

| caption1 = Sultan Kayqubad I (r.1220–1237) or a notable of his court, seated in Turkic style and holding a flower, symbol of eternal life. Kubadabad Palace, late 1220s.{{cite book |last1=Özel |first1=Mehmet |title=Traditional Turkish Arts: Tiles and ceramics |date=1986 |publisher=General Directorate of Fine Arts, Ministry of Culture and Tourism,Turkish Republic |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22sPm_Xj9FwC&pg=PA15 |language=en |quote=Kubadabad tiles consist of panels of figural tiles linked by cruciform tiles decorated with arabesques. The figural tiles are decorated with figures of the sultan, harem women, courtiers and servants. However, the most interesting figures are the various animals related to hunting and the imaginary or magical animals. Such creatures as the sphinx, siren, single and double-headed eagles, single and paired peacocks, paired birds flanking the tree of life and dragon create a magical world of the imagination. They are all symbolic representations of the rich figural world of the Seljuks. Animals related to hunting, such as the fox, hare, wolf, mountain goat, wild ass, bear, lion, falcon, hawk and antelope are in widely varying and highly artistic compositions.}}{{cite book |title=The Art and architecture of Turkey |date=1980 |publisher=New York : Rizzoli |isbn=978-0-8478-0273-9 |pages=175-176 |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo0000unse_z1s3/page/174/mode/2up?q=kubadabad&view=theater |quote=Usually made in the underglaze technique, the star tiles contain an extremely rich figural design, depicting the sultan, the elite of the palace and animals of the hunt as well as imaginary or so-called 'fabulous' animals. (See figural reliefs and sculptures, p. 171.) The sultan and the palace notables, including in some cases the palace women, are shown sitting cross-legged in the Turkish tradition. In most cases, the figures hold in their hands a symbol representing eternal life-a pomegranate or opium branch or an astrological symbol like the fish. It is interesting to note the parallels with the same motifs in Anatolian Seljuk architecture.}}

| image2 = Enturbaned and bearded figure, holding an inscribed tablet. Large Palace, Kubadabad 1220s.jpg

| caption2 = Enturbaned and bearded figure of a likely high-ranking official, holding an inscribed tablet in his hand. Kubadabad Palace, late 1220s.{{cite book |last1=YAVAŞ |first1=Alptekin |last2=KOÇYİĞİT |first2=Oğuz |title=KUBAD ABAD: Beyşehir Gölü Kıyısında Bir Selçuklu Sitesi |publisher=Konya Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kültür Yayınları |isbn=978-605-389-619-7 |page=Fig.90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=41nPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT256 |language=tr |quote=(Translation from Turkish): Likely that they are depictions of high-ranking members of the palace or important wise people.}}}}

As an expression of Turco-Persian culture,{{citation | first = Bernard | last = Lewis | title = Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire | page = 29 | quote = Even when the land of Rum became politically independent, it remained a colonial extension of Turco-Persian culture which had its centers in Iran and Central Asia ... The literature of Seljuk Anatolia was almost entirely in Persian ... }} Rum Seljuks patronized Persian art, architecture, and literature.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Unlike the Seljuk Empire, the Seljuk sultans of Rum had Persian names such as Kay Khosrow, Kay Kawad/Qobad, and Kay Kāvus.{{cite book |title=Turks: a journey of a thousand years, 600-1600 |date=2005 |publisher=Royal Academy of Arts ; Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Harry N. Abrams |location=London : New York |isbn=978-1903973578 |page=106}} The bureaucrats and religious elite of their realm were generally Persian.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|2020|p=15}} In the 13th century, most Muslim inhabitants in major Anatolian urban hubs reportedly spoke Persian as their main language.{{sfn|Shukurov|2020|p=155}}

It was in the 13th century that the proneness of imitating Iran in terms of administration, religion and culture reached its zenith, encouraged by the major influx of Persian refugees fleeing Mongol invasions, who brought Persian culture with them and were instrumental in creating a "second Iran" in Anatolia.{{harvnb|Hillenbrand|2021|p=211}} "Inner Anatolia was now set to become Muslim gradually, and this process occurred under the leadership of the Turks. In Anatolia, as elsewhere, the Seljuq rulers drank in Persian cultural ways in their cities. This tendency to copy Iran in administration, religion and culture reached its height in the thirteenth century with the fuller development of the Seljuq state in Anatolia and the influx of Persian refugees to Anatolian cities. Thus ‘a second Iran’ was created in Anatolia. It is food for thought that, while it was the Turks who conquered and settled the land of Anatolia in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, it was the Persians who were instrumental in bringing to these territories a developed Islamic religious and secular culture. (...) Quote in French: Les réfugiés iraniens qui entrèrent en grand nombre en Anatolie à la suite des invasions mongoles de l’Iran – les fonctionnaires, les poètes, les Sufis et, avant tout, les cadres religieux – transformèrent de l’intérieur la culture urbaine de cette région."{{cite book |last1=Findley |first1=Carter V. |title=The Turks in World History |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-517726-8 |page=72 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ToAjDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT89 |language=en |quote=Meanwhile, amid the migratory swarm that Turkified Anatolia, the dispersion of learned men from the Persian-speaking east paradoxically made the Seljuk court at Konya a new center for Perso-Islamic court culture.}} Iranian cultural, political, and literary traditions deeply influenced Anatolia in the early 13th century.{{sfn|Hickman|Leiser|2016|p=278}} The notable historian Ibn Bibi composed a six-volume Persian language poetic work called the Selçukname, modeled after the Shahnamah, which focused on the Seljuk sultans.{{sfn|Inalcik|2008|p=20}}

File:Standing man holding a pomegranate. Late 1220s, Kubadabad.jpg.{{cite book |title=Turks: a journey of a thousand years, 600-1600 |date=2005 |publisher=Royal Academy of Arts ; Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Harry N. Abrams |location=London : New York |isbn=978-1903973578 |page=117}}]]

Despite their Turkic origins, the Seljuks used Persian for administrative purposes; even their histories, which replaced Arabic, were in Persian.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Their usage of Turkish was hardly promoted at all.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Even Sultan Kilij Arslan II, as a child, spoke to courtiers in Persian.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Khanbaghi states the Anatolian Seljuks were even more Persianized than the Seljuks that ruled the Iranian plateau.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Persian poetry was written by sultans Suleiman II, Kayqubad I, and Kaykhusraw II.{{sfn|Inalcik|2008|p=21}} Written documents used either Persian or Anatolian Turkic, but the army used the Turkic language exclusively.{{cite book |title=Turks: a journey of a thousand years, 600-1600 |date=2005 |publisher=Royal Academy of Arts ; Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Harry N. Abrams |location=London : New York |isbn=978-1903973578 |page=106|quote=However, scholarship and literature were influences by Iran, and Persian was used alongside Anatolian Turkic in written documents during this period, although Turkic was the only language used by the army.}}

The Rahat al-sudur, the history of the Great Seljuk Empire and its breakup, written in Persian by Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi, was dedicated to Sultan Kaykhusraw I.{{sfn|Richards|Robinson|2003|p=265}} Even the Tārikh-i Āl-i Saldjūq, an anonymous history of the Sultanate of Rum, was written in Persian.{{sfn|Crane|1993|p=2}} The sultans of Rum were largely not educated in Arabic.{{sfn|Cahen|Holt|2001|p=163}} This clearly limited the Arab influence, or at least the direct influence, to a relatively small degree.{{sfn|Cahen|Holt|2001|p=163}} In contrast, Persian literature and Iranian influence expanded because most sultans and even a significant portion of the townspeople knew the language.{{sfn|Cahen|Holt|2001|p=163}}

One of its most famous Persian writers, Rumi, took his name from the name of the state. Moreover, Byzantine influence in the Sultanate was also significant, since Byzantine Greek aristocracy remained part of the Seljuk nobility, and the native Byzantine (Rûm) peasants remained numerous in the region.{{citation | chapter = The Oriental Margins of the Byzantine World: a Prosopographical Perspective | first = Rustam | last = Shukurov | editor-last1=Herrin|editor-first1=Judith|editor-last2=Saint-Guillain|editor-first2=Guillaume|title=Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_mazcfdpVIC|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-1098-0 | pages = 181–191 }}{{citation | chapter = A sultan in Constantinople: the feasts of Ghiyath al-Din Kay-Khusraw I | first = Dimitri | last = Korobeinikov | editor-last1 =Brubaker|editor-first1 = Leslie|editor-last2=Linardou|editor-first2=Kallirroe|title=Eat, Drink, and be Merry (Luke 12:19): Food and Wine in Byzantium: Papers of the 37th Annual Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, in Honour of Professor A.A.M. Bryer|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pGfbbVfR9Z8C&pg=PA96|date=2007|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-6119-1 | page = 96 }} Based on their genealogy, it appears that the Seljuk sultans favored Christian slave-concubines, just like the early Ottoman sultans. Within the Seljuk harem, Greek women were the most dominant.A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 121. Cultural Turkification in Anatolia first started during the 14th-century, particularly during the gradual rise of the Ottomans.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|2021|p=211}} With a population that included Byzantine Greeks, Armenians, Kurds, Turks, and Persians, the Seljuks were very successful between 1220 and 1250 and set the groundwork for later Islamization of Anatolia.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|2021|p=333}}

{{Main|Anatolian Seljuk architecture}}

File:Konya citadel (Plate 116b, Voyage de l'Asie Mineure, 1838).jpg (city walls of Konya), built and decorated by Kayqubad I in the 1220s, incorporated many Greco-Roman Classical elements for its decoration. Léon de Laborde, 1838]]

Architectural styles of the Sultanate of Rum were rather eclectic. The walls of Konya in particular, built by Kayqubad I (r.1220–1237), adopted many western decorative elements, such as a statue of Hercules, a frieze from a Roman sarcophagus, courtly scenes with seated figures in toga, winged deities around the figure of the sun, mixed with inscriptions in Arabic.{{cite journal |last1=Yalman |first1=Suzan |title=‘ALA AL-DIN KAYQUBAD ILLUMINATED: A RUM SELJUQ SULTAN AS COSMIC RULER |journal=Muqarnas Online |date=1 January 2012 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=151–186 |doi=10.1163/22118993-90000186 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274996239_'ALA_AL-DIN_KAYQUBAD_ILLUMINATED_A_RUM_SELJUQ_SULTAN_AS_COSMIC_RULER |quote=In some cases—such as the sultan’s well-known city walls in Konya—there appears to be, at first sight, an antiquarian penchant for the “classical” or “Roman” past (fig. 1). (...) Nevertheless, the portrait’s classicizing aspect is important in that it resonates with the use of spoliated classical sculpture in the walls of Konya (fig. 1). (...) Kayqubad’s walls in Konya. (...) above the statue of Hercules was a reused Roman sarcophagus frieze carved in high relief; the latter featured a courtly scene with a seated figure wearing a toga and holding an orb (“a ball, the symbol of the world” according to Kinneir). Above this image was an Arabic inscription and then winged “genies” making offerings to the “sun” (as described by Olivier).}} It would seem that such symbolism mixing Western and Eastern elements was mostly derived from the influence of the Artuqids, who were adept at combining Classical and Perso-Islamic approaches.{{cite journal |last1=Yalman |first1=Suzan |title=‘ALA AL-DIN KAYQUBAD ILLUMINATED: A RUM SELJUQ SULTAN AS COSMIC RULER |journal=Muqarnas Online |date=1 January 2012 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=151–186 |doi=10.1163/22118993-90000186 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274996239_'ALA_AL-DIN_KAYQUBAD_ILLUMINATED_A_RUM_SELJUQ_SULTAN_AS_COSMIC_RULER |quote=As I will argue below, in addition to obvious “Western” links, Kayqubad was also inspired by sources further “East,” such as the Artuqids of Hisn Kaifa and Amid (1102-1232), which combining Classical and Perso-Islamic impulses, seemed better suited as models. In fact, upon closer examination, these pagan/secular Roman imperial (“Western”) signs seemed to be infused with mystical/Sufi (“Eastern”) readings that imbued them with new meaning. Most significant was the emergence of an unexpected undercurrent of light symbolism.}}

In their construction of caravanserais, madrasas and mosques, the Rum Seljuks translated the Iranian Seljuk architecture of bricks and plaster into the use of stone.{{citation | chapter = West Asia: 1000–1500 | first1 = Sheila | last1 = Blair | first2 = Jonathan | last2 = Bloom | title = Atlas of World Art | editor-first = John | editor-last = Onians | publisher = Laurence King Publishing | date = 2004 | page = 130 }} Among these, the caravanserais (or hans), used as stops, trading posts and defense for caravans, and of which about a hundred structures were built during the Anatolian Seljuk period, are particularly remarkable. Along with Persian influences, which had an indisputable effect,Architecture (Muhammadan), H. Saladin, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol.1, Ed. James Hastings and John Alexander, (Charles Scribner's son, 1908), 753. Seljuk architecture was inspired by local Byzantine architects, for example in the Celestial Mosque in Sivas, and by Armenian architecture.Armenia during the Seljuk and Mongol Periods, Robert Bedrosian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times: The Dynastic Periods from Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century, Vol. I, Ed. Richard Hovannisian, (St. Martin's Press, 1999), 250. Anatolian architecture represents some of the most distinctive and impressive{{opinion|date=January 2025}} constructions in the entire history of Islamic architecture. Later, this Anatolian architecture would be inherited by the Sultanate of India.Lost in Translation: Architecture, Taxonomy, and the "Eastern Turks", Finbarr Barry Flood, Muqarnas: History and Ideology: Architectural Heritage of the "Lands of Rum, 96.

File:Gok_Medresesi1.jpg (Celestial Madrasa) of Sivas, built by a Greek (Rûm) subject in the periodic capital of the Sultanate of Rum in 1271]]

The largest caravanserai is the Sultan Han (built-in 1229) on the road between the cities of Konya and Aksaray, in the township of Sultanhanı, covering {{convert|3900|m2|abbr=on}}. Two caravanserais carry the name Sultan Han, the other one being between Kayseri and Sivas. Furthermore, apart from Sultanhanı, five other towns across Turkey owe their names to caravanserais built there. These are Alacahan in Kangal, Durağan, Hekimhan and Kadınhanı, as well as the township of Akhan within the Denizli metropolitan area. The caravanserai of Hekimhan is unique in having, underneath the usual inscription in Arabic with information relating to the tower, two further inscriptions in Armenian and Syriac, since it was constructed by the sultan Kayqubad I's doctor (hekim), who is thought to have been a Christian convert to Islam.

There are other particular cases, like the settlement in Kalehisar contiguous to an ancient Hittite site near Alaca, founded by the Seljuk commander Hüsameddin Temurlu, who had taken refuge in the region after the defeat in the Battle of Köse Dağ and had founded a township comprising a castle, a madrasa, a habitation zone and a caravanserai, which were later abandoned apparently around the 16th century. All but the caravanserai, which remains undiscovered, was explored in the 1960s by the art historian Oktay Aslanapa, and the finds as well as several documents attest to the existence of a vivid settlement in the site, such as a 1463 Ottoman firman which instructs the headmaster of the madrasa to lodge not in the school but in the caravanserai.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

The Seljuk palaces, as well as their armies, were staffed with ghilmān ({{langx|ar|غِلْمَان}}), singular ghulam), slave-soldiers taken as children from non-Muslim communities, mainly Greeks from former Byzantine territories. The practice of keeping ghilmān may have offered a model for the later devşirme during the time of the Ottoman Empire.{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|author-link=Junius P. Rodriguez|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery|url=https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr/page/306 306]|year=1997|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7 }}

File:Gulshah (right) disguised as a man, watches as her lover Varqa (centre) and his rival Rabi fight on horseback.jpg, 1225–1250 miniature, Konya, Sultanate of Rum.These knights were equipped with long swords and bows, and for protection used large shields ("kite-shields"), lamellar armour and hauberk mail {{cite book |last1=Gorelik |first1=Michael |title=Oriental Armour of the Near and Middle East from the Eighth to the Fifteenth Centuries as Shown in Works of Art (in Islamic Arms and Armour) |date=1979 |publisher=Robert Elgood |page=Fig. 38 |location=London |isbn=978-0859674706 |url=http://warfare.6te.net/Gorelik-Oriental_Armour.htm}}{{cite journal |last1=Sabuhi |first1=Ahmadov Ahmad oglu |title=The miniatures of the manuscript "Varka and Gulshah" as a source for the study of weapons of XII–XIII centuries in Azerbaijan |journal=Austrian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences |date=July–August 2015|issue=7–8 |pages=14–16 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305236939}}]]

The earliest known illustrated manuscript in the Persian language is an early 13th century copy of the epic Varka and Golshah, which was most probably created in Konya, under the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum.{{harvnb|Hillenbrand|2021|p=208}} "The earliest illustrated Persian manuscript, signed by an artist from Khuy in north-west Iran, was produced between 1225 and 1250, almost certainly in Konya. (Cf. A. S. Melikian-Chirvani, ‘Le roman de Varqe et Golsâh’, Arts Asiatiques XXII (Paris, 1970))"{{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=Sheila S. |title=Islamic Calligraphy |date=19 January 2020 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-1-4744-6447-5 |page=366 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m6QxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA366 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Necipoğlu |first1=Gülru |last2=Leal |first2=Karen A. |title=Muqarnas |date=1 October 2009 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-17589-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gq6obUbnqsMC&pg=PA235 |language=en}} It can be dated to circa 1250.{{cite book |last1=Bloom |first1=Jonathan |last2=Blair |first2=Sheila |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set |date=14 May 2009 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA214 |page=214–215 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Ettinghausen |first1=Richard |title=Arab painting |date=1977 |publisher=New York : Rizzoli |isbn=978-0-8478-0081-0 |page=91, [https://archive.org/details/arabpainting0000etti/page/92/mode/2up?q=%22Illustration+page+91%22 92], [https://archive.org/details/arabpainting0000etti/page/162/mode/2up?q=%22these+Turks%22 162] commentary |url=https://archive.org/details/arabpainting0000etti/page/91/mode/2up |quote=The two scenes in the top and bottom registers (...) may be strongly influenced by contemporary Seljuk Persian (...) like those in the recently discovered Varqeh and Gulshah (p.92) (...) In the painting the facial cast of these Turks is obviously reflected, and so are the special fashions and accoutrements they favored. (p.162, commentary on image from p.91)}}

The miniatures represent typical Central Asian people, thickset with large round heads.{{cite journal |last1=Waley |first1=P. |last2=Titley |first2=Norah M. |title=An Illustrated Persian Text of Kalīla and Dimna Dated 707/1307-8 |journal=The British Library Journal |date=1975 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=42–61 |jstor=42553970 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42553970 |issn=0305-5167 |quote="A unique Seljùq manuscript in the Topkapi Sarayi Museum Library (Hazine 841) (fig. 7). This manuscript, the romance Varqa va Gulshah, probably dates from the early thirteenth century . The figures in the miniatures with the typical features of Central Asian people are squat and thickset with large round heads. They are to be seen again in a more sophisticated form in the so-called Turkman style miniatures produced in Shiraz c. 1460 – 1502 under the patronage of another dynasty of Turkman invaders."}} They also provide rare depictions of the contemporary military of the Seljuk period, and may have influenced other known depictions of Turkic Seljuk soldiers.{{cite book |last1=Ettinghausen |first1=Richard |title=Arab painting |date=1977 |publisher=New York : Rizzoli |isbn=978-0-8478-0081-0 |pages=91–92 |url=https://archive.org/details/arabpainting0000etti/page/92/mode/2up?q=%22Illustration+page+91%22}} All depicted costumes and accoutrements are contemporary to the artist, in the 13th century CE. The miniatures constitute the first known example of illustrated Persian-language manuscript, dating from the pre-Mongol era, and are useful in studying weapons of the period.{{cite journal |last1=Sabuhi |first1=Ahmadov Ahmad oglu |title=The miniatures of the manuscript "Varka and Gulshah" as a source for the study of weapons of XII–XIII centuries in Azerbaijan |journal=Austrian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences |date=July–August 2015|issue=7–8 |pages=14–16 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305236939}}{{cite book |last1=Gorelik |first1=Michael |title=Oriental Armour of the Near and Middle East from the Eighth to the Fifteenth Centuries as Shown in Works of Art (in Islamic Arms and Armour) |date=1979 |publisher=Robert Elgood |page=Fig.38 |location=London |isbn=978-0859674706 |url=http://warfare.6te.net/Gorelik-Oriental_Armour.htm}} Particularly, metal face masks and chainmail helmets in Turkic fashion, and armor with small metal plates connected through straps, large round shields (the largest of them called "kite-shields") and long teardrop shields, armoured horses are depicted. The weapons and armour types depicted in the miniatures were common in the Middle East and the Caucasus in the Seljuk era.

The earliest documented Rum Seljuq copper coins were made in the first part of the twelfth century in Konya and the eastern Anatolian emirates.{{sfn|Beihammer|2017|p=20}} Extensive numismatic evidence suggests that, starting in the middle of the thirteenth century and continuing until the end of the Seljuk dynasty, silver-producing mints and silver coinage flourished, particularly in central and eastern Anatolia.{{sfn|Pamuk|2000|p=28}}

File:Suleyman II of Rum, Qunya, 597 H (1200-1201).jpg of Rum, Konya, 597 H (1200–1201 CE)]]

Most of Kilij Arslan II's coins were minted in Konya between 1177–78 and 1195, with a small amount also occurring in Sivas, which the Rum Seljuks conquered from the Danishmendids.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}} Sivas may have started minting coins in 1185–1186.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}} The majority of Kılıj Arslan II's coins are silver dirhams; however, there are also a few dinars and one or two fulūs (small copper coins) issues.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}} Following his death the sultanate was divided among his sons. Muhyiddin Mesut, son of Kilij Arslan II, minted coins in the northwesterly cities of Ankara, Çankırı, Eskişehir, and Kaztamunu from 1186 to 1200.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}} Tughril ibn Kılıç Arslan II's reign in Erzurum, another son of Kilij Arslan II, minted silver dirhams in 1211–1212.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}}

File:Kaykhusraw II dirham.jpg, minted at Sivas, 1240–1241 AD]]

The sun-lion and the equestrian are the two central motifs in the Rum Seljuq numismatic figural repertoire.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=69}} The image of a horseman with two more arrows ready and his bow taut represents strength and control and is a representation of the ideal Seljuq king of the Great Age.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=69}} The image initially appeared on Rum Seljuq copper coins in the late eleventh century.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=69}} The first to add equestrian iconography to silver and gold coins was Suleiman II of Rûm(r. 1196–1204).{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=69}} Antalya minted coins with Kaykaus I's name from November 1261 to November 1262.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|p=104}} Between 1211 and 1219, the bulk of his coins are minted at Konya and Sivas.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}}

A significant portion of the Islamic Near East may have experienced a "silver famine" owing to little, or very little, silver mintings from the eleventh and most of the twelfth centuries. However, at the start of the thirteenth century a "silver flood" occurred in Rum Seljuq territory when Anatolian silver mines were discovered.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=68}} The fineness of Rum Seljuq dirhams is similar to that of dinars; frequently, both were struck using the same dies.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=68}} The Seljuq silver coinage's superior quality and prominence contributed to the dynasty's affluence throughout the early part of the thirteenth century and explains why it served as a kind of anchor for the local "currency community."{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|pp=68–69}} The Empire of Trebizond and Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia silver coins were modeled after the fineness and weight specifications of Rum Seljuq coins.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=69}}

{{further|Seljuk dynasty}}

File:Double-headed eagle, with al-Sultan inscription on the chest. Kubadabad, 1220s.jpg, 1220s.{{cite journal |last1=Redford |first1=Scott |title=Thirteenth-Century Rum Seljuq Palaces and Palace Imagery |journal=Ars Orientalis |date=1993 |volume=23 |page=231, Fig.10 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629450 |issn=0571-1371}}]]

{{History of Turkey}}

{{History of the Turks pre-14th century}}

As regards with the names of the sultans, there are variants in form and spelling depending on the preferences displayed by one source or the other, either for fidelity in transliterating the Persian variant of the Arabic script which the sultans used, or for a rendering corresponding to the modern Turkish phonology and orthography. Some sultans had two names that they chose to use alternatively in reference to their legacy. While the two palaces built by Alaeddin Keykubad I carry the names Kubadabad Palace and Keykubadiye Palace, he named his mosque in Konya as Alâeddin Mosque and the port city of Alanya he had captured as "Alaiye". Similarly, the medrese built by Kaykhusraw I in Kayseri, within the complex (külliye) dedicated to his sister Gevher Nesibe, was named Gıyasiye Medrese, and the one built by Kaykaus I in Sivas as Izzediye Medrese.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

The colors of the boxes are as follows

{{legend2|AliceBlue|Seljuks of Anatolia |border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}:

{{legend2|#F5FFFA|Great Seljuk|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}:

{{legend2|Linen|Non reigning members|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}:

{{col-begin|width=95%}}

|

{{tree chart/start}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background: #F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | | DUQ| | | | | | | | |DUQ=Tukak Temur
Yalig Beg
Commander-in-chief
of The Oghuz army or Khazar army}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background: #F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background: #F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | | SEL | | | | | | | | |SEL=Seljuk Beg
The founder of
Seljuk dynasty}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:#F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.|}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:#F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | |ARS | | MIK | | MUS | | YUN | | |YUN=Yunus|MUS=Musa Yabgu |MIK=Mikail| ARS=Arslan Yabgu
Chief of Seljuk dynasty |boxstyle_ARS= background-color: #F5FFFA;}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:#F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |)|-|-|-|.| |}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:#F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | |QBA | | TOG | | CHG | | |TOG=Toghrul I
Sultan of Great Seljuk | CHG=Chaghri-Beg
Governor of Khorasan | IBR=Ibrahim Inal | ERD=Er-Dash|QBA=Qutalmish
Father of the founder of
Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate|boxstyle_QBA= background-color: #F5FFFA; }}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background: #F5FFFA;| | | |~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|t|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|t|~|~|~|~|~|~|}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | |AA|AA=Suleyman I of Rum
(1077–1086)| | | | | |Bb |Bb=Alp Arslan
Sultan of Great Seljuk|boxstyle_Bb= background-color:#F5FFFA;}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!|}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | |AA|AA=Kilij Arslan I
(1092–1107)}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | |Aa | | | | | |Bb| Aa=Mesut I
(1116–1156)|Bb= Melikshah
(1110–1116)}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | }}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | |Aa | | | | | | | | |Aa=Kilij Arslan II
(1156–1192)}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| | | }}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Aa | | | | | |Bb| | | | | | |Bb=Keyhusrev I
(1192–1196) & (1205–1211)|Aa=Suleyman II
(1196–1204)}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|.}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Cc | |Aa | | | |Bb| |Aa=Keykaus I
(1211–1220)|Bb=Keykubat I
(1220–1237)|Cc=Kilij Arslan III
(1204–1205)}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| }}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Aa|Aa=Keyhusrev II
(1237–1246)}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|-|-|.}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | |Aa | | | |Bb| | | |Cc |Aa=Kilij Arslan IV After 1249 triple reign of three brothers
(1249–1266)|Bb=Keykaus II
(1246–1257)|Cc=Keykubat II
(1249–1254)}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | |!| | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | |}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | |Cc| |Aa | |Bb| | | |Aa=Faramurz|Bb=Mesut II
(1284–1296) & (1303-1307)|Cc=Keyhusrev III
(1266–1284)|boxstyle_Aa= background-color:AliceBlue;}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | }}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | |Aa|Aa=Keykubat III
(1296–1302)|boxstyle_Aa= background-color:AliceBlue;}}

{{tree chart/end}}

{{col-end}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:PaleTurquoise;| | | | | | | | |SEL | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |ALT | | | | | | | | | |SEL=Seljuk Beg
The founder of
Seljuk dynasty|ALT=Altun Tash
(1017–1032)|boxstyle_ALT=background-color:Aquamarine;|boxstyle_SEL=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:4px solid #0000FF;}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:PaleTurquoise;| | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | |,|-|^|-|.|}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | |ARS | | MIK |v|MOD |v| YUS | | YUN | | MUS | | |Ii| |Jj| YUN=YûnusRâvendî, Muhammed b. Ali, Râhatü’s-sudûr, (Ateş Publications), vol. I, p. 85.Müstevfî, Târîḫ-i Güzîde, (Nevâî Publications), p. 426. | YUS=Yûsuf InalZahîrüddîn-i Nîsâbûrî, Selcûḳnâme, (Muhammed Ramazânî Publications), Tahran 1332, p. 10.Reşîdüddin Fazlullāh-ı Hemedânî, Câmiʿu’t-tevârîḫ, (Ahmed Ateş Publications), Ankara 1960, vol. II/5, p. 5.| MUS=Mûsâ{{cite book|author=Osman Gazi Özgüdenli| title=MÛSÂ YABGU|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/musa-yabgu|volume=EK-2|date=2016|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|pages=324–325}}(İnanç)Yabgu | MOD=The mother of
Toghrul I, Chaghri,
Ibrahim & Artash | MIK=Mikail ibn Seljuk|Ii=Harun
(r. 1032–1035)|Jj=Ismail Khandan
(r. 1035–1041)| ARS=Arslan Yabgu
Chief of Seljuk dynasty|boxstyle_MOD= background-color:LightCyan;border:3px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_Ii= background-color:Aquamarine;|boxstyle_Jj=background-color:Aquamarine;|boxstyle_ARS=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:#F5FFFA;| | | | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |,|-|^|-|.| |`|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | | |:| |}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:LightCyan;| | | | |RSG | |QBA | |TOG | |CHG |.|IBR | |ERD | |HAS | |MUS | | |Ii|Ii=Shah Malik
(r. 1041–1042)|MUS=Yûsuf,Beyhakī, Târîḫ, (Behmenyâr), p. 71. Kara Arslan, Abu Bakr, Umar, Bori & Dawlatshah| TOG=Toghrul Beg
First sultan of
the Seljuks
(r. 1037–1063)| CHG=Chaghri Beg
Co-ruler of
the Seljuk dynasty | IBR=Ibrahim Inal |HAS=Abu Ali Hasan Yabgu{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Osman Gazi Özgüdenli| title=MÛSÂ YABGU|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/musa-yabgu|volume=Supplement 2|pages=324–325}}|RSG= Rasūl Tagīn|QBA=Qutalmish{{cite book|author=Faruk Sümer| title=KUTALMIŞ|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/26/C26008628.pdf|volume=26|date=2002|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|isbn= 978-9-7538-9406-7|pages=480–481}}
Father of the founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate|ERD=Artash Inal |boxstyle_HAS= background-color:AliceBlue; |boxstyle_MUS= background-color:AliceBlue;|boxstyle_TOG= background-color:LightCyan;border:6px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_CHG= background-color:LightCyan;border:4px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_IBR= background-color:LightCyan;border:2px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_ERD= background-color:LightCyan;border:1px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Turquoise;|boxstyle_QBA=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_RSG=background-color:AliceBlue;border:1px solid #0000FF;}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| |~|~|~|~|,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.|~|~|~|,|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|:| |}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |MAN |F|AA| |AİL |MAN= Mānsūr|AA={{cite book|author=Sevim, Ali|title=SÜLEYMAN ŞAH I|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/38/C38012445.pdf|volume=38|date=2010|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|isbn= 978-9-7538-9590-3|pages=103–105}}Suleyman I Shah of Rûm{{cite book|author=Sümer, Faruk| title=ANADOLU SELÇUKLULARI|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015917.pdf|volume=36|date=2009|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|isbn= 978-9-7538-9566-8|pages=380–384}}
(r. 1077–1086)| |AİL=Alp Ilig and Dawlat|SUL |Bb=Alp Arslan
(r. 1063–1072)| |Bb| | | | | |QAW | | | | | | |Ii|Ii=Seljuk rule
in Khwarazm
(r. 1042–1077)|QAW=Kavurt{{cite book|author=Özaydın, Abdülkerim|title=KAVURD BEY|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/25/C25008111.pdf|volume=25|date=2002|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|isbn= 978-9-7538-9403-6 |pages=73–74}} Beg
(r. 1048–1073)
Kirman Seljuks|boxstyle_QAW= background-color:#E9FFDB;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:LightCyan;|boxstyle_AA=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:7px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb= background-color:LightCyan;border:7px solid DarkGreen;|SUL=Suleiman{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sevim, Ali|title=ÇAĞRI BEY|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/8/C08003025.pdf|volume=8|pages=183–186}}
(r. 1063){{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk| title=SELÇUKLULAR|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015912.pdf|volume=36|pages=365–371}}|boxstyle_SUL= background-color:LightCyan;border:3px solid DarkGreen;}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |F|~|J| |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | | |:| |}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |ABQ |~|~|t|~|~|ABG | | | | |,|MLK | |Cc| |Dd| |Ee| | |Ii|Ii=Anūsh Tekīn
(r. 1077–1097)|ABQ=Abu'l-Qasim (İznik)
(r. 1086–1092)|MLK=Malik-Shah I
(r. 1072–1092)|ABG= Abu'l Ghazi Hasan Bey (Kayseri)|boxstyle_MLK= background-color:LightCyan;border:6px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_ABQ= background-color:Moccasin;|boxstyle_ABG= background-color:Moccasin;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|Cc=Kīrmān{{cite book|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=Kirman Selçuks|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015915.pdf|volume=36|date=2009|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|isbn= 978-9-7538-9566-8 |pages=377–379}} Shah
(r. 1073–1074)|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:#E9FFDB;|Dd=Sultan Shah
(r. 1074–1085)|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:#E9FFDB;|Ee=Turan I Shah
(r. 1085–1097)|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:#E9FFDB;}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | |f|~|~|~|7| | | |,|-|+|-|.| | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | |,|-|l3| | }}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Dd|v|AA| |Bb| |MAH |!|BAR | |Ee|-|Ff| |Cc| |!|Ii|Ii=Ekinchi
(r. 1097)|AA=Kilij Arslan I
(r. 1092–1107)| | |BAR=Barkiyaruq{{cite book|author=Sümer, Faruk| title=SELÇUKLULAR|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015912.pdf|volume=36|date=2009|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|isbn= 978-9-7538-9566-8|pages=365–371}}
(r. 1092–1104)|boxstyle_BAR= background-color:LightCyan;border:6px solid DarkGreen;|MAH=Mahmud I{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Bezer, Gülay Öğün|title=TERKEN HATUN, the mother of MAHMÛD I|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/40/C40013256.pdf|volume=40|page=510}} Terken Khatun (wife of Malik-Shah I).{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Özaydın, Abdülkerim|title=MELİKŞAH|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/29/C29009379.pdf|volume=29|pages=54–57}}{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Özaydın, Abdülkerim|title=BERKYARUK|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/5/C05002147.pdf|volume=5|pages=514–516}}
(r. 1092–1094)|boxstyle_MAH= background-color:LightCyan;border:4px solid DarkGreen;|Dd=Ayisha Khātun
(r. in Malatya)|Bb=Kulan Arslan (Dāvûd)|Cc= Îrânshah
(r. 1097–1101)|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:#E9FFDB;|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:Seashell;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_AA=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|Ee= Arslan Shah I
(r. 1101–1142)|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:#E9FFDB;|Ff=Muhammad I Mālīk Shah
(r. 1142–1156)|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:#E9FFDB;}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |,|-|'| |)|-|.| | | |,|-|v|-|'| |!| | | |,|-|-|-|'| | | | | | |`|-|.| | |boxstyle_Cc= background-color:#E9FFDB;}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Aa|F|Bb|!| | | |!|TAP |.|MLK | |Cc|-|Gg|~|Jj| | |Ii|Ii=Qutbū'd-Dīn
Muhammad
(r. 1097–1127)|Aa=Toghrul Arslan
(r. 1107–1124)|Bb= Malīk Shah of Rûm
(r. 1110–1116)|MLK=Malik-Shah II
(r. 1104–1105)|Cc=Toghrul Shah
(r. 1156–1170)|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:#E9FFDB;|TAP=Muhammad I Tapar
(r. 1105–1118)|boxstyle_TAP= background-color:LightCyan;border:6px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_Aa= background-color:Seashell;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_MLK= background-color:LightCyan;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Gg=Bahrām Shah
(r. 1170–1175)
Arslan II Shah
(r. 1170–1177)|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:#E9FFDB;|Jj=Turan II Shah
(r. 1177–1183)
Muhammad II
(r. 1183–1187)|boxstyle_Jj= background-color:#E9FFDB;}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |F|~|J| |,|-|^|-|.| |`|-|.| |`|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | |!| | |}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |GA | |Aa | |Dd | |SAN | |MAH| |Ff| |Jj|F|Gg| | |Ii|Ii=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Ātsız
(r. 1127–1156)|SAN=Ahmad Sanjar
(r. 1118–1153)
Last Sultan of The Great Seljuk|Aa=Rukn ad-Dīn Mas'ūd I
(r. 1116–1156)|boxstyle_SAN= background-color:#00CC99;border:7px solid DarkGreen;|GA=Gündüz AlpEnverî, Düstûrnâme-i Enverî, pp. 78–80, 1464.|boxstyle_GA= background-color:#F5FFFA;|Dd=Malīk Arab
(r. 1116–1127)
in Ankara|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:7px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|MAH=Mahmud II{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Özaydın, Abdülkerim|title=MAHMÛD b. MUHAMMED TAPAR|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/27/C27008916.pdf|volume=27|pages=371–372}}
(r. 1118–1131)
First sultan of
The Iraqi Seljuks|boxstyle_MAH= background-color:LightCyan;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Ff=Toghrul II{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=TUĞRUL I|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/41/C41013431.pdf|volume=41|pages=341–342}}
(r. 1132–1134)
Masud{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=MES‘ÛD b. MUHAMMED TAPAR|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/29/C29009546.pdf|volume=29|pages=349–351}}
(r. 1134–1152)|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:LightCyan;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Gg=Qizil Arslan
(r. 1191)
de facto ruler of Toghrul III
Atabeg of the Eldiguzids|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:Moccasin;border:3px solid DarkGreen;|Jj=Suleiman-Shah
(r. 1159–1160)|boxstyle_Jj= background-color:LightCyan;border:3px solid DarkGreen;}}

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{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Bb | |Aa | |Gg | |MAH | |QAW | |Ff|-|TOG|J| |Hh|v|Ii|Ii=Tāj ad-Dīn
İl-Arslan
(r. 1156–1172)|QAW=Malik-Shah III
(r. 1152–1153)
Muhammad II
(r. 1153–1159)|boxstyle_QAW= background-color:LightCyan;border:3px solid DarkGreen;|MAL=5.Malik-Shah III
(r. 1152–1153)|Aa=ʿIzz ad-Dīn
Kilij Arslan II
(r. 1156–1192)|TOG=Toghrul III{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=Ebû Tâlib TUĞRUL b. ARSLANŞAH b. TUĞRUL|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/41/C41013432.pdf|volume=41|pages=342–344}}
(r. 1177–1191, 1192–1194)
Last sultan|boxstyle_TOG= background-color:#ACE1AF;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Bb=Danismendli Grooms Yağıbasan (Sivas) & ZūnNūn (Kayseri)|Gg=Malīk Shāhīn Shāh (Ankara, Çankırı, Kastamonu); Daulat|Hh=Terken Khatun|boxstyle_Bb= background-color:LavenderBlush;|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_Hh=background-color:Aqua;|Ff=Arslan-Shah{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=ARSLANŞAH b. TUĞRUL |url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/3/C03001268.pdf|volume=3|pages=404–406}}
(r. 1160–1177)|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:LightCyan;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Jj=Turan II Shah
(r. 1177–1183)
Muhammad II
(r. 1183–1187)|boxstyle_Jj= background-color:#E9FFDB;|MAH=Dawud{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=IRAK SELÇUKLULARI|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015921.pdf|volume=36|page=387}}
(r. 1131–1132)|boxstyle_MAH= background-color:LightCyan;border:2px solid DarkGreen;}}

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{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Aa| |Dd|v|Bb|v|Cc| |Ee|:|Ff| | |Gg|v|Ii| |Hh| |Bb=Ghiyāth ad-Dīn
Kay Khusraw I
(r. 1192–1196) &
(r. 1205–1211)|Aa=Rukn ad-Dīn Suleyman II Shah of Rûm
(r. 1196–1204)|Cc= Dawlat Raziya Khatun|Dd=The mothers of
ʿIzz ad-Dīn
Kay Kāwus I and
Jalāl ad-Dīn Kay Farīdûn|Ff=Qutbū'd-Dīn
Malīk Shāh
(Sivas, Aksaray)
Arslan Shāh
(Niğde)|Ee=Malīka İsmetū'd-DīnGevher Nesibe Sultan|Gg=Terken Khatun
de facto ruler of Muhammad|Hh=Jalāl ad-Dīn Sultān Shāh
(r. 1172–1193)|Ii=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Takish
(r. 1172–1200)|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Hh=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_Gg=background-color:Aqua;}}

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{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Cc|:|Aa| |Hh|v|Bb|j|Gg| |Ii| |Kk|:| |Ll|-|Mm| | |Aa=ʿIzz ad-Dīn
Kay Kāwus I
(r. 1211–1220)|Bb=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn
Kay Qubād I
(r. 1220–1237)|Cc=Kilij Arslan III
(r. 1204–1205)|Hh=Hunad-Māh Pari Khātun of Kir Fard of Alanya Castle|Gg=Malīka Ādīla Ghāzīya Khātun of Ayyubids|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:PeachPuff;|Ii=Muhyi'd-Dīn Masud Shāh (Ankara, Çankırı, Eskişehir)|Kk=Nurū'd-[Dīn Mahmud Sultān Shāh (Kayseri)|Ll=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Muhammad
(r. 1200–1220)|Mm=Jalāl ad-Dīn Mangubardī
(r. 1220–1231)|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:7px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Cc=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Ll=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_Mm=background-color:Aqua;}}

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{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Hh| |Ff|j|Cc|v|Aa|v|Bb|-|Ee| |Dd|:|Gg| | |Mm||Mm=Ögedei established the Mongol rule
in Khwarezmia
(r. 1229–1241)|Aa=Ghiyāth ad-Dīn
Kay Khusraw II
(r. 1237–1246)|Bb=Gurju Khatun (Bagrationi dynasty of Georgians)|Cc=Bardūlīya Khātun (Prodoulia)|Ff=Sāhīp Shams
ad-Dīn Īsfahānī (1246–1249)Grand Vizier Sāhīp Shams ad-Dīn Īsfahānī ruled the country on behalf of ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II between 1246 and 1249|Hh=Jalāl ad-Dīn
Kay Farīdûn
(Koyulhisar)|Dd=ʿIzz ad-Dīn
Kilij Arslan,
Rukn ad-Dīn and two daughters|Ee=Mu‘in ad-Dīn SuleymanGrand Vizier Parwāna Mu‘in al-Din Suleyman ruled the country on behalf of Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw III between 1266 and 2 August 1277 (1 Rabi' al-awwal 676) (Parwāna)|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:MistyRose;|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:#FAE7B5;|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:PeachPuff;|Gg=Mugisū'd-Dīn Toghrul Shāh (Elbistan)
Muizū'd-Dīn Kāysar Shāh (Malatya)|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Mm= background-color:Coral;}}

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{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Ff| |Dd| |Bb| |Aa|.|Cc| |Ee| |Nn| |Mm| |,|Hh|Hh=Möngke appointed Hulagu, the son of Tolui, as Il khan of the Mongol Empire in 1253|Ff=Karîm ad-Dīn Karaman Bey
(r. 1256–1263)
(Karamanoğulları
Anatolian Beylik)||Aa=Rukn ad-Dīn
Kilij Arslan IV
(r. 1249–1254) &
(r. 1257–1262) &
(1262–1266)Between 1262 and 1266 Rukn ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan IV reigned alone|Bb=ʿIzz ad-Dīn
Kay Kāwus II
(1246–1249)Between 1246 and 1249 ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II reigned alone
(r. 1249–1254) &
(r. 1254–1262)ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II was defeated on October 14, 1256 in Sultanhanı (Sultan Han, Aksaray) and he acceded to the throne on May 1, 1257 again after the departure of Baiju Noyan from Anatolia|Cc=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād II Between 1249 and 1254 triple reign of three brothers
(r. 1249–1254)|Dd=Unknown son{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|p=108–109}}| boxstyle_Dd= background-color:#FFFFCC;|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Cc=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|Mm=Nasirū'd-Dīn Barkyāruk Shāh (Niksar, Koyulhisar)
|Nn=Nizāmū'd-Dīn Argun Shāh (Amasya)
Sanjar Shāh
(Ereğli)|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:#F7E7CE;|boxstyle_Hh= background-color:LightPink;|Ee=Pervâneoğulları Anatolian Beylik (established in
Sinop in 1277)|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:MistyRose;}}

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{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Aa|~|Bb| |Jj| |Hh| |Cc| |Ee|,|Gg| |!|Dd| |Ff|Gg=Mū'hazzab
ūd-Dīn Ali|boxstyle_Gg=background-color:#FAE7B5|Dd=Kubilai endorsed Abaqa, the son of Hulagu, as Il-Khan in 1270
(r. 1265–1282)|Ff=Ahmad Tagüdar
(r. 1282–1284)|Cc=Ghiyāth ad-Dīn
Kay Khusraw III
(r. 1266–1282) &
(r. 1282–1284)|Bb=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Sīyāvuş
(15 May 1277 – 20 June 1277) According to İbn Bîbî, el-Evâmirü’l-ʿAlâʾiyye, p. 727. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 675 – 17 Muharram 676) or According to Yazıcıoğlu Ali, Tevârih-i Âl-i Selçuk, p. 62. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 677 – 17 Muharram 678)
(24 April 1279 – 30 May 1279)|Aa=Karamanoğlu Shams ad-Dīn Mehmed Bey
(Grand Vizier of ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Sīyāvuş)|boxstyle_Aa= background-color:#F7E7CE;|Ee=Mu‘in ad-Dīn Mehmed
(r. 1277–1297)|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:MistyRose;|boxstyle_Cc=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Jj=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:LightPink;|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:LightPink;|Jj=Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd II
(r. 1282–1284) &
(r. 1284–1296)|Hh=Farāmurz|boxstyle_Hh=background-color:AliceBlue;border:2px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:AliceBlue;border:2px solid #0000FF;}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |:| |!| | | | |!| |)|-|-|-|.| }}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:4px solid #0000FF;|border_Cc=2| | | | |Ff|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|Aa| | | | | |Cc|'| |Gg|'|Dd| |Ee| | | |Dd=Arghun
(r. 1284–1291)|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:LightPink;|Ee= Gaykhatu
(r. 1291–1295)|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:LightPink;|Cc=Mū'hazzab
ūd-Dīn Masūd
(r. 1297–1300)|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:MistyRose;|Ff=Uç Beylik of Osman established |Aa=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād III
(r. 1298–1302)|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:MediumSpringGreen;|Gg=Taraqay|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:LightYellow;}}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |!| | | | | | | |F|~|~|~|J| | | | | | | |!| | | | |!| | | |)|-|-|-|.| }}

{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:4px solid #0000FF;|border_Cc=2| | | | |Cc| | | | | |Aa| | | | | | | | | |Ee| | |Gg| |Dd| |Ff|Cc=Osman of Ottomans
(r. 1299–1323/4)|Aa=Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd II
(r. 1303–1308)|Ee=Gazi Chelebi
(r. 1300–1322)|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:MistyRose;|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:MediumSpringGreen;|Gg= Baydu
(r. 1295)|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:LightPink;|Dd=Ghazan
(r. 1295–1304)|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:LightPink;|Ff= Öljaitü
(r. 1304–1316)|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:LightPink;}}

{{tree chart/end}}

{{col-break}}

• The list of important historical events
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• Chaghri Beg defeated Shah-Malik ibn Ali in Makran in 1042 and ended Ghaznevid rule in Khwarazm
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• Establishment
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• Alp Arslan defeated Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes in the Battle of Malazgirt in 1071
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• The First Crusade
• Crusade of 1101
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• Second Crusade
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• ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslān defeated Manuel I Komnenos in the Battle of Myriokephalon
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• Third Crusade
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• Ala ad-Din Tekish-Khwarazmshah ended The Great Seljuk Empire in Ray, Khorasan in 1194
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• Zenith of Anatolian Seljuks
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• Kayqubad the Great defeated Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu in the Battle of Yassıçimen in 1230
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• Chormaqan defeated Mangubartī in the Battle of Indus on August 1231 and ended Khwarazmshahs
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• Babai Revolt
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• Baiju Noyan defeated Kay Khusraw II in the Battle of Kösedağ in 1243 and Anatolian Seljuks became a vassal state of Mongol Empire
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• Güyük designated Kilij Arslan IV the Sultan of Rum in 1248
• Triple reign (1249–1254)
• Hulagu captured Alamut in 1256
• Anatolian Seljuks were divided into two by a firman of Möngke Khan in 1258/1259
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• Ilkhanate gained independence from the Mongol Empire in 1295 after the demise of Kublai Khan on February 18, 1294
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• Ottoman State emerged in Söğüt, Bilecik in 1299
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• Disestablishment period of
• The Anatolian Seljuks
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• Ilkhanate disintegrated after 1336

{{col-end}}

|}

• Babai Revolt
• Byzantine–Seljuk Wars
• List of battles involving the Seljuk Empire
• Rûm Eyalet, Ottoman Empire

{{notelist}}

{{reflist|group=note}}

{{Reflist|group=Note|30em}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite book |title=Byzantium and the Emergence of Muslim–Turkish Anatolia, Ca. 1040–1130 |first=Alexander Daniel |last=Beihammer |publisher=Routledge |year=2017 }}
• {{cite book|title=The New Islamic Dynasties: a Chronological and Genealogical Manual |isbn=0-7486-2137-7 |author=Bosworth, C. E. |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year= 2004 |author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}
• {{cite book|title=Selcuklu Kervansarayları, Korunmaları Ve Kullanlmaları üzerine bir öneri: A Proposal regarding the Seljuk Caravanserais, Their Protection and Use |isbn=975-7438-75-8 |author=Bektaş, Cengiz |year=1999 |publisher=Yapı-Endüstri Merkezi Yayınları |language=tr, en}}
• {{cite book |title=The Formation of Turkey. The Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century |first1=Claude |last1=Cahen |first2=Peter Malcolm |last2=Holt |publisher=Longman |year=2001 }}
• {{cite book |title=Court and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs |editor-first1=Sheila R. |editor-last1=Canby |editor-first2=Deniz |editor-last2=Beyazit |editor-first3=Maryam |editor-last3=Rugiadi |editor-first4=A.C.S. |editor-last4=Peacock |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=2016 }}
• {{cite journal |title= Notes on Saldjūq Architectural Patronage in Thirteenth Century Anatolia |first=H. |last=Crane |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=36 |pages=1–57 |number=1 |year=1993 |doi=10.1163/156852093X00010 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Frankopan |first1=Peter |title=The First Crusade: The call from the East |date=2013 |publisher=Vintage |location=London |isbn=9780099555032}}
• {{cite book |first1= Bill |last1=Hickman |first2 = Gary |last2 = Leiser |title=Turkish Language, Literature, and History: Travelers' Tales, Sultans, and Scholars Since the Eighth Century|publisher=Routledge |year=2016 }}
• {{cite book |last=Hillenbrand|first=Carole|title=The Seljuqs and their Successors: Art, Culture and History |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-1474450348 |editor-last1=Canby|editor-first1=Sheila|editor-last2=Beyazit|editor-first2=Deniz|editor-last3=Rugiadi|editor-first3=Martina|pages=6–16|chapter=What is Special about Seljuq History?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=46MxEAAAQBAJ}}
• {{cite book | last = Hillenbrand | first = Carole | title = The Medieval Turks: Collected Essays | year = 2021 | publisher = Edinburgh University Press | isbn = 978-1474485944 }}
• {{cite journal |last=Inalcik |first=Halil |translator-first=Michael D. |translator-last=Sheridan |title=The Origins of Classical Ottoman Literature: Persian Tradition, Court Entertainments, and Court Poets |journal=Journal of Turkish Literature |issue=5 |publisher=Bilkent University Centure for Turkish Literature |year=2008 |pages=5{{endash}}76 }}
• {{cite book |last=Itzkowitz |first=Norman |authorlink = Norman Itzkowitz |title=Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition |date=1980 | publisher = University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226388069}}
• {{cite book |title=Writing History at the Ottoman Court: Editing the Past, Fashioning the Future |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2013 |chapter=The Historical Epic "Ahval-i Sultan Mehemmed" (The Tales of Sultan Mehmed) in the Context of Early Ottoman Historiography |first=Dimitris |last=Kastritsis }}
• {{cite book |chapter=Champions of the Persian Language: The Mongols or the Turks? |first=Aptin |last=Khanbaghi |title=The Mongols' Middle East: Continuity and Transformation in Ilkhanid Iran |editor-first1=Bruno |editor-last1=De Nicola |editor-first2=Charles |editor-last2=Melville |publisher=Brill |year=2016 }}
• {{cite book |title=The Rum Seljuqs: Evolution of a Dynasty |first=Songul |last=Mecit |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2013}}
• {{cite book |title=A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire |first=Sevket |last=Pamuk |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Richards |first1=Donald S. |first2=Chase F. |last2=Robinson |title=Texts, documents, and Artefacts |publisher=Brill |year=2003 }}
• {{cite book |title=Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places |editor-first1=Trudy |editor-last1=Ring |editor-first2=Noelle |editor-last2=Watson |editor-first3=Paul |editor-last3=Schellinger |volume=3 |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 }}
• {{cite book |title=The Byzantine Turks, 1204–1461 |first=Rustam |last=Shukurov |publisher=Brill |year=2016 }}
• {{cite book |last=Shukurov|first=Rustam |title=The Seljuqs and their Successors: Art, Culture and History |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-1474450348 |editor-last1=Canby|editor-first1=Sheila|editor-last2=Beyazit|editor-first2=Deniz|editor-last3=Rugiadi|editor-first3=Martina|pages=144–162|chapter=Grasping the Magnitude: Saljuq Rum between Byzantium and Persia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=46MxEAAAQBAJ}}
• {{cite book |title=Eastern Trade and the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages: Pegolotti's Ayas |first=Thomas |last=Sinclair |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 }}
• {{cite book |title=The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228) |first=Filip Van |last=Tricht |translator-first=Peter |translator-last=Longbottom |publisher=Brill |year=2011 }}

• {{cite web|url=http://archnet.org/library/pubdownloader/pdf/8967/doc/DPC1304.pdf|title=The concepts that shape Anatolian Seljuq caravanserais|author=Yavuz, Ayşıl Tükel|publisher=ArchNet|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704025025/http://archnet.org/library/pubdownloader/pdf/8967/doc/DPC1304.pdf|archive-date=2007-07-04}}
• {{cite web|url = http://archnet.org/library/places/places.tcl?country_code=tr|title = List of Seljuk edifices|publisher = ArchNet|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070405010452/http://archnet.org/library/places/places.tcl?country_code=tr|archive-date = 2007-04-05}}
• {{cite web |url = http://www.turkishhan.org|title = Examples of caravanserais built by the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate|author=Katharine Branning|publisher=Turkish Hans}}

{{Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and Turkish Beyliks}}

{{Seljuk dynasty}}

{{Medieval states in Anatolia}}

{{History of Turkey timeline|state=collapsed}}

{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rum, Sultanate of}}

Category:1077 establishments in Asia

Category:1308 disestablishments in Asia

Category:Diarchies

Category:Former sultanates

Category:History of Konya Province

Category:Vassal and tributary states of the Mongol Empire

Category:States and territories established in 1077

Category:States and territories disestablished in the 1300s