Theology#Christianity

Theology is often considered one of the oldest academic disciplines, rooted in early human attempts to understand the divine, moral order, and existence. In the Western tradition, theology held a central place in medieval intellectual life. Many of the first European universities, such as the University of Paris (established c. 1150), the University of Oxford (c. 1096), and the University of Bologna (1088), were founded primarily to educate clergy and focused initially on theological studies, with faculties in philosophy, law, and medicine developing later.Rüegg, Walter (ed.). A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 1992.Leff, Gordon. Paris and Oxford Universities in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries: An Institutional and Intellectual History. Wiley-Blackwell, 1968. Theology was traditionally regarded as the "queen of the sciences", with philosophy often described as its "handmaiden", due to its guiding role in the search for ultimate truth.Gilson, Étienne. The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy. University of Notre Dame Press, 1991.

{{Main|History of theology}}

The term "theology" derives from the Greek theologia (θεολογία), a combination of theos (Θεός, 'god') and logia (λογία, 'utterances, sayings, oracles')—the latter word relating to Greek logos (λόγος, 'word, discourse, account, reasoning').The accusative plural of the neuter noun λόγιον; cf. Bauer, Walter, William F. Arndt, F. Wilbur Gingrich, and Frederick W. Danker. 1979. A Greek–English Lexicon of the New Testament (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 476.

For examples of λόγια in the New Testament, cf. Acts 7:38; Romans 3:2; 1 Peter 4:11.Scouteris, Constantine B. [1972] 2016. Ἡ ἔννοια τῶν ὅρων 'Θεολογία', 'Θεολογεῖν', 'Θεολόγος', ἐν τῇ διδασκαλίᾳ τῶν Ἑλλήνων Πατέρων καί Ἐκκλησιαστικῶν συγγραφέων μέχρι καί τῶν Καππαδοκῶν [The Meaning of the Terms 'Theology', 'to Theologize' and 'Theologian' in the Teaching of the Greek Fathers up to and Including the Cappadocians] (in Greek). Athens. pp. 187. The term would pass on to Latin as {{Lang|la|theologia}}, then French as {{Lang|fr|théologie}}, eventually becoming the English theology.

Through several variants (e.g., theologie, teologye), the English theology had evolved into its current form by 1362.Langland, Piers Plowman A ix 136 The sense that the word has in English depends in large part on the sense that the Latin and Greek equivalents had acquired in patristic and medieval Christian usage although the English term has now spread beyond Christian contexts.File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg (left) and Aristotle in Raphael's 1509 fresco The School of Athens]]

Greek theologia (θεολογία) was used with the meaning 'discourse on God' around 380 BC by Plato in The Republic.

{{Verse translation

|head1= Greek

|lang1=grc

|… ὀρθῶς, ἔφη· ἀλλʼ αὐτὸ δὴ τοῦτο, οἱ τύποι περὶ θεολογίας τίνες ἂν εἶεν;
τοιοίδε πού τινες, ἦν δʼ ἐγώ· οἷος τυγχάνει ὁ θεὸς ὤν, ἀεὶ δήπου ἀποδοτέον, ἐάντέ τις αὐτὸν ἐν ἔπεσιν ποιῇ ἐάντε ἐν μέλεσιν ἐάντε ἐν τραγῳδίᾳ.|attr1=Plato, Republic 379a. [https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0059.tlg030.perseus-grc2:2.379?right=perseus-eng2 Plato, Republic, Book 2, Section 379 (2.379)]Plato. Platonis Opera, ed. John Burnet. Oxford University Press. 1903. (emphasis added)

|head2= English translation by Shorey (1969)

|lang2=en

|… Right, he said; but this very thing—the patterns or norms of right speech about the gods, what would they be?
Something like this, I said. The true quality of God we must always surely attribute to him whether we compose in epic, melic, or tragic verse.|attr2=Plato, Republic 379a. Plato. Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vols. 5 & 6 translated by Paul Shorey. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1969. (emphasis added)}}

Plato develops his rational theology (natural theology) in Book 10 of the Laws. In the dialogue, he opposes atheism and argues that the heavenly bodies are moved by the divine souls of the gods and their intelligence (nous). He also maintains that these gods care for humans and aim for the good of the universe as a whole.

Aristotle divided theoretical philosophy into mathematike, physike, and theologike, with the latter corresponding roughly to metaphysics, which, for Aristotle, included discourse on the nature of the divine.[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/mirror/classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.6.vi.html Aristotle, Metaphysics, Book Epsilon.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216173401/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/mirror/classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.6.vi.html |date=16 February 2008 }}

Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of such discourse:Augustine, [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/120106.htm City of God VI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061213030350/http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/120106.htm |date=13 December 2006 }}, ch. 5.

1. mythical, concerning the myths of the Greek gods;
2. rational, philosophical analysis of the gods and of cosmology; and
3. civil, concerning the rites and duties of public religious observance.

Some Latin Christian authors, such as Tertullian and Augustine, followed Varro's threefold usage.Tertullian, [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.iv.viii.ii.i.html Ad Nationes II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513210420/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.iv.viii.ii.i.html |date=13 May 2007 }}, ch. 1. However, Augustine also defined theologia as "reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity".Augustine of Hippo. City of God [http://logicmuseum.googlepages.com/civitate-8.htm Book VIII. i.]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080404123631/http://logicmuseum.googlepages.com/civitate-8.htm|date=4 April 2008}}: "de divinitate rationem sive sermonem."

The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of academic study, dealing with the motionless, incorporeal reality; as opposed to physica, which deals with corporeal, moving realities.{{cite web |url=http://pvspade.com/Logic/docs/BoethiusDeTrin.pdf |title=Boethius, On the Holy Trinity |access-date=2012-11-11 |archive-date=7 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207050745/http://pvspade.com/Logic/docs/BoethiusDeTrin.pdf |url-status=live }} Boethius' definition influenced medieval Latin usage.Evans, G. R. 1980. Old Arts and New Theology: The Beginnings of Theology as an Academic Discipline. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 31–32.

In patristic Greek Christian sources, theologia could refer narrowly to devout and/or inspired knowledge of and teaching about the essential nature of God.McGukin, John. 2001. Saint Gregory of Nazianzus: An Intellectual Biography. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. p. 278:

Gregory of Nazianzus uses the word in this sense in his 4th-century [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-07/Npnf2-07-42.htm#P4178_1277213 Theological Orations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060807233004/http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-07/Npnf2-07-42.htm#P4178_1277213 |date=7 August 2006 }}. After his death, he was called "the Theologian" at the Council of Chalcedon and thereafter in Eastern Orthodoxy either because his Orations were seen as crucial examples of this kind of theology or in the sense that he was (like the author of the Book of Revelation) seen as one who was an inspired preacher of the words of God. (It is unlikely to mean, as claimed in the [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-07/Npnf2-07-41.htm#P4162_1255901 Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060716140059/http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-07/Npnf2-07-41.htm#P4162_1255901 |date=16 July 2006 }} introduction to his Theological Orations, that he was a defender of the divinity of Christ the Word.)

In scholastic Latin sources, the term came to denote the rational study of the doctrines of the Christian religion, or (more precisely) the academic discipline that investigated the coherence and implications of the language and claims of the Bible and of the theological tradition (the latter often as represented in Peter Lombard's Sentences, a book of extracts from the Church Fathers).{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

In the Renaissance, especially with Florentine Platonist apologists of Dante's poetics, the distinction between 'poetic theology' (theologia poetica) and 'revealed' or Biblical theology serves as stepping stone for a revival of philosophy as independent of theological authority.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

It is in the last sense, theology as an academic discipline involving rational study of Christian teaching, that the term passed into English in the 14th century,"Theology." Oxford English Dictionary. note. although it could also be used in the narrower sense found in Boethius and the Greek patristic authors, to mean rational study of the essential nature of God, a discourse now sometimes called theology proper.See, e.g., Hodge, Charles. 1871. Systematic Theology 1, part 1.

From the 17th century onwards, the term theology began to be used to refer to the study of religious ideas and teachings that are not specifically Christian or correlated with Christianity (e.g., in the term natural theology, which denoted theology based on reasoning from natural facts independent of specifically Christian revelation)Oxford English Dictionary, sense 1 or that are specific to another religion (such as below).

Theology can also be used in a derived sense to mean "a system of theoretical principles; an (impractical or rigid) ideology"."Theology, 1(d)" and "Theological, A.3." Oxford English Dictionary. 1989.Times Literary Supplement 329/4. 5 June 1959: "The 'theological' approach to Soviet Marxism...proves in the long run unsatisfactory."

The term theology has been deemed by some as only appropriate to the study of religions that worship a supposed deity (a theos), i.e. more widely than monotheism; and presuppose a belief in the ability to speak and reason about this deity (in logia). They suggest the term is less appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently (i.e., religions without a single deity, or that deny that such subjects can be studied logically). Hierology has been proposed, by such people as Eugène Goblet d'Alviella (1908), as an alternative, more generic term.Jones, Alan H. 1983. Independence and Exegesis: The Study of Early Christianity in the Work of Alfred Loisy (1857–1940), Charles Guignebert (1857 [i.e. 1867]–1939), and Maurice Goguel (1880–1955). Mohr Siebeck. p. 194.

{{Main|Christian theology|Neoplatonism}}

{{Further|Diversity in early Christian theology|Great Apostasy|Nontrinitarianism|Son of God (Christianity)|Trinity}}

File:Carlo Crivelli 007.jpg, an influential Roman Catholic theologian|upright]]

As defined by Thomas Aquinas, theology is constituted by a triple aspect: what is taught by God, teaches of God, and leads to God ({{langx|la|Theologia a Deo docetur, Deum docet, et ad Deum ducit}}).{{cite book |last=Kapic |first=Kelly M. Kapic |title=A Little Book for New Theologians. Why and How to Study Theology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hg6X6d0n7NUC |year=2012 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |location=Downers Grove, Illinois |isbn=978-0830866700 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hg6X6d0n7NUC&dq=%22Theologia+a+Deo+docetur,+Deum+docet,+et+ad+Deum+ducit%22%22seem+to+be+a+gathered+summary+of+what+Thomas+says+in+Summa+Theologica%22&pg=PA36 36]}} This indicates the three distinct areas of God as theophanic revelation, the systematic study of the nature of divine and, more generally, of religious belief, and the spiritual path. Christian theology as the study of Christian belief and practice concentrates primarily upon the texts of the Old Testament and the New Testament as well as on Christian tradition. Christian theologians use biblical exegesis, rational analysis and argument. Theology might be undertaken to help the theologian better understand Christian tenets, to make comparisons between Christianity and other traditions, to defend Christianity against objections and criticism, to facilitate reforms in the Christian church, to assist in the propagation of Christianity, to draw on the resources of the Christian tradition to address some present situation or need, or for a variety of other reasons.

File:Imam Mālik ibn Anas, Sayr mulhimah min al-Sharq wa-al-Gharb.png]]

{{Main|Aqidah}}

{{Further|Kalam|List of Muslim theologians|Schools of Islamic theology}}

Islamic theological discussion that parallels Christian theological discussion is called Kalam; the Islamic analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be the investigation and elaboration of Sharia or Fiqh.Gardet, L. 1999. "[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ei2/kalam.htm Ilm al-kalam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202100/http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ei2/kalam.htm |date=3 March 2016 }}." The Encyclopedia of Islam, edited by P. J. Bearman, et al. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV.

{{blockquote|Kalam...does not hold the leading place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for 'theology' in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam.|author=translated by L. Gardet|title=|source=}}

Some Universities in Germany established departments of islamic theology. (i.e.{{Cite web|url=https://www.deutsche-islam-konferenz.de/SharedDocs/Meldungen/EN/rede-kerber-festveranstaltung.html?nn=598848|title=Speech by State Secretary Dr Markus Kerber at the official opening ceremony for the Islamkolleg Deutschland|website=DIK – Deutsche Islam Konferenz|access-date=31 January 2023|archive-date=31 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131143038/https://www.deutsche-islam-konferenz.de/SharedDocs/Meldungen/EN/rede-kerber-festveranstaltung.html?nn=598848|url-status=live}})

File:Maimònides.jpg|upright]]

{{Main|Jewish theology}}

In Jewish theology, the historical absence of political authority has meant that most theological reflection has happened within the context of the Jewish community and synagogue, including through rabbinical discussion of Jewish law and Midrash (rabbinic biblical commentaries). Jewish theology is also linked to ethics, as it is the case with theology in other religions, and therefore has implications for how one behaves.Libenson, Dan and Lex Rofeberg, hosts. 5 October 2018. "[http://www.judaismunbound.com/podcast/judaism-unbound-episode-138-rachel-adler God and Gender – Rachel Adler] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011053734/http://www.judaismunbound.com/podcast/judaism-unbound-episode-138-rachel-adler |date=11 October 2018 }}." Ep. 138 in Judaism Unbound (podcast).Rashkover, Randi. 1999. "[https://archive.today/20120709141057/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2096/is_4_49/ai_58621576 A Call for Jewish Theology]." CrossCurrents. "Frequently the claim is made that, unlike Christianity, Judaism is a tradition of deeds and maintains no strict theological tradition. Judaism's fundamental beliefs are inextricable from their halakhic observance (that set of laws revealed to Jews by God), embedded and presupposed by that way of life as it is lived and learned."

{{Further|Buddhist philosophy|Trikāya}}

Some academic inquiries within Buddhism, dedicated to the investigation of a Buddhist understanding of the world, prefer the designation Buddhist philosophy to the term Buddhist theology, since Buddhism lacks the same conception of a theos or a Creator God. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is in fact appropriate, can only do so, he says, because "I take theology not to be restricted to discourse on God.... I take 'theology' not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God."Cabezon, Jose Ignacio. 1999. "Buddhist Theology in the Academy." pp. 25–52 in Buddhist Theology: Critical Reflections by Contemporary Buddhist Scholars, edited by R. Jackson and J. J. Makransky. London: Routledge.

Whatever the case, there are various Buddhist theories and discussions on the nature of Buddhahood and the ultimate reality / highest form of divinity, which has been termed "buddhology" by some scholars like Louis de La Vallée-Poussin.de la Vallée Poussin, Louis. (1906). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society/article/abs/xxxi-studies-in-buddhist-dogma1-the-three-bodies-of-a-buddha-trikaya/5E32D32D56482F9A1A5219F5E1EFDFC7 "XXXI. Studies in Buddhist Dogma. The Three Bodies of a Buddha (Trikāya)."] Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 38(4), 943–977. doi:10.1017/S0035869X0003522X This is a different usage of the term than when it is taken to mean the academic study of Buddhism, and here would refer to the study of the nature of what a Buddha is. In Mahayana Buddhism, a central concept in its buddhology is the doctrine of the three Buddha bodies (Sanskrit: Trikāya). This doctrine is shared by all Mahayana Buddhist traditions.

{{See also|Vedanta|Vaishnavism|Shaivism|Shaktism}}

Within Hindu philosophy, there are numerous traditions of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God (termed Brahman, Paramatma, Ishvara, and/or Bhagavan in some schools of Hindu thought) and of the ātman (soul). The Sanskrit word for the various schools of Hindu philosophy is darśana ('view, viewpoint'), the most influential one in terms of modern Hindu religion is Vedanta and its various sub-schools, each of which presents a different theory of Ishvara (the Supreme lord, God).

Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars in India for centuries. A large part of its study lies in classifying and organizing the manifestations of thousands of gods and their aspects. In recent decades the study of Hinduism has also been taken up by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Bhaktivedanta College.King, Anna S. 2006. "For Love of Krishna: Forty Years of Chanting." pp. 134–67 in The Hare Krishna Movement: Forty Years of Chant and Change, edited by G. Dwyer and R. J. Cole. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 163:

Describes developments in both institutions, and speaks of Hare Krishna devotees "studying Vaishnava theology and practice in mainstream universities."

There are also other traditions of Hindu theology, including the various theologies of Shaivism (which include dualistic and non-dualistic strands) as well as the theologies of the Goddess centered Shakta traditions which posit a feminine deity as the ultimate.

In Japan, the term theology ({{Langx|ja|神学|translit=shingaku|label=none}}) has been ascribed to Shinto since the Edo period with the publication of Mano Tokitsuna's {{Transliteration|ja|Kokon shingaku ruihen}} ({{Langx|ja|古今神学類編|lit=categorized compilation of ancient theology|label=none}}). In modern times, other terms are used to denote studies in Shinto—as well as Buddhist—belief, such as {{Transliteration|ja|kyōgaku}} ({{Langx|ja|教学|lit=doctrinal studies|label=none}}) and {{Transliteration|ja|shūgaku}} ({{Langx|ja|宗学|lit=denominational studies|label=none}}).

English academic Graham Harvey has commented that Pagans "rarely indulge in theology".{{cite book|last=Harvey |first=Graham|author-link=Graham Harvey (religious studies scholar)|title=Listening People, Speaking Earth: Contemporary Paganism|date=2007|publisher=London: Hurst & Company|isbn=978-1850652724|edition=2nd|page=1}} Nevertheless, theology has been applied in some sectors across contemporary Pagan communities, including Wicca, Heathenry, Druidry and Kemetism. As these religions have given precedence to orthopraxy, theological views often vary among adherents. The term is used by Christine Kraemer in her book Seeking The Mystery: An Introduction to Pagan Theologies and by Michael York in Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion.

{{Further|Outline of theology}}Richard Hooker defines theology as "the science of things divine".{{cite web|title=Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, 3.8.11|url=http://anglicanhistory.org/hooker/3/368-377.pdf|access-date=2012-11-11|archive-date=4 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304083921/http://anglicanhistory.org/hooker/3/368-377.pdf|url-status=live}} The term can, however, be used for a variety of disciplines or fields of study.McGrath, Alister. 1998. Historical Theology: An Introduction to the History of Christian Thought. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. pp. 1–8. Theology considers whether the divine exists in some form, such as in physical, supernatural, mental, or social realities, and what evidence for and about it may be found via personal spiritual experiences or historical records of such experiences as documented by others. The study of these assumptions is not part of theology proper, but is found in the philosophy of religion, and increasingly through the psychology of religion and neurotheology. Theology's aim, then, is to record, structure and understand these experiences and concepts; and to use them to derive normative prescriptions for how to live our lives.

{{see also|Divinity (academic discipline)}}

{{Specific|date=October 2024}}

The history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. For instance:

• Taxila was an early centre of Vedic learning, possible from the 6th-century BC or earlier;An earlier date is provided in:

Reagan, Timothy. 2004. Non-Western Educational Traditions: Alternative Approaches to Educational Thought and Practice (3rd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum. p. 185; and

Chitnis, Sunna. 2003. "Higher Education." pp. 1032–56 in The Oxford India Companion to Sociology and Social Anthropology, edited by V. Das. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 1036.Scharfe, Hartmut. 2002. Education in Ancient India. Leiden: Brill.{{Rp|140–142}}

• the Platonic Academy founded in Athens in the 4th-century BC seems to have included theological themes in its subject matter;Dillon, John. 2003. The Heirs of Plato: A Study in the Old Academy, 347–274 BC. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• the Chinese Taixue delivered Confucian teaching from the 2nd century BC;Yao, Xinzhong. 2000. An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 50.
• the School of Nisibis was a centre of Christian learning from the 4th century AD;{{cite book |first=Adam H. |last=Becker |title=The Fear of God and the Beginning of Wisdom: The School of Nisibis and the Development of Scholastic Culture in Late Antique Mesopotamia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2006}}{{cite web |url=http://www.nestorian.org/the_school_of_nisibis.html |title=The School of Nisibis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231841/http://www.nestorian.org/the_school_of_nisibis.html |archive-date=3 March 2016 |work=Nestorian.org}}
• Nalanda in India was a site of Buddhist higher learning from at least the 5th or 6th century AD;{{Rp|149}} and
• the Moroccan University of Al-Karaouine was a centre of Islamic learning from the 10th century,Lulat, Y. G. 2005. A History of African Higher Education from Antiquity to the Present: A Critical Synthesis. Greenwood. p. 71:

The Al-Qarawiyyin mosque was founded in 859 AD, but "While instruction at the mosque must have begun almost from the beginning, it is only...by the end of the tenth-century that its reputation as a center of learning in both religious and secular sciences...must have begun to wax." as was Al-Azhar University in Cairo.Beattie, Andrew. 2005. Cairo: A Cultural History. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 101.

The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and perhaps from cathedral schools. It is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception.Leff, Gordon. 1968. Paris and Oxford Universities in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. An Institutional and Intellectual History. Wiley. Later they were also founded by kings (University of Naples Federico II, Charles University in Prague, Jagiellonian University in Kraków) or by municipal administrations (University of Cologne, University of Erfurt).

In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries.Johnson, Paul. 2000. The Renaissance: A Short History, (Modern Library Chronicles). New York: Modern Library. p. 9. Christian theological learning was, therefore, a component in these institutions, as was the study of church or canon law: universities played an important role in training people for ecclesiastical offices, in helping the church pursue the clarification and defence of its teaching, and in supporting the legal rights of the church over against secular rulers.Rüegg, Walter. 2003. "Themes." pp. 3–34 in A History of the University in Europe, edited by W. Rüegg and H. de Ridder-Symoens, (Universities in the Middle Ages 1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–16. At such universities, theological study was initially closely tied to the life of faith and of the church: it fed, and was fed by, practices of preaching, prayer and celebration of the Mass.See D'Costa, Gavin. 2005. Theology in the Public Square: Church, Academy and Nation. Oxford: Blackwell. ch. 1.

During the High Middle Ages, theology was the ultimate subject at universities, being named "The Queen of the Sciences". It served as the capstone to the Trivium and Quadrivium that young men were expected to study. This meant that the other subjects (including philosophy) existed primarily to help with theological thought.Howard, Thomas Albert. 2006. [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/protestant-theology-and-the-making-of-the-modern-german-university-9780199266852?cc=us&lang=en& Protestant Theology and the Making of the Modern German University] {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150615213212/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/protestant-theology-and-the-making-of-the-modern-german-university-9780199266852?cc=us&lang=en& |date=15 June 2015 }}. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 56: "philosophy, the scientia scientarum in one sense, was, in another, portrayed as the humble "handmaid of theology'."

In this context, medieval theology in the Christian West could subsume fields of study which would later become more self-sufficient, such as metaphysics (Aristotle's "first philosophy",

{{cite book

|last1 = DeFilippo

|first1 = Joseph G.

|year = 1991

|title = Theology and First Philosophy in Aristotle's "Metaphysics"

|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=x_V6nQEACAAJ

|publisher = U.M.I., Dissertation Information Service

|access-date = 16 October 2023

}}

[https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/ontology Ontology] - "In the 13th century, appropriating Aristotle's threefold division of the speculative sciences (physics, mathematics, and what Aquinas variously calls 'first philosophy' or 'metaphysics' or 'theology'), Aquinas argues that primary being and being in general are the subject of the same science (eadem enim est scientia primi entis et entis communis ) inasmuch as primary being (s) are principles of the others (nam prima entia sunt principia aliorum; cf. Aquinas' In Boeth. de Trin. 5.1, In 10 meta. 6 and 11, and the Proemium to the latter)."

or ontology (the science of being).

{{cite book

|last1 = Rutherford

|first1 = J. Alexander

|year= 2021

|title = The Gift of Seeing: A Biblical Perspective on Ontology

|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0kU6EAAAQBAJ

|series = Volume 3 of God's Gifts for the Christian Life – Part 1

|publication-place = Airdrie, Alberta

|publisher = Teleioteti

|page = 3

|isbn = 9781989560198

|access-date = 16 October 2023

|quote = [...] Scripture has implications for ontology [...]. [...] the theology we proclaim is deeply intertwined with ontology [...].

}}

[https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/ontology Ontology] – "In the sixth book [of the Metaphysics] (1026a16–32), Aristotle refers to a first philosophy that is concerned with being as being, but in contrast to physics and mathematics, precisely as the speculative science of what is separate from matter and motion. First philosophy in this context is labeled 'theology' inasmuch as the divine would only be present in something of this nature, i.e., some immutable being (ousia akinetos)."

Christian theology's preeminent place in the university started to come under challenge during the European Enlightenment, especially in Germany.Howard, Thomas Albert. 2006. [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/protestant-theology-and-the-making-of-the-modern-german-university-9780199266852?cc=us&lang=en& Protestant Theology and the Making of the Modern German University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615213212/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/protestant-theology-and-the-making-of-the-modern-german-university-9780199266852?cc=us&lang=en& |date=15 June 2015 }}. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Other subjects gained in independence and prestige, and questions were raised about the place of a discipline that seemed to involve a commitment to the authority of particular religious traditions in institutions that were increasingly understood to be devoted to independent reason.See the discussion of, for instance, Immanuel Kant's Conflict of the Faculties (1798), and J.G. Fichte's Deduzierter Plan einer zu Berlin errichtenden höheren Lehranstalt (1807) in Howard, Thomas Albert. 2006. [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/protestant-theology-and-the-making-of-the-modern-german-university-9780199266852?cc=us&lang=en& Protestant Theology and the Making of the Modern German University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615213212/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/protestant-theology-and-the-making-of-the-modern-german-university-9780199266852?cc=us&lang=en& |date=15 June 2015 }}. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Since the early 19th century, various different approaches have emerged in the West to theology as an academic discipline. Much of the debate concerning theology's place in the university or within a general higher education curriculum centres on whether theology's methods are appropriately theoretical and (broadly speaking) scientific or, on the other hand, whether theology requires a pre-commitment of faith by its practitioners, and whether such a commitment conflicts with academic freedom.Frei, Hans W. 1992. Types of Christian Theology, edited by W. C. Placher and G. Hunsinger. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.D'Costa, Gavin. 2005. Theology in the Public Square: Church, Academy and Nation. Oxford: Blackwell.McClendon, James W. 2000. "Theology and the University." Ch. 10 in Systematic Theology 3: Witness. Nashville, TN: Abingdon.

In some contexts, theology has been held to belong in institutions of higher education primarily as a form of professional training for Christian ministry. This was the basis on which Friedrich Schleiermacher, a liberal theologian, argued for the inclusion of theology in the new University of Berlin in 1810.Schleiermacher, Friedrich. 1990. Brief Outline of Theology as a Field of Study (2nd ed.), translated by T. N. Tice. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen.{{Rp|ch. 14}}

For instance, in Germany, theological faculties at state universities are typically tied to particular denominations, Protestant or Roman Catholic, and those faculties will offer denominationally-bound (konfessionsgebunden) degrees, and have denominationally bound public posts amongst their faculty; as well as contributing "to the development and growth of Christian knowledge" they "provide the academic training for the future clergy and teachers of religious instruction at German schools."Kratz, Reinhard G. 2002. "Academic Theology in Germany." Religion 32(2):113–116.

In the United States, several prominent colleges and universities were started in order to train Christian ministers. Harvard,Marsden, George M. 1994. The Soul of the American University: From Protestant Establishment to Established Nonbelief. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 41:

"The primary purpose of Harvard College was, accordingly, the training of clergy.' But 'the school served a dual purpose, training men for other professions as well." Georgetown,Curran, Robert Emmett, and Leo J. O'Donovan. 1961. The Bicentennial History of Georgetown University: From Academy to University 1789–1889, Part 1. Georgetown: Georgetown University Press:

Georgetown was a Jesuit institution founded in significant part to provide a pool of educated Catholics some of whom who could go on to full seminary training for the priesthood. Boston University, Yale,Dexter, Franklin Bowditch. 1916. "[https://archive.org/stream/documentaryhisto00dextrich The Charter of the Collegiate School, October 1701]." In Documentary History of Yale University, Under the Original Charter of the Collegiate School of Connecticut 1701–1745. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press:

Yale's original 1701 charter speaks of the purpose being "Sincere Regard & Zeal for upholding & Propagating of the Christian Protestant Religion by a succession of Learned & Orthodox" and that "Youth may be instructed in the Arts and Sciences (and) through the blessing of Almighty God may be fitted for Publick employment both in Church and Civil State." Duke University,{{cite web|author=Duke University Libraries|title=Duke University: A Brief Narrative History|date=11 July 2013|url=https://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/uarchives/history/articles/narrative-history|access-date=10 April 2020|publisher=Duke University Libraries|archive-date=6 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406170029/https://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/uarchives/history/articles/narrative-history|url-status=live}} and PrincetonAt Princeton, one of the founders (probably Ebeneezer Pemberton) wrote in {{circa|1750}}, 'Though our great Intention was to erect a seminary for educating Ministers of the Gospel, yet we hope it will be useful in other learned professions – Ornaments of the State as Well as the Church. Therefore we propose to make the plan of Education as extensive as our Circumstances will admit.' Quoted in Alexander Leitch, [http://etcweb.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Companion/founding_princeton.html A Princeton Companion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150826054222/http://etcweb.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Companion/founding_princeton.html |date=26 August 2015 }} (Princeton University Press, 1978). all had the theological training of clergy as a primary purpose at their foundation.

Seminaries and bible colleges have continued this alliance between the academic study of theology and training for Christian ministry. There are, for instance, numerous prominent examples in the United States, including Phoenix Seminary, Catholic Theological Union in Chicago,{{cite web |url=http://www.ctu.edu/about/ctu-story |title=The CTU Story |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307174208/http://www.ctu.edu/about/ctu-story |archive-date=7 March 2013 |work=Catholic Theological Union |access-date=16 March 2013 |quote=lay men and women, religious sisters and brothers, and seminarians have studied alongside one another, preparing to serve God's people}} The Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley,See [http://www.gtu.edu/about 'About the GTU'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090819102908/http://www.gtu.edu/about |date=19 August 2009 }} at The Graduate Theological Union website (Retrieved 29 August 2009): 'dedicated to educating students for teaching, research, ministry, and service.' Criswell College in Dallas,{{cite web |url=http://www.criswell.edu/news--events/about-us/ |title=The Criswell Vision |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100426034342/http://www.criswell.edu/news--events/about-us/ |archive-date=26 April 2010 |work=Criswell College |access-date=29 August 2009 |quote=Criswell College exists to serve the churches of our Lord Jesus Christ by developing God-called men and women in the Word (intellectually and academically) and by the Word (professionally and spiritually) for authentic ministry leadership}} The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville,{{cite web |url=http://www.sbts.edu/about/truth/mission/ |title=Mission Statement |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329082518/http://www.sbts.edu/about/truth/mission/ |archive-date=29 March 2015 |work=Southern Baptist Theological Seminary |access-date=29 August 2009 |quote=the mission of The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary is ... to be a servant of the churches of the Southern Baptist Convention by training, educating, and preparing ministers of the gospel for more faithful service}} Trinity Evangelical Divinity School in Deerfield, Illinois,{{cite web |url=http://www.tiu.edu/divinity/connect/whoarewe/ |title=About Trinity Evangelical Divinity School |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830165955/http://www.tiu.edu/divinity/connect/whoarewe/ |archive-date=30 August 2011 |work=Trinity Evangelical Divinity School |access-date=29 August 2009 |quote=Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (TEDS) is a learning community dedicated to the development of servant leaders for the global church, leaders who are spiritually, biblically, and theologically prepared to engage contemporary culture for the sake of Christ's kingdom}} Dallas Theological Seminary,[http://www.dts.edu/about/ "About"] at the Dallas Theological Seminary website: "At Dallas, the scholarly study of biblical and related subjects is inseparably fused with the cultivation of the spiritual life. All this is designed to prepare students to communicate the Word of God in the power of the Spirit of God." Retrieved 29 August 2009. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220083431/http://www05.dts.edu/about/ |date=20 February 2006 }}. North Texas Collegiate Institute in Farmers Branch, Texas,{{cite web|url=http://ntcollege.org/|title=North Texas Collegiate Institute |website=ntcollege.org |access-date=23 November 2016|archive-date=24 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124125316/http://ntcollege.org/|url-status=live}} and the Assemblies of God Theological Seminary in Springfield, Missouri. The only Judeo-Christian seminary for theology is the 'Idaho Messianic Bible Seminary' which is part of the Jewish University of Colorado in Denver.{{Cite web|url=https://www.jewish-university.org/|title=Jewish University of Colorado|website=jewish-university.org |access-date=31 October 2022|archive-date=8 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008093649/https://www.jewish-university.org/|url-status=live}}

In some contexts, scholars pursue theology as an academic discipline without formal affiliation to any particular church (though members of staff may well have affiliations to churches), and without focussing on ministerial training. This applies, for instance, to the Department of Theological Studies at Concordia University in Canada, and to many university departments in the United Kingdom, including the Faculty of Divinity at the University of Cambridge, the Department of Theology and Religion at the University of Exeter, and the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Leeds.{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://huss.exeter.ac.uk/theology/undergrad/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090809201252/http://huss.exeter.ac.uk/theology/undergrad/ |archive-date=9 August 2009 |access-date=1 September 2009 |title=Undergraduate Study – Why study Theology? |website=Department of Theology, University of Exeter, UK }}{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://www.leeds.ac.uk//trs/aboutus.htm |title=About us |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080505192238/http://www.leeds.ac.uk/trs/aboutus.htm |archive-date=5 May 2008 |website=University of Leeds – Department of Theology and Religious Studies }} Traditional academic prizes, such as the University of Aberdeen's Lumsden and Sachs Fellowship, tend to acknowledge performance in theology (or divinity as it is known at Aberdeen) and in religious studies.

In some contemporary contexts, a distinction is made between theology, which is seen as involving some level of commitment to the claims of the religious tradition being studied, and religious studies, which by contrast is normally seen as requiring that the question of the truth or falsehood of the religious traditions studied be kept outside its field. Religious studies involves the study of historical or contemporary practices or of those traditions' ideas using intellectual tools and frameworks that are not themselves specifically tied to any religious tradition and that are normally understood to be neutral or secular.See, e.g., Wiebe, Donald. 2000. The Politics of Religious Studies: The Continuing Conflict with Theology in the Academy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. In contexts where 'religious studies' in this sense is the focus, the primary forms of study are likely to include:

• Anthropology of religion
• Comparative religion
• History of religions
• Philosophy of religion
• Psychology of religion
• Sociology of religion

Sometimes, theology and religious studies are seen as being in tension,Noll, K. L. 27 July 2009. "[http://chronicle.com/article/The-Ethics-of-Being-a/47442/ The Ethics of Being a Theologian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927145003/http://chronicle.com/article/The-Ethics-of-Being-a/47442/ |date=27 September 2009 }}." Chronicle of Higher Education. and at other times, they are held to coexist without serious tension.Ford, David. 2009. "Theology and Religious Studies for a Multifaith and Secular Society." In Theology and Religious Studies in Higher Education, edited by D. L. Bird and S. G. Smith. London: Continuum.

Occasionally it is denied that there is as clear a boundary between them.Fitzgerald, Timothy. 2000. The Ideology of Religious Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

{{see also|Criticism of religion}}

Whether or not reasoned discussion about the divine is possible has long been a point of contention. Protagoras, as early as the fifth century BC, who is reputed to have been exiled from Athens because of his agnosticism about the existence of the gods, said that "Concerning the gods I cannot know either that they exist or that they do not exist, or what form they might have, for there is much to prevent one's knowing: the obscurity of the subject and the shortness of man's life."Protagoras. "On the Gods", translated by M. J. O'Brien. In The Older Sophists, edited by R. K. Sprague. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. 1972. p. 20 (fr.4). (emphasis added).Poster, Carol. "[http://www.iep.utm.edu/protagor/ Protagoras (fl. 5th C. BCE)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210135808/http://www.iep.utm.edu/protagor/ |date=10 February 2014 }}." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 6 October 2008.

File:Paul Heinrich Dietrich Baron d'Holbach.jpg

Since at least the eighteenth century, various authors have criticized the suitability of theology as an academic discipline.{{cite book|last=Loughlin|first=Gerard|author-link=Gerard Loughlin|date=2009|chapter=11 – Theology in the university|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myz9IWlszzgC&pg=PA221|title=The Cambridge Companion to John Henry Newman|editor1-last=Ker|editor1-first=John|editor2-last=Merrigan|editor2-first=Terrance|location=Cambridge, England|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521871860.011|pages=221–240|isbn=978-0521871860}} In 1772, Baron d'Holbach labeled theology "a continual insult to human reason" in Le Bon sens. Lord Bolingbroke, an English politician and political philosopher, wrote in Section IV of his Essays on Human Knowledge, "Theology is in fault not religion. Theology is a science that may justly be compared to the Box of Pandora. Many good things lie uppermost in it; but many evil lie under them, and scatter plagues and desolation throughout the world."[https://books.google.com/books?id=w25JAAAAYAAJ&dq=theology+is+the+box+of+pandora+bolingbroke&pg=PA396 The Philosophical Works of Lord Bolingbroke] 3. p. 396.

Thomas Paine, a Deistic American political theorist and pamphleteer, wrote in his three-part work The Age of Reason (1794, 1795, 1807):Paine, Thomas. [1794/1795/1807] 1945. "The Age of Reason." The Life and Major Writings of Thomas Paine, edited by P. S. Foner. New York: Citadel Press. p. 601.

The study of theology, as it stands in Christian churches, is the study of nothing; it is founded on nothing; it rests on no principles; it proceeds by no authorities; it has no data; it can demonstrate nothing; and it admits of no conclusion. Not anything can be studied as a science, without our being in possession of the principles upon which it is founded; and as this is the case with Christian theology, it is therefore the study of nothing.

The American satirist Mark Twain remarked in his essay "The Lowest Animal", originally written in around 1896, but not published until after Twain's death in 1910, that:{{cite web|last=Twain|first=Mark|author-link=Mark Twain|date=1896|title=The Lowest Animal|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/the-lowest-animal-by-mark-twain-1690158|website=thoughtco.com|access-date=10 July 2018|archive-date=10 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710101953/https://www.thoughtco.com/the-lowest-animal-by-mark-twain-1690158|url-status=live}}{{cite web|date=1902-11-28|title=Directory of Mark Twain's maxims, quotations, and various opinions|url=http://www.twainquotes.com/Religion.html|access-date=2012-11-11|publisher=Twainquotes.com|archive-date=3 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603011818/http://twainquotes.com/Religion.html|url-status=live}}

[Man] is the only animal that loves his neighbor as himself and cuts his throat if his theology isn't straight. He has made a graveyard of the globe in trying his honest best to smooth his brother's path to happiness and heaven.... The higher animals have no religion. And we are told that they are going to be left out in the Hereafter. I wonder why? It seems questionable taste.

A. J. Ayer, a British former logical-positivist, sought to show in his essay "Critique of Ethics and Theology" that all statements about the divine are nonsensical and any divine-attribute is unprovable. He wrote: "It is now generally admitted, at any rate by philosophers, that the existence of a being having the attributes which define the god of any non-animistic religion cannot be demonstratively proved.... [A]ll utterances about the nature of God are nonsensical."Ayer, A. J., 1936. Language, Truth and Logic. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 114–115.

Jewish atheist philosopher Walter Kaufmann, in his essay "Against Theology", sought to differentiate theology from religion in general:Kaufmann, Walter. 1963. The Faith of a Heretic. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books. pp. 114, 127–28, 130.

Theology, of course, is not religion; and a great deal of religion is emphatically anti-theological.... An attack on theology, therefore, should not be taken as necessarily involving an attack on religion. Religion can be, and often has been, untheological or even anti-theological.

• Thealogy

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• [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/590855/theology "Theology"] on Encyclopædia Britannica
• Chattopadhyay, Subhasis. [http://philpapers.org/rec/CHAROH-3 "Reflections on Hindu Theology"] in Prabuddha Bharata or Awakened India 120(12): 664–672 (2014). {{ISSN|0032-6178}}. Edited by Swami Narasimhananda.
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