Timeline of scientific computing

• Simpson rediscovers Simpson's rule, a century after Johannes Kepler (who derived it in 1615 after seeing it used for wine barrels).
• 1733 – The French naturalist Comte de Buffon poses his needle problem.Buffon, G. Editor's note concerning a lecture given 1733 by Mr. Le Clerc de Buffon to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris. Histoire de l'Acad. Roy. des Sci., pp. 43-45, 1733; according to Weisstein, Eric W. [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BuffonsNeedleProblem.html "Buffon's Needle Problem."] From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. 20 Dec 2012 20 Dec 2012.Buffon, G. "Essai d'arithmétique morale." Histoire naturelle, générale er particulière, Supplément 4, 46-123, 1777; according to Weisstein, Eric W. [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BuffonsNeedleProblem.html "Buffon's Needle Problem."] From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. 20 Dec 2012
• Euler comes up with a simple numerical method for integrands.Euler, L. Institutionum calculi integralis. Impensis Academiae Imperialis Scientiarum, 1768.Butcher, John C. (2003), Numerical Methods for Ordinary Differential Equations, New York: John Wiley & Sons, {{ISBN|978-0-471-96758-3}}.Hairer, Ernst; Nørsett, Syvert Paul; Wanner, Gerhard (1993), Solving ordinary differential equations I: Nonstiff problems, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-540-56670-0}}.

• First formulation of Gram-Schmidt orthogonalisation by Laplace,Laplace, PS. (1816). Théorie Analytique des Probabilités :First Supplement, p. 497ff. to be further improved decades later.{{cite journal | last1 = Gram | first1 = J. P. | year = 1883 | title = Ueber die Entwickelung reeler Funtionen in Reihen mittelst der Methode der kleinsten Quadrate | journal = JRNL. Für die reine und angewandte Math. | volume = 94 | pages = 71–73 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Schmidt | first1 = E. | title = Zur Theorie der linearen und nichtlinearen Integralgleichungen. I. Teil: Entwicklung willkürlicher Funktionen nach Systemen vorgeschriebener | journal = Math. Ann. | volume = 63 | page = 1907 }}[http://jeff560.tripod.com/g.html#GRAM-SCHMIDT%20ORTHOGONALIZATION Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (G).] As of Aug 2017.{{cite book|last1=Farebrother|first1=RW|title=Linear Least Squares Computations|date=1988|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9780824776619|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aCS0zw7SztEC|access-date=19 August 2017}}
• Babbage in 1822, began work on a machine made to compute/calculate values of polynomial functions automatically by using the method of finite differences. This was eventually called the Difference engine.
• Lovelace's note G on the Analytical Engine (1842) describes an algorithm for generating Bernoulli numbers. It is considered the first algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer, and thus the first-ever computer programme.{{cite web|last=Simonite|first=Tom|url=https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2009/03/ada-lovelace-day.html|title=Short Sharp Science: Celebrating Ada Lovelace: the 'world's first programmer'|work=New Scientist|date=24 March 2009|access-date=14 April 2012}}[http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/books/2013/08/tom-stoppards-arcadia-at-twenty.html Tom Stoppard's “Arcadia,” at Twenty.] By Brad Leithauser. The New Yorker, August 8, 2013. The engine was never completed, however, so her code was never tested.{{cite journal|title=Ada and the first computer|last1=Kim|first1=Eugene Eric|last2=Toole|first2=Betty Alexandra|journal=Scientific American|date=May 1999|volume=280|issue=5|pages=70–71|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0599-76|bibcode=1999SciAm.280e..76E}}
• Adams-Bashforth method published.Bashforth, Francis (1883), An Attempt to test the Theories of Capillary Action by comparing the theoretical and measured forms of drops of fluid. With an explanation of the method of integration employed in constructing the tables which give the theoretical forms of such drops, by J. C. Adams, Cambridge.
• In applied mathematics, Jacobi develops technique for solving numerical equations.[http://canum2006.univ-rennes1.fr/exposes_et_posters/vandervorst.pdf Jacobi's Ideas on Eigenvalue Computation in a modern context], Henk van der Vorst.[http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Jacobi_method Jacobi method], Encyclopedia of Mathematics.[http://www.siam.org/meetings/la09/talks/benzi.pdf The Early History of Matrix Iterations: With a Focus on the Italian Contribution], Michele Benzi, 26 October 2009. SIAM Conference on Applied Linear Algebra, Monterey Bay – Seaside, California.
• Gauss Seidel first published.
• To help with computing tides, Harmonic Analyser is built in 1886.

• 1900 – Runge's work followed by Martin Kutta to invent the Runge-Kutta method for approximating integration for differential equations.MW Kutta. "Beiträge zur näherungsweisen Integration totaler Differentialgleichungen" [Contributions to the approximate integration of total differential equations] (in German). Thesis, University of Munich.
• 1901 – {{citation|title= Reprinted|journal=Z. Math. Phys. |volume=46 |year=1901|pages= 435–453}} and in [https://books.google.com/books?id=K5e6kQEACAAJ B.G Teubner, 1901].Runge, C., "Über die numerische Auflösung von Differentialgleichungen" [About the numerical solution of differential equations](in German), Math. Ann. 46 (1895) 167-178.

• 1910 – A-M Cholesky creates a matrix decomposition scheme.{{cite journal|author1=Commandant Benoit|title=Note sur une méthode de résolution des équations normales provenant de l'application de la méthode des moindres carrés à un système d'équations linéaires en nombre inférieur à celui des inconnues (Procédé du Commandant Cholesky)|journal=Bulletin Géodésique |volume=2|date=1924|pages=67–77|doi=10.1007/BF03031308 }}{{cite book|last1=Cholesky|author-link1=André-Louis Cholesky |title=Sur la résolution numérique des systèmes d'équations linéaires|date=1910}}
• Richardson extrapolation introduced.

• 1922 – Lewis Fry Richardson introduces numerical weather forecasting by manual calculation, using methods originally developed by Vilhelm Bjerknes as early as 1895.L F Richardson, Weather Prediction by Numerical Process. Cambridge University Press (1922).{{cite journal|last=Lynch|author-link=Peter Lynch (meteorologist)|first=Peter|title=The origins of computer weather prediction and climate modeling|journal=Journal of Computational Physics|date=March 2008|volume=227|issue=7|pages=3431–44|doi=10.1016/j.jcp.2007.02.034|bibcode=2008JCoPh.227.3431L|publisher=University of Miami|url=http://www.rsmas.miami.edu/personal/miskandarani/Courses/MPO662/Lynch,Peter/OriginsCompWF.JCP227.pdf|access-date=2010-12-23|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100708191309/http://www.rsmas.miami.edu/personal/miskandarani/Courses/MPO662/Lynch,Peter/OriginsCompWF.JCP227.pdf|archive-date=2010-07-08}}
• 1926 – Grete Hermann publishes foundational paper for computer algebra, which established the existence of algorithms (including complexity bounds) for many of the basic problems of abstract algebra, such as ideal membership for polynomial rings.{{cite journal| author=Grete Hermann| title=Die Frage der endlich vielen Schritte in der Theorie der Polynomideale| journal=Mathematische Annalen| year=1926| volume=95| pages=736–788| url=http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/index.php?id=11&PPN=PPN235181684_0095&DMDID=DMDLOG_0044&L=1| doi=10.1007/bf01206635| s2cid=115897210| access-date=2017-05-05| archive-date=2016-10-09| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009190144/http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/index.php?id=11&PPN=PPN235181684_0095&DMDID=DMDLOG_0044&L=1| url-status=dead| url-access=subscription}}
• 1926 Adams-Moulton method.
• 1927 – Douglas Hartree creates what is later known as the Hartree–Fock method, the first ab initio quantum chemistry methods. However, manual solutions of the Hartree–Fock equations for a medium-sized atom were laborious and small molecules required computational resources far beyond what was available before 1950.

This decade marks the first major strides to a modern computer, and hence the start of the modern era.

• Fermi's Rome physics research group (informal name I ragazzi di Via Panisperna) develop statistical algorithms based on Comte de Buffon's work, that would later become the foundation of the Monte Carlo method. See also FERMIAC.
• Shannon explains how to use electric circuits to do Boolean algebra in "A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits"
• John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry create the first electronic non-programmable, digital computing device, the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, from 1937-42.
• Complex number calculator created by Stibitz.

• 1947 – Metropolis algorithm for Monte Carlo simulation (named one of the top-10 algorithms of the 20th century){{Cite journal |last1=Dongarra |first1=J. |last2=Sullivan |first2=F. |date=January 2000 |title=Guest Editors Introduction: the Top 10 Algorithms |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/814652 |journal=Computing in Science & Engineering |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=22–23 |doi=10.1109/MCISE.2000.814652 |bibcode=2000CSE.....2a..22D |issn=1521-9615|url-access=subscription }} invented at Los Alamos by von Neumann, Ulam and Metropolis.{{cite journal|last=Metropolis|first=N.|title=The Beginning of the Monte Carlo method|journal=Los Alamos Science|year=1987|volume=15 |page=125|url=http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?15-12.pdf}}. Accessed 5 May 2012.S. Ulam, R. D. Richtmyer, and J. von Neumann(1947). [http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?00329286.pdf Statistical methods in neutron diffusion]. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory report LAMS–551.{{cite journal | last1 = Metropolis | first1 = N. | last2 = Ulam | first2 = S. | year = 1949 | title = The Monte Carlo method | journal = Journal of the American Statistical Association | volume = 44 | issue = 247| pages = 335–341 | doi=10.1080/01621459.1949.10483310| pmid = 18139350 }}
• George Dantzig introduces the simplex method (named one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century) in 1947.{{cite web|title=SIAM News, November 1994.|url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/SOL/dantzig.html|access-date=6 June 2012|archive-date=16 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416184457/http://www.stanford.edu/group/SOL/dantzig.html|url-status=dead}} Systems Optimization Laboratory, Stanford University Huang Engineering Center (site host/mirror).
• Ulam and von Neumann introduce the notion of cellular automata.Von Neumann, J., Theory of Self-Reproducing Automata, Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1966.
• Turing formulated the LU decomposition method.A. M. Turing, Rounding-off errors in matrix processes. Quart. J Mech. Appl. Math. 1 (1948), 287–308 (according to Poole, David (2006), Linear Algebra: A Modern Introduction (2nd ed.), Canada: Thomson Brooks/Cole, {{ISBN|0-534-99845-3}}.) .
• A. W. H. Phillips invents the MONIAC hydraulic computer at LSE, better known as "Phillips Hydraulic Computer".[https://www.theguardian.com/business/2008/may/08/bankofenglandgovernor.economics The computer model that once explained the British economy.] Larry Elliott, The Guardian, Thursday 8 May 2008.[http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects/computing_and_data_processing/1995-210.aspx Phillip's Economic Computer, 1949.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141003075541/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects/computing_and_data_processing/1995-210.aspx |date=2014-10-03 }} Exhibit at London Science Museum.
• First hydro simulations occurred at Los Alamos.Richtmyer, R. D. (1948). Proposed Numerical Method for Calculation of Shocks. Los Alamos, NM: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory LA-671.{{cite journal | last1 = Von Neumann | first1 = J. | last2 = Richtmyer | first2 = R. D. | year = 1950 | title = A Method for the Numerical Calculation of Hydrodynamic Shocks | journal = Journal of Applied Physics | volume = 21 | issue = 3| pages = 232–237 | doi=10.1063/1.1699639 | bibcode=1950JAP....21..232V}}

• First successful weather predictions on a computer occurred.{{cite journal | last1 = Charney | first1 = J. | last2 = Fjørtoft | first2 = R. | last3 = von Neumann | first3 = J. | year = 1950 | title = Numerical Integration of the Barotropic Vorticity Equation | doi = 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1950.tb00336.x | journal = Tellus | volume = 2 | issue = 4 | pages=237–254| bibcode = 1950Tell....2..237C }}See the review article:- {{cite journal|last=Smagorinsky|first=J|title=The Beginnings of Numerical Weather Prediction and General Circulation Modelling: Early Recollections|journal=Advances in Geophysics|year=1983|volume=25|pages=3–37|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/JNWP/50th_Symp_2004_CD.PDF/JNWPU_2004_All/1010.pdf|access-date=6 June 2012|doi=10.1016/S0065-2687(08)60170-3|bibcode=1983AdGeo..25....3S|isbn=9780120188253}}
• Hestenes, Stiefel, and Lanczos, all from the Institute for Numerical Analysis at the National Bureau of Standards, initiate the development of Krylov subspace iteration methods.Magnus R. Hestenes and Eduard Stiefel, Methods of Conjugate Gradients for Solving Linear Systems, J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. 49, 409-436 (1952).Eduard Stiefel, U¨ ber einige Methoden der Relaxationsrechnung (in German), Z. Angew. Math. Phys. 3, 1-33 (1952).Cornelius Lanczos, Solution of Systems of Linear Equations by Minimized Iterations, J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. 49, 33-53 (1952).Cornelius Lanczos, An Iteration Method for the Solution of the Eigenvalue Problem of Linear Differential and Integral Operators, J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. 45, 255-282 (1950). Named one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century.
• Equations of State Calculations by Fast Computing Machines introduces the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm.{{cite journal | last1 = Metropolis | first1 = N. | last2 = Rosenbluth | first2 = A.W. | last3 = Rosenbluth | first3 = M.N. | last4 = Teller | first4 = A.H. | last5 = Teller | first5 = E. | year = 1953 | title = Equations of State Calculations by Fast Computing Machines | url = http://www.aliquote.org/pub/metropolis-et-al-1953.pdf | journal = Journal of Chemical Physics | volume = 21 | issue = 6| pages = 1087–1092 | doi = 10.1063/1.1699114 | bibcode=1953JChPh..21.1087M| osti = 4390578 | s2cid = 1046577 }}
• Molecular dynamics invented by Bernie Alder and Wainwright {{cite journal | last1 = Alder | first1 = B. J. | last2 = Wainwright | first2 = T. E. | year = 1957 | title = Phase Transition for a Hard Sphere System | journal = J. Chem. Phys. | volume = 27 | issue = 5| page = 1208 | doi = 10.1063/1.1743957 | bibcode = 1957JChPh..27.1208A | s2cid = 10791650 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Alder | first1 = B. J. | last2 = Wainwright | first2 = T. E. | year = 1962 | title = Phase Transition in Elastic Disks | journal = Phys. Rev. | volume = 127 | issue = 2| pages = 359–361 | doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.127.359 | bibcode = 1962PhRv..127..359A | osti = 4798469 }}
• A S Householder invents his eponymous matrices and transformation method (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century).{{cite journal|first=A. S. |last=Householder |title=Unitary Triangularization of a Nonsymmetric Matrix|journal=Journal of the ACM

|volume=5 |issue=4 |year=1958 |pages=339–342|doi=10.1145/320941.320947 |mr=0111128|s2cid=9858625 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01316095/file/p339householderb.pdf }}

• 1953 – Enrico Fermi, John Pasta, Stanislaw Ulam, and Mary Tsingou discover the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem through computer simulations of a vibrating string.Fermi, E. (posthumously); Pasta, J.; Ulam, S. (1955) : [http://www.osti.gov/accomplishments/documents/fullText/ACC0041.pdf Studies of Nonlinear Problems (accessed 25 Sep 2012)]. Los Alamos Laboratory Document LA-1940. [http://www.cs.princeton.edu/courses/archive/fall09/cos323/papers/fpu55.pdf Also appeared] in 'Collected Works of Enrico Fermi', E. Segre ed., University of Chicago Press, Vol.II,978–988,1965. Recovered 21 Dec 2012
• A team led by John Backus develops the FORTRAN compiler and programming language at IBM's research centre in San Jose, California. This sped the adoption of scientific programming,W.W. McDowell Award citation: {{cite web| title=W. Wallace McDowell Award| url=http://www.computer.org/portal/site/ieeecs/menuitem.c5efb9b8ade9096b8a9ca0108bcd45f3/index.jsp?&pName=ieeecs_level1&path=ieeecs/about/awards&file=WallaceMcD_recipients.xml&xsl=generic.xsl&| access-date=April 15, 2008| archive-date=September 29, 2007| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929133553/http://www.computer.org/portal/site/ieeecs/menuitem.c5efb9b8ade9096b8a9ca0108bcd45f3/index.jsp?&pName=ieeecs_level1&path=ieeecs%2Fabout%2Fawards&file=WallaceMcD_recipients.xml&xsl=generic.xsl&| url-status=dead}}National Medal of Science citation: {{cite web | title = The President's National Medal of Science: John Backus | publisher = National Science Foundation | url = https://www.nsf.gov/od/nms/recip_details.cfm?recip_id=25 | access-date =March 21, 2007}}{{cite web|title=ACM Turing Award Citation: John Backus |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery |url=http://www.acm.org/awards/turing_citations/backus.html |access-date=March 22, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070204114319/http://www.acm.org/awards/turing_citations/backus.html |archive-date=February 4, 2007 |url-status=dead }} and is one of the oldest extant programming languages, as well as one of the most popular in science and engineering.

• 1960 – First recorded use of the term "finite element method" by Ray Clough to describe the earlier methods of Richard Courant, Alexander Hrennikoff and Olgierd Zienkiewicz in structural analysis.RW Clough, "The Finite Element Method in Plane

Stress Analysis," Proceedings of 2nd ASCE Conference on Electronic Computation, Pittsburgh, PA, Sept. 8, 9, 1960.

• 1961 – John G.F. Francis{{cite journal | last1 = Francis | first1 = J.G.F. | year = 1961 | title = The QR Transformation, I | journal = The Computer Journal | volume = 4 | issue = 3| pages = 265–271 | doi=10.1093/comjnl/4.3.265| doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | last1 = Francis | first1 = J.G.F. | year = 1962 | title = The QR Transformation, II | journal = The Computer Journal | volume = 4 | issue = 4| pages = 332–345 | doi=10.1093/comjnl/4.4.332| doi-access = free }} and Vera Kublanovskaya{{cite journal | last1 = Kublanovskaya | first1 = Vera N. | year = 1961 | title = On some algorithms for the solution of the complete eigenvalue problem | journal = USSR Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Physics | volume = 1 | issue = 3| pages = 637–657 | doi = 10.1016/0041-5553(63)90168-X }} Also published in: Zhurnal Vychislitel'noi Matematiki i Matematicheskoi Fiziki [Journal of Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Physics], 1(4), pages 555–570 (1961). invent QR factorization (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century).
• 1963 – Edward Lorenz discovers the butterfly effect on a computer, attracting interest in chaos theory.{{cite journal|last=Lorenz|first=Edward N.|title=Deterministic Nonperiodic Flow|journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=130–141|year=1963|url=http://www.nd.edu/~powers/ame.60611/lorenz.article.pdf |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1963)020<0130:dnf>2.0.co;2 |bibcode=1963JAtS...20..130L}}
• 1961 – Using computational investigations of the 3-body problem, Michael Minovitch formulates the gravity assist method.Minovitch, Michael: "A method for determining interplanetary free-fall reconnaissance trajectories," Jet Propulsion Laboratory Technical Memo TM-312-130, pages 38-44 (23 August 1961).Christopher Riley and Dallas Campbell, Oct 22, 2012. [http://www.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-20033940&ei=j-29UZ6sNIexPInBgfAG&usg=AFQjCNEj30660hWJWTpfDJohrZek5KxAFA "The maths that made Voyager possible"]. BBC News Science and Environment. Recovered 16 Jun 2013.
• 1964 – Molecular dynamics invented independently by Aneesur Rahman.{{cite journal|last=Rahman|first=A|title=Correlations in the Motion of Atoms in Liquid Argon|journal=Phys Rev|year=1964|volume=136|issue=2A|pages=A405–A41|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.136.A405|bibcode=1964PhRv..136..405R}}
• 1965 – fast Fourier transform developed by James W. Cooley and John W. Tukey.{{cite journal | last1 = Cooley | first1 = James W. | last2 = Tukey | first2 = John W. | year = 1965 | title = An algorithm for the machine calculation of complex Fourier series | url = http://attach3.bdwm.net/attach/0Announce/groups/GROUP_3/MathTools/D6714701A/D69595345/M.1089260001.A/CooleyJ_AlgMCC.pdf | journal = Math. Comput. | volume = 19 | issue = 90 | pages = 297–301 | doi = 10.1090/s0025-5718-1965-0178586-1 | doi-access = free }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
• 1964 – Walter Kohn, with Lu Jeu Sham and Pierre Hohenberg, instigates the development of density functional theory,

{{cite journal

| last1 = Kohn | first1 = Walter

| last2 = Hohenberg | first2 = Pierre

| year = 1964| title = Inhomogeneous Electron Gas| journal = Physical Review| volume = 136 | pages = B864–B871| issue = 3B | doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.136.B864|bibcode = 1964PhRv..136..864H | doi-access = free}}

{{cite journal

| last1 = Kohn | first1 = Walter

| last2 = Sham | first2 = Lu Jeu

| year = 1965

| title = Self-Consistent Equations Including Exchange and Correlation Effects

| journal = Physical Review

| volume = 140 | pages = A1133–A1138 | issue = 4A

| doi = 10.1103/PHYSREV.140.A1133

|bibcode = 1965PhRv..140.1133K | doi-access = free}} for which he shares the 1998 Nobel Chemistry Prize with John Pople.{{cite web | title = The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1998 | publisher = Nobelprize.org | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1998/index.html|access-date=2008-10-06}} This contribution is arguably the earliest work to which Nobels were given for a computer program or computational technique.

• First regression calculations in economics.

• 1975 – Benoit Mandelbrot coins the term "fractal" to describe the self-similarity found in the Fatou, Julia and Mandelbrot sets. Fractals become the first mathematical visualization tool extensively explored with computing.B. Mandelbrot; Les objets fractals, forme, hasard et dimension (in French). Publisher: Flammarion (1975), {{ISBN|9782082106474}}; English translation Fractals: Form, Chance and Dimension. Publisher: Freeman, W. H & Company. (1977). {{ISBN|9780716704737}}.
• 1977 – Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken prove the four colour theorem, the first theorem to be proved by computer.{{cite journal | last1 = Appel | first1 = Kenneth | last2 = Haken | first2 = Wolfgang | year = 1977 | title = Every planar map is four colorable, Part I: Discharging | journal = Illinois Journal of Mathematics | volume = 21 | issue = 3| pages = 429–490 | doi = 10.1215/ijm/1256049011 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | last1 = Appel | first1 = K. | last2 = Haken | first2 = W. | year = 1977 | title = Every Planar Map is Four-Colorable, II: Reducibility | journal = Illinois J. Math. | volume = 21 | pages = 491–567 | doi = 10.1215/ijm/1256049012 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | last1 = Appel | first1 = K. | last2 = Haken | first2 = W. | year = 1977 | title = The Solution of the Four-Color Map Problem | journal = Sci. Am. | volume = 237 | issue = 4| pages = 108–121 | doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1077-108 | bibcode = 1977SciAm.237d.108A}}

• Fast multipole method (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century) invented by Vladimir Rokhlin and Leslie Greengard.L. Greengard, The Rapid Evaluation of Potential Fields in Particle Systems, MIT, Cambridge, (1987).Rokhlin, Vladimir (1985). "Rapid Solution of Integral Equations of Classic Potential Theory." J. Computational Physics Vol. 60, pp. 187-207.{{cite journal | last1 = Greengard | first1 = L. | last2 = Rokhlin | first2 = V. | year = 1987 | title = A fast algorithm for particle simulations | journal = J. Comput. Phys. | volume = 73 | issue = 2| pages = 325–348 | doi=10.1016/0021-9991(87)90140-9| bibcode = 1987JCoPh..73..325G }}
• Car–Parrinello molecular dynamics developed by Roberto Car and Michele Parrinello

• 1990 – In computational genomics and sequence analysis, the Human Genome Project, an endeavour to sequence the entire human genome, begins.
• 1998 – Kepler conjecture is almost all but certainly proved algorithmically by Thomas Hales.
• The appearance of the first research grids using volunteer computing – GIMPS (1996), distributed.net (1997) and Seti@Home (1999).

• 2000 – The Human Genome Project completes a rough draft of human genome.
• 2003 – The Human Genome Project completed.
• 2002 – The BOINC architecture is launched.

• Foldit players solve virus structure, one of the first cases of a game solving a scientific question.

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{{Further|Timeline of computing 2020–2029|List of years in science#2020s}}

• Computational science
• History of computing
• History of mathematics
• Timeline of mathematics
• Timeline of algorithms
• Timeline of computational physics
• Timeline of computational mathematics
• Timeline of numerical analysis after 1945
• History of computing hardware

{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

• SIAM (Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics) News. [http://www.siam.org/news/news.php?id=637 Top 10 Algorithms of the 20th Century].
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20130125035840/http://history.siam.org/ The History of Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computing @ SIAM (Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics)]
• {{cite journal | last1 = Ruttimann | first1 = Jacqueline | year = 2006 | title = 2020 computing: Milestones in scientific computing | journal = Nature | volume = 440 | issue = 7083| pages = 399–405 | doi = 10.1038/440399a | pmid=16554772| bibcode = 2006Natur.440..399R | s2cid = 21967804 | doi-access = free }}
• {{cite journal | last1 = Anderson | first1 = H. L. | year = 1986| title = Scientific Uses of the MANIAC | journal = Journal of Statistical Physics | volume = 43 | issue = 5–6| pages = 731–748 | doi = 10.1007/BF02628301 | bibcode=1986JSP....43..731A| s2cid = 122676398 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1232554 }}
• IEEE Milestones

{{Timelines of computing}}

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