Systema Naturae

{{Infobox book

| name = Systema Naturæ

| image = File:Linnaeus1758-title-page.jpg

| caption = Title page of the 1758 edition of Linnaeus's Systema Naturæ{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis |publisher=Laurentius Salvius |location=Stockholm |year=1758 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542 |language=la |edition=10th}}

| author = Carl Linnaeus
(Carl von Linné)

| illustrator =

| country = Netherlands

| subject = Taxonomy

| genre = Biological classification

| publisher =

| pub_date = {{Start date|1735}}

| pages =

| awards =

| congress = QH43 .S21

| wikisource =

}}

{{Lang|la|Systema Naturae}} (originally in Latin written {{Lang|la|Systema Naturæ}} with the ligature æ) is one of the major works of the Swedish botanist, zoologist and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) and introduced the Linnaean taxonomy. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers, Gaspard and Johann,{{cite book |author=Windelspecht, Michael |year=2002 |title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 17th century |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-31501-5 |ref=Windelspecht}} p. 28. Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout his book. The first edition was published in 1735. The full title of the 10th edition (1758), which was the most important one, was {{Lang|la|Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis}}, which appeared in English in 1806 with the title: "A General System of Nature, Through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, Systematically Divided Into their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties, with their Habitations, Manners, Economy, Structure and Peculiarities".{{Cite book |last=Linné |first=Carl von |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-l8-AAAAYAAJ |title=A General System of Nature,: Through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, Systematically Divided Into Their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties ... |date=1806 |publisher=Lackington, Allen, and Company |language=en}}

The tenth edition of this book (1758) is considered the starting point of zoological nomenclature.{{cite book |editor1-last=Bellows |editor1-first=T. S. |editor2-last=Fisher |editor2-first= T. W. |year=1999 |title=Handbook of Biological Control: Principles and Applications of Biological Control |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-257305-7 |chapter=Taxonomy and biological control |last1=Gordh |first1=Gordon |last2=Beardsley |first2=John W. |pages=45–55 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u2X-rfgU0ewC&pg=PA46}} In 1766–1768 Linnaeus published the much enhanced 12th edition, the last under his authorship. Another again enhanced work in the same style titled "{{Lang|la|Systema Naturae}}" was published by Johann Friedrich Gmelin between 1788 and 1793. Since at least the early 20th century, zoologists have commonly recognized this as the last edition belonging to this series.{{cite web |url=http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/indexanimalium/TaxonomicNames/ |title=Sherborn, C. D. 1902. |work=Index Animalium}}{{cite web |url=http://www.ubio.org/NZ |title=Neave, S. A. 1939–1940, updated |work=Nomenclator Zoologicus}}Opinions and Declarations rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature 8: 167–178, also p. 318 in [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/iczn/Official_Lists_Indexes_pdfs.htm ICZN 1987.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625192615/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/iczn/Official_Lists_Indexes_pdfs.htm |date=2010-06-25 }} Official lists and indexes of names and works in zoology. – pp. 1–366. London. (The International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature).

Overview

Linnaeus (later known as "Carl von Linné", after his ennoblement in 1761){{cite book |last=Stearn |first=W. T. |author-link=William T. Stearn |contribution=An introduction to the Species Plantarum and cognate botanical works of Linnaeus |title=Species Plantarum |edition=1957 Ray Society facsimile |page=14 |year=1957}} published the first edition of {{Lang|la|Systema Naturae}} in the year 1735, during his stay in the Netherlands. As was customary for the scientific literature of its day, the book was published in Latin. In it, he outlined his ideas for the hierarchical classification of the natural world, dividing it into the animal kingdom ({{Lang|la|regnum animale}}), the plant kingdom ({{Lang|la|regnum vegetabile}}), and the "mineral kingdom" ({{Lang|la|regnum lapideum}}).

Linnaeus's {{lang|la|Systema Naturae}} lists only about 10,000 species of organisms, of which about 6,000 are plants and 4,236 are animals.{{cite journal |last=Stearn |first=William T. |year=1959 |title=The background of Linnaeus's contributions to the nomenclature and methods of systematic biology |journal=Systematic Zoology |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=4–22 |jstor=2411603 |url=http://cordyceps.us/files/stearn_1959_.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028133630/http://cordyceps.us/files/stearn_1959_.pdf |archive-date=2014-10-28 |doi=10.2307/2411603 }} According to the historian of botany William T. Stearn, "Even in 1753 he believed that the number of species of plants in the whole world would hardly reach 10,000; in his whole career he named about 7,700 species of flowering plants."

Linnaeus developed his classification of the plant kingdom in an attempt to describe and understand the natural world as a reflection of the logic of God's creation.{{cite web |last=Quammen |first=David |title=A Passion for Order |publisher=National Geographic Magazine |date=June 2007 |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/print/2007/06/linnaeus-name-giver/david-quammen-text |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827105848/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/print/2007/06/linnaeus-name-giver/david-quammen-text |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 27, 2008 |access-date=27 April 2013}} His sexual system, where species with the same number of stamens were treated in the same group, was convenient but in his view artificial. Linnaeus believed in God's creation and that there were no deeper relationships to be expressed. The classification of animals was more natural {{than what?|date=May 2025}}. For instance, humans were for the first time placed together with other primates, as Anthropomorpha. They were also divided into four varieties, as distinguished by skin color and corresponding with the four known continents and temperaments.{{cite journal |last1=Müller-Wille |first1=Staffan |title=Linnaeus and the Four Corners of the World |journal=The Cultural Politics of Blood, 1500–1900 |date=2014 |pages=191–209 |doi=10.1057/9781137338211_10|hdl=10871/16833 |isbn=978-1-349-46395-4 |hdl-access=free }} The tenth edition expanded on these varieties with behavioral and cultural traits that the Linnean Society acknowledges as having cemented colonial stereotypes and provided one of the foundations for scientific racism.{{cite web |last1=Charmantier |first1=Isabelle |title=Linnaeus and Race |url=https://www.linnean.org/learning/who-was-linnaeus/linnaeus-and-race |website=The Linnean Society |access-date=30 November 2023 |date=2020}}

As a result of the popularity of the work, and the number of new specimens sent to him from around the world, Linnaeus kept publishing new and ever-expanding editions of his work.{{cite journal|last1=Everts|first1=Sarah|title=Information Overload|journal=Distillations|date=2016|volume=2|issue=2|pages=26–33|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/information-overload|access-date=20 March 2018}} It grew from eleven very large pages in the first edition (1735) to 2,400 pages in the 12th edition (1766–1768).{{cite journal |first=Londa |last=Schiebinger |date=April 1993 |title=Why mammals are called mammals: gender politics in eighteenth-century natural history |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=382–411 |jstor=2166840 |pmid=11623150 |url=http://courses.csusm.edu/hist460ae/whymamallsarecalled%20mammals.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002172030/http://courses.csusm.edu/hist460ae/whymamallsarecalled%20mammals.pdf |archive-date=2011-10-02 |doi=10.2307/2166840 }} Also, as the work progressed, he made changes: in the first edition, whales were classified as fishes, following the work of Linnaeus' friend and "father of ichthyology" Peter Artedi; in the 10th edition, published in 1758, whales were moved into the mammal class. In this same edition, he introduced two-part names (see binomen) for animal species, something that he had done for plant species (see binary name) in the 1753 publication of {{Lang|la|Species Plantarum}}. The system eventually developed into modern Linnaean taxonomy, a hierarchically organized biological classification.

After Linnaeus' health declined in the early 1770s, publication of editions of {{lang|la|Systema Naturae}} went in two directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray issued the {{lang|la|Regnum Vegetabile}} section separately in 1774 as the {{lang|la|Systema Vegetabilium}}, rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition.{{sfn|Linné|1774}} Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire {{lang|la|Systema}} appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793. It was as the {{lang|la|Systema Vegetabilium}} that Linnaeus' work became widely known in England following translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society, as A System of Vegetables (1783–1785).{{sfn|Linné|1785}}

Taxonomy

In his {{Lang|la|Imperium Naturæ}}, Linnaeus established three kingdoms, namely {{Lang|la|Regnum Animale}}, {{Lang|la|Regnum Vegetabile}} and {{Lang|la|Regnum Lapideum}}. This approach, the Animal, Vegetable and Mineral Kingdoms, survives until today in the popular mind, notably in the form of parlour games: "Is it animal, vegetable or mineral?" The classification was based on five levels: kingdom, class, order, genus, and species. While species and genus was seen as God-given (or "natural"), the three higher levels were seen by Linnaeus as constructs. The concept behind the set ranks being applied to all groups was to make a system that was easy to remember and navigate, a task which most say he succeeded in.

File:Linnaeus - Regnum Animale (1735).png

Linnaeus's work had a huge impact on science; it was indispensable as a foundation for biological nomenclature, now regulated by the Nomenclature Codes. Two of his works, the first edition of the {{Lang|la|Species Plantarum}} (1753) for plants and the 10th edition of the Systema Naturæ (1758), are accepted to be among the starting points of nomenclature. Most of his names for species and genera were published at very early dates, and thus take priority over those of other, later authors. In zoology there is one exception, which is a monograph on Swedish spiders, {{Lang|sv|Svenska Spindlar}},{{cite book |last=Clerck |first=C. |author-link=Carl Alexander Clerck |year=1757 |title=Svenska Spindlar / Aranei Svecici |pages=[1–8], 1–154, pl. 1–6 |location=Stockholm |publisher=Laurentius Salvius |url=http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN367246287}} published by Carl Clerck in 1757, so the names established there take priority over the Linnean names.[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted-sites/iczn/code/index.jsp ICZN Code] Art. 3.1 His exceptional importance to science was less in the value of his taxonomy, more in his deployment of skilful young students abroad to collect specimens.{{cite book |last1=Sörlin |first1=Sverker |last2=Fagerstedt |first2=Otto |year=2004 |title=Linné och hans apostlar |trans-title=Linnaeus and his apostles |language=sv |publisher=Natur & Kultur/Fakta |location=Örebro, Sweden |isbn=978-91-27-35590-3}}{{page needed|date=May 2025}} At the close of the 18th century, his system had effectively become the standard for biological classification.

= Animals =

Only in the animal kingdom is the higher taxonomy of Linnaeus still more or less recognizable and some of these names are still in use, but usually not quite for the same groups as used by Linnaeus. He divided the Animal Kingdom into six classes; in the tenth edition (1758), these were:

Mammalia comprised the mammals. In the first edition, whales and the West Indian manatee were classified among the fishes.
Aves comprised the birds. Linnaeus was the first to remove bats from the birds and classify them under mammals.
Amphibia comprised amphibians, reptiles, and assorted fishes that are not of Osteichthyes.
Pisces comprised the bony fishes. These included the spiny-finned fishes (Perciformes) as a separate order.
Insecta comprised all arthropods. Crustaceans, arachnids and myriapods were included as the order "Aptera".
Vermes comprised the remaining invertebrates, roughly divided into "worms", molluscs, and hard-shelled organisms like echinoderms.

== Humans ==

Linnaeus was one of the first scientists to classify humans as primates (originally Anthropomorpha for "manlike"), eliciting some controversy for placing people among animals and thus not ruling over nature.{{cite book |last1=Frängsmyr |first1=Tore |last2=Lindroth |first2=Sten |last3=Eriksson |first3=Gunnar |last4=Broberg |first4=Gunnar |title=Linnaeus, the man and his work |date=1983 |publisher=Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press |isbn=978-0-7112-1841-3}} He distinguished humans (Homo sapiens) from Homo troglodytes, a species of human-like creatures with exaggerated or non-human characteristics, despite finding limited evidence. He divided Homo sapiens into four varieties, corresponding with the four known continents and four temperaments (some editions also classify Ferus wild children and Monstrosus monstrous to accommodate adaptations to extreme environments).{{cite journal |last1=Svensson |first1=Mats |title=How Linnaeus classified humans: why red, white, yellow and black people were assigned particular temperaments |journal=Annals of the History and Philosophy of Biology |date=2012 |volume=17 |pages=303–315 |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/27369/1/1002639.pdf#page=316}} The first edition included Europæus albescens (whitish Europeans), Americanus rubescens (reddish Americans), Asiaticus fuscus (tawny Asians), and Africanus nigriculus (blackish Africans). The tenth edition solidified these descriptions by removing the "ish" qualifiers (e.g. albus "white" instead of albescens "whitish") and revising the characterization of Asiaticus from fuscus (tawny) to luridus (pale yellow).{{cite book |last1=Keevak |first1=Michael |title=Becoming yellow: a short history of racial thinking |date=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-691-14031-5 |pages=3–4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmHNk38OgDEC&pg=PA3}} It also incorporates behavioral and cultural traits that the Linnean Society recognizes as having cemented colonial stereotypes and provided one of the foundations for scientific racism.

= Plants =

The orders and classes of plants, according to his {{Lang|la|Systema Sexuale}}, were never intended to represent natural groups (as opposed to his {{Lang|la|ordines naturales}} in his {{Lang|la|Philosophia Botanica}}) but only for use in identification. They were used in that sense well into the 19th century.

File:SN-p837.jpg of {{Lang|la|Systema Naturæ}}]]

The Linnaean classes for plants, in the Sexual System, were:

Classis 1. Monandria
Classis 2. Diandria
Classis 3. Triandria
Classis 4. Tetrandria
Classis 5. Pentandria
Classis 6. Hexandria
Classis 7. Heptandria
Classis 8. Octandria
Classis 9. Enneandria
Classis 10. Decandria
Classis 11. Dodecandria
Classis 12. Icosandria
Classis 13. Polyandra
Classis 14. Didynamia
Classis 15. Tetradynamia
Classis 16. Monadelphia
Classis 17. Diadelphia
Classis 18. Polyadelphia
Classis 19. Syngenesia
Classis 20. Gynandria
Classis 21. Monoecia
Classis 22. Dioecia
Classis 23. Polygamia
Classis 24. Cryptogamia

= Minerals =

Linnaeus's taxonomy of minerals has long since fallen out of use. In the 10th edition, 1758, of the {{Lang|la|Systema Naturæ}}, the Linnaean classes were:

Classis 1. Petræ (rocks)
Classis 2. Mineræ (minerals and ores)
Classis 3. Fossilia (fossils and aggregates){{cite web |url=http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/history/mineralog.html |title=Linnaeus as a mineralogist |work=Linné on line |publisher=Uppsala University |year=2008 }}

Editions

Gmelin's thirteenth (decima tertia) edition of Systema Naturae (1788–1793) should be carefully distinguished from the more limited Systema Vegetabilium first prepared and published by Johan Andreas Murray in 1774 (but labelled as "thirteenth edition").{{sfn|Linné|1774}}

Edition	Location	Year	style="width:50em" \| Complete bibliographical citation	Links to online versions
class="wikitable"
1	Leiden	1735	Linnæus, C. 1735. Systema naturæ, sive regna tria naturæ systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species. – pp. [1–12]. Lugduni Batavorum. (Haak)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/15373 Missouri Botanical Garden]
2	Stockholm	1740	Linnæus, C. 1740. Systema naturæ in quo naturæ regna tria, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, systematice proponuntur. Editio secunda, auctior. – pp. [1–2], 1–80. Stockholmiæ. (Kiesewetter)	[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_oXsZAAAAYAAJ Internet Archive]
3	Halle	1740	Lange, J. J. 1740. Caroli Linnaei systema natvrae, sive Regna tria natvrae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera et species. Caroli Linnaei Natur-Systema, oder die in ordentlichem Zusammenhange vorgetragene drey Reiche der Natur nach ihren Classen, Ordnungen, Geschlechtern und Arten, in die deutsche Sprache übersetzet und mit einer Vorrede herausgegeben von Johann Joachim Langen. – pp. [1–8], 1–70, [1]. Halle. (Gebauer)	[http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10051189-9 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]
4	Paris	1744	Linnæus, C. 1744. Systema naturæ in quo proponuntur naturæ regna tria secundum classes, ordines, genera & species. Editio quarta ab auctore emendata & aucta. Accesserunt nomina Gallica. – pp. i–xxvi, [1], 1–108. Parisiis. (David.)	[https://books.google.com/books?id=2nsZAAAAYAAJ Google Books] [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720140043/http://www3.bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/FichaLibro.php?Libro=2323 CSIC Madrid]
5	Halle	1747	Agnethler, M. G. 1747. {{lang\|la\|Caroli Linnæi systema natvræ in qvo natvræ regna tria, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species, systematice proponvntvr. Recvsvm et societatis, qvæ impensas contvlit, vsvi accommodatvm. Editio altera avctior et emendatior.}} – pp. 1–88. Halæ Magdebvrgicæ.	[http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10076011-4 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]
6	Stockholm	1748	Linnæus, C. 1748. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ, in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta tabulisque æneis illustrata. Editio sexta, emendata et aucta. – pp. [1–3], 1–224, [1–18], Tab. I–VIII. Stockholmiæ. (Kiesewetter)	[http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN371257700 SUB Göttingen]
7	Leipzig	1748	Linnæus, C. 1748. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ, in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta tabulisque æneis illustrata. Secundum sextam Stockholmiensem emendatam & auctam editionem. – pp. [A], [1–5], 1–224, [1–22], Tab. I–VIII. Lipsiae. (Kiesewetter)	[http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10076012-0 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]
8	Stockholm	1753	Haartman, J. J. 1753. Caroli Linnæi Indelning i Ö̈rt-Riket, efter Systema Naturae, på Swenska öfwersatt af Johan J. Haartman. – pp. [1–12], 1–136, [1–8]. Stockholm. (Salvius)	[http://rara.ub.umu.se/bookview/BookViewServlet/ipac/admin/BookViewLoader.jsp?method=getIpacBook&BookId=55 Umeå UB]
9	Leiden	1756	Linnæus, C. 1756. Systema naturæ sistens regna tria naturæ in classes et ordines, genera et species redacta, tabulisque æneis illustrata. Accedunt vocabula gallica. Editio multo auctior & emendatior. – pp. [1–7], 1–227, [1–19], Tab. I–VIII. Lugduni Batavorum. (Haak)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/31214 New York Botanical Garden] [http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10076013-5 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]
10, Vol. 1	Stockholm	1758	Linnæus, C. 1758. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. – pp. [1–4], 1–824. Holmiæ. (Salvius)	[http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10076014-0 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek] [http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN362053006 SUB Göttingen] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277 Missouri Botanical Garden]
10, Vol. 2	Stockholm	1759	Linnæus, C. 1759. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus II. Editio decima, reformata. – pp. [1–4], 825–1384. Holmiæ. (Salvius)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10278 Missouri Botanical Garden]
11, Vol. 1	Halle	1760	Linnaeus, C. 1760. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species, cvm characteribvs, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomvs I. Praefactvs est Ioannes Ioachimvs Langivs. Ad editionem decimam reformatam Holmiensem. – pp. [1–8], 1–824. Halae Magdebvrgicae. (Curt). (Linnæus 1758: p. 5 recorded probably this edition as from Leipzig 1762, "nil additum" = nothing added)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/31224 New York Botanical Garden] (pp. [1–8], 1–338) [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/31242 New York Botanical Garden] (pp. 339–824)
12, Vol. 1, part 1	Stockholm	1766	Linné, C. a 1766. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio duodecima, reformata. – pp. 1–532. Holmiæ. (Salvius)	[http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN362053367 SUB Göttingen] [http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10076019-2 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]
12, Vol. 1, part 2	Stockholm	1767	Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ, Tom. I. Pars II. Editio duodecima reformata. – pp. 533–1327, [1–37]. Holmiæ. (Salvius)	[http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN362053723 SUB Göttingen] [http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10076019-2 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]
12, Vol. 2	Stockholm	1767	Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus & differentiis. Tomus II. – pp. 1–735, [1–16], 1–142, [1–2]. Holmiæ. (Salvius)
12, Vol. 3	Stockholm	1768	Linné, C. a 1768. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus & differentiis. Tomus III. – pp. 1–236, [1–20], Tab. I–III. Holmiæ. (Salvius)	[http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN362053855 SUB Göttingen]
12a ("13"), Vol. 1, part. 1	Vienna	1767	Linné, C. a 1767. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima tertia, ad editionem duodecimam reformatam Holmiensem. – pp. 1–532. Vindobonae. (Trattnern)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83652 NCSU Libraries] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10325 Missouri Botanical Garden] [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix0AAAAAQAAJ Google Books]
12a ("13"), Vol. 1, part 2	Vienna	1767	Linné, C. a [1767]. Systema naturæ. Tom. I. Pars II. – pp. [1–2], 1–1327, [1–37]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83650 NCSU Libraries] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10326 Missouri Botanical Garden] [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix0AAAAAQAAJ Google Books]
12a ("13"), Vol. 2	Vienna	1770	Linné, C. a 1770. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species cvm characteribvs, et differentiis. Tomvs II. Editio decima tertia, ad editionem duodecimam reformatam Holmiensem. – 1–736, [1–6]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83651 NCSU Libraries] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10327 Missouri Botanical Garden] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/31231 New York Botanical Garden] [https://books.google.com/books?id=1BQAAAAAQAAJ Google Books]
12a ("13"), Vol. 3	Vienna	1770	Linnaeus, C. 1770. Systema natvrae per regna tria natvrae, secvndvm classes, ordines, genera, species cvm characteribvs, et differentiis. Tomvs III. – 1–236, [1–19]. Vindobonae. (Trattnern)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83653 NCSU Libraries] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10328 Missouri Botanical Garden] [https://books.google.com/books?id=K9NKdZvw64cC Google Books]
12b, Vol. 1	Göttingen	1772	Beckmann, J. 1772. {{lang\|la\|Caroli a Linné systema naturae ex editione duodecima in epitomen redactum et praelectionibus academicis accommodatum a Iohanne Beckmanno. Tomus I. Regnum Animale.}} – pp. [1–5], 1–240, [1–10]. Gottingae. (Vandenhoeck)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/82423 NCSU Libraries]
12b, Vol. 2	Göttingen	1772	Beckmann, J. 1772. {{lang\|la\|Caroli a Linné systema naturae ex editione duodecima in epitomen redactum et praelectionibus academicis accommodatum a Iohanne Beckmanno. Tomus II. Regnum Vegetabile.}} – pp. 1–356, [1–32]. Gottingae. (Vandenhoeck)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/82423#page/261/mode/1up NCSU Libraries]
13, Vol. 1, part 1	Leipzig	1788	Gmelin, J. F. 1788. Caroli a Linné systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. [1–12], 1–500. Lipsiae. (Beer)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10285 Missouri Botanical Garden] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83109 NCSU Libraries]
13, Vol. 1, part 2	Leipzig	[1789]	Gmelin, J. F. [1789]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars II. – pp. 501–1032. Lipsiae. (Beer)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10286 Missouri Botanical Garden] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83107 NCSU Libraries]
13, Vol. 1, part 3	Leipzig	[1789]	Gmelin, J. F. [1789]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars III. – pp. 1033–1516. Lipsiae. (Beer)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10287 Missouri Botanical Garden] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83106 NCSU Libraries]
13, Vol. 1, part 4	Leipzig	[1790]	Gmelin, J. F. [1790]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars IV. – pp. 1517–2224. Lipsiae. (Beer)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10288 Missouri Botanical Garden] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83100 NCSU Libraries]
13, Vol. 1, part 5	Leipzig	[1790]	Gmelin, J. F. [1790]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars V. – pp. 2225–3020. Lipsiae. (Beer)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10289 Missouri Botanical Garden] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83099 NCSU Libraries]
13, Vol. 1, part 6	Leipzig	[1791]	Gmelin, J. F. [1791]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars VI. – pp. 3021–3910. Lipsiae. (Beer)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10290 Missouri Botanical Garden] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83098 NCSU Libraries]
13, Vol. 1, part 7	Leipzig	[1792]	Gmelin, J. F. [1792]. Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. I. Pars VII. – pp. [1], 3911–4120. Lipsiae. (Beer)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10291 Missouri Botanical Garden]
13, Vol. 2, part 1	Leipzig	1791	Gmelin, J. F. 1791. Caroli a Linné systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus et differentiis. Tomus II. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. [1], I–XL, 1–884. Lipsiae. (Beer)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10292 Missouri Botanical Garden] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83110 NCSU Libraries] [http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10076026-6 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]
13, Vol. 2, part 2	Leipzig	[1791]?	Caroli a Linné, systema naturae. Tom. II. Pars II. – pp. [1], 885–1661, [1]. Lipsiae. (Beer)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10293 Missouri Botanical Garden] [http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10076027-1 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]
13, Vol. 3	Leipzig	1793	Gmelin, J. F. 1793. Caroli a Linné (...) systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus et differentiis. Tomus III. Editio decima tertia, aucta, reformata. – pp. 1–476. Lipsiae. (Beer)	[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10294 Missouri Botanical Garden] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83111 NCSU Libraries] [http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10076028-7 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]

The dates of publication for Gmelin's edition were the following:{{Cite journal |last=Hopkinson |first=John |date=May 1907 |title=Dates of Publication of the Separate Parts of Gmelin's Edition (13th) of the 'Systema Naturae' of Linnaeus. |journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=1035–1037 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1907.tb06965.x |url=http://biostor.org/reference/58091}}

Part 1: pp. [1–12], 1–500 (25 July 1788)
Part 2: pp. 501–1032 (20 April 1789)
Part 3: pp. 1033–1516 (20 November 1789)
Part 4: pp. 1517–2224 (21 May 1790)
Part 5: pp. 2225–3020 (6 December 1790)
Part 6: pp. 3021–3910 (14 May 1791)
Part 7: pp. 3911–4120 (2 July 1792)

References

Bibliography

; In Latin

{{cite book|last1=Linné|first1=Carl von|author-link=Carl Linnaeus|editor1-last=Murray|editor1-first=Johann Andreas|title=Systema vegetabilium (13th edition of Systema Naturae)|format=2 vols.|access-date=24 February 2015|year=1774|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-MVAAAAYAAJ|publisher=Typis et impensis Jo. Christ. Dieterich|location=Göttingen}}
{{cite book|last1=Linné|first1=Carl von|trans-title=A System of Vegetables 2 vols.|title=Systema vegetabilium (13th edition of Systema Naturae)|date=1785|orig-year=1774|publisher=Lichfield Botanical Society|location=Lichfield|url=https://archive.org/details/systemofvegeta01linn|access-date=24 February 2015}}

; In English translation

[https://books.google.com/books/about/A_General_System_of_Nature.html?id=-l8-AAAAYAAJ A General System of Nature] translated by William Turton. Lackington, Allen, and Company, January 1806 (free, registration required)