Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (before 1954)

{{short description|Chronological listing of significant events in the history of tectonophysics}}

{{Redirect|Timeline of the development of tectonophysics|remaining timeline|Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (after 1952)}}

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The evolution of tectonophysics is closely linked to the history of the continental drift and plate tectonics hypotheses. The continental drift/ Airy-Heiskanen isostasy hypothesis had many flaws and scarce data. The fixist/ Pratt-Hayford isostasy, the contracting Earth and the expanding Earth concepts had many flaws as well.

The idea of continents with a permanent location, the geosyncline theory, the Pratt-Hayford isostasy, the extrapolation of the age of the Earth by Lord Kelvin as a black body cooling down, the contracting Earth, the Earth as a solid and crystalline body, is one school of thought. A lithosphere creeping over the asthenosphere is a logical consequence of an Earth with internal heat by radioactivity decay, the Airy-Heiskanen isostasy, thrust faults and Niskanen's mantle viscosity determinations.

Introduction

File:Antonio Snider-Pellegrini Opening of the Atlantic.jpg

File:Isostasy.svg

Christian creationism (Martin Luther) was popular until the 19th century, and the age of the Earth was thought to have been created circa 4,000 BC. There were stacks of calcareous rocks of maritime origin above sea level, and up and down motions were allowed (geosyncline hypothesis, James Hall and James D. Dana). Later on, the thrust fault concept appeared, and a contracting Earth (Eduard Suess, James D. Dana, Albert Heim) was its driving force. In 1862, the physicist William Thomson (who later became Lord Kelvin) calculated the age of Earth (as a cooling black body) at between 20 million and 400 million years. In 1895, John Perry produced an age of Earth estimate of 2 to 3 billion years old using a model of a convective mantle and thin crust.{{cite journal

| title=Kelvin, Perry and the Age of the Earth

| first1=Philip C. | last1=England | first2=Peter

| last2=Molnar | first3=Frank M. | last3=Richter

| journal=American Scientist | volume=95

| issue=4 | year=2007 | pages=342–349

| doi=10.1511/2007.66.3755 | citeseerx=10.1.1.579.1433 }} Finally, Arthur Holmes published The Age of the Earth, an Introduction to Geological Ideas in 1927, in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years.

Wegener had data for assuming that the relative positions of the continents change over time. It was a mistake to state the continents "plowed" through the sea, although it isn't sure that this fixist quote is true in the original in German. He was an outsider with a doctorate in astronomy attacking an established theory between 'geophysicists'. The geophysicists were right to state that the Earth is solid, and the mantle is elastic (for seismic waves) and inhomogeneous, and the ocean floor would not allow the movement of the continents. But excluding one alternative, substantiates the opposite alternative: passive continents and an active seafloor spreading and subduction, with accretion belts on the edges of the continents. The velocity of the sliding continents, was allowed in the uncertainty of the fixed continent model and seafloor subduction and upwelling with phase change allows for inhomogeneity.

The problem too, was the specialisation. Arthur Holmes and Alfred Rittmann saw it right {{Harv|Rittmann|1939}}. Only an outsider can have the overview, only an outsider sees the forest, not only the trees {{Harv|Hellman|1998b|p=145}}. But A. Wegener did not have the specialisation to correctly weight the quality of the geophysical data and the paleontologic data, and its conclusions. Wegener's main interest was meteorology, and he wanted to join the Denmark-Greenland expedition scheduled for mid 1912. So he hurried up to present his Continental Drift hypothesis.

Mainly Charles Lyell, Harold Jeffreys, James D. Dana, Charles Schuchert, Chester Longwell, and the conflict with the Axis powers slowed down the acceptance of continental drifting.{{sfn|Grapes|2012}}

Abraham Ortelius {{Harv|Ortelius|1596}}{{sfn|Ortelius|1596}} (cited in {{Harvnb|Romm|1994}}{{sfn|Romm|1994}}), Francis Bacon {{Harv|Bacon|1620}}{{sfn|Bacon|1620}}(cited in {{Harvnb|Keary|Vine|1990}}{{sfn|Keary|Vine|1990}}), Theodor Christoph Lilienthal (1756) (cited in {{Harvnb|Romm|1994}},{{sfn|Romm|1994}} and in Schmeling, 2004{{Cite web |first=Harro |last=Schmeling |url=http://www.geophysik.uni-frankfurt.de/~schmelin/skripte/Geodyn1-kap1-2-S1-S22-2004.pdf |title=Geodynamik |year=2004 |publisher=University of Frankfurt |language=de }}), Alexander von Humboldt (1801 and 1845) (cited in Schmeling, 2004), Antonio Snider-Pellegrini {{Harv|Snider-Pellegrini|1858}},{{sfn|Snider-Pellegrini|1858}} and others had noted earlier that the shapes of continents on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean (most notably, Africa and South America) seem to fit together (see also {{Harvnb|Brusatte|2004}},{{sfn|Brusatte|2004|p=3}} and {{Harvnb|Kious|Tilling|1996}}.{{sfn|Kious|Tilling|1996}}).
Note: Francis Bacon was thinking of western Africa and western South America and Theodor Lilienthal was thinking about the sunken island of Atlantis and changing sea levels.
{{Cite book |title=Theory of the Earth: with proofs and illustrations |first=J |last=Hutton |author-link=James Hutton |year=1795 |place=Edinburgh |publisher=Cadell, Davies and Creech |isbn=978-1-897799-78-9 |postscript=. The Geological Society of London was the publisher later on. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OP2XrcE6oZAC&pg=PA9|quote=There has been exerted an extreme degree of heat below the strata formed at the bottom of the sea. }}
Catastrophism (e.g. Christian fundamentalism, William Thomson) vs. Uniformitarianism (e.g. Charles Lyell, Thomas Henry Huxley) {{Harv|Hellman|1998a}}.
Term coined by William Whewell.
Uniformitarism is the prevailing view in the U.S. {{Harv|Oreskes|2002}}.
Charles Lyell assumed that land masses changed their location, but he assumed a mechanism of vertical movement {{Harv|Krill|2011}}. James Dwight Dana assumed a permanent location as well, influencing the American fixist school of thought {{Harv|Irving|2005}}. It wasn't known that the seafloor isn't mainly granite rock (sial) (as the continental cratons) but mainly basalt rock (sima).
Quote, Lyell: "Continents therefore, although permanent for whole geological epochs, shift their positions entirely in the course of ages." ({{Harv|Lyell|1875|p=258}} cited in {{Harv|Summerhayes|1990}})
Quote, Wallace about Dana: "In 1856, in articles in the American Journal, he discussed the development of the American continent, and argued for its general permanence; and in his Manual of Geology in 1863 and later editions, the same views were more fully enforced and were latterly applied to all continents." ({{Harv|Dana|1863}} cited in {{Harv|Wallace|2007|p=342}})
Pratt's isostasy is the prevailing view {{Harv|Oreskes|2002}}:
Airy-Heiskanen Model; where different topographic heights are accommodated by changes in crustal thickness.
Pratt-Hayford Model; where different topographic heights are accommodated by lateral changes in rock density.
Vening Meinesz, or Flexural Model; where the lithosphere acts as an elastic plate and its inherent rigidity distributes local topographic loads over a broad region by bending.
A cooling and contracting Earth is the prevailing view.
H. Jeffreys was the most important contractionist {{Harv|Frankel|1987|p=211}}, {{Harv|Jeffreys|1924}} – {{Harv|Jeffreys|1952}}
H. Wettstein {{Harv|Wegener|1929|pp=2–3}}, E. Suess, Bailey Willis and Benjamin Franklin allow horizontal move of the Earth's crust.
{{Cite book |last1=Willis |first1=Bailey |last2=Willis |first2=R. |title=Geologic Structures |year=1929 |publisher=McGraw-Hill book company, inc |page=131 |quote=the evidences of movement noted in rock structures are so numerous and on so large scale that it is clear that dynamic conditions exist from time to time. }} {{Harv|Holmes|1929a}}. But Willis was a fixist, as he supported the permanent position of the oceans, although he didn't believe in land-bridges {{Harv|Krill|2011}}.
{{Cite book |first=H. |last=Wettstein |title=Die Strömungen der Festen, Flüssigen und Gasförmigen und ihre Bedeutung für Geologie, Astronomie, Klimatologie und Meteorologie |page=406 |place=Zuerich |year=1880 }}
Quote, Benjamin Franklin (1782): "The crust of the Earth must be a shell floating on a fluid interior.... Thus the surface of the globe would be capable of being broken and distorted by the violent movements of the fluids on which it rested".{{Cite web |url=http://www.bbm.me.uk/portsdown/PH_061_History_a.htm |title=The History of Continental Drift – Before Wegener |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051123101326/http://www.bbm.me.uk/portsdown/PH_061_History_a.htm |archive-date=2005-11-23 }}{{Cite journal |last=Boswell |first=James |journal=The Scots Magazine |volume=55 |year=1793 |pages=432–433 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0C0oAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA432|title=On the Theory of the Earth – Letter to Abbé Jean-Louis Giraud Soulavie, 22 September 1782}}:s:en:Franklin to Abbé Jean-Louis Giraud Soulavie
The vertical movement of Scandinavia after the ice age is accepted (recent average uplift c. 1 cm/year). This implies a certain plasticity under the crust {{Harv|Flint|1947}}.{{Cite book |first=A. |last=Born |title=Isostasie und Schweremessung |place=Berlin |year=1923}}
The alpine geology with its theory of thrusting (as geosyncline hypothesis; today's thrust tectonics) accepted horizontal movements. {{Harv|Suess|1875}} cited in {{Harv|Holmes|1929a}}
1848 Arnold Escher shows Roderick Murchison the Glarus thrust at the Pass dil Segnas. But Arnold Escher does not publish it as a thrust as it contradicts the geosyncline hypothesis.{{Cite web |url=http://www.glarusoverthrust.org/frameset.asp?fHigherChapter_ID=150&fChapters_id=150&fSubChapters_id=158&ID_Contents=&fTemplatefile=&blnPreview=False&fLanguage_ID=1&fSeason_ID=1 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120803193905/http://www.glarusoverthrust.org/frameset.asp?fHigherChapter_ID=150&fChapters_id=150&fSubChapters_id=158&ID_Contents=&fTemplatefile=&blnPreview=False&fLanguage_ID=1&fSeason_ID=1 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=August 3, 2012 |title=Historical geology |publisher=Geopark Sadona }}{{Cite web |url=http://www.geo-life.ch/guave-cms/content.php?lang=de&id=1&content=54 |title=Geo-Life: Von der Glarner Doppelfalte zur Glarner Ueberschiebung |publisher=geo-life.ch |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107171910/http://www.geo-life.ch/guave-cms/content.php?lang=de&id=1&content=54 |archive-date=2011-11-07 }}
Eduard Suess proposed Gondwanaland in 1861, as a result of the Glossopteris findings, but he believed that the oceans flooded the spaces currently between those lands. And he proposed the Tethys Sea in 1893. He came to the conclusion that the Alps to the North were once at the bottom of an ocean {{Harv|Suess|1901}}.
The idea of continental drifting shows up for the first time. John Henry Pepper merges Antonio Snider-Pellegrini's map, Evan Hopkins' proof of northward shifting of the continents of his neptunist book and his plutonism ({{Harv|Hopkins|1844}} and {{Harv|Pepper|1861}} cited in {{Harv|Krill|2011}}).
1884, Marcel Alexandre Bertrand interpretes the Glarus thrust as a thrust.
{{Cite journal |first=Marcel Alexandre |last=Bertrand |year=1884 |title=Rapports de structure des Alpes de Glaris et du bassin houiller du Nord |journal=Société Géologique de France Bulletin |series=3 |volume=12 |pages=318–330 }}
Hans Schardt demonstrates that the Prealps are allochthonous.
{{Cite journal |last=Schardt |first=H. |year=1884 |title=Études géologiques sur le Pays d'Enhaut vaudois |journal=Bull. Soc. Vaudoise Sci. Nat. |volume=20 |pages=1–183 }}
{{Cite journal |last=Schardt |first=H. |year=1893 |title=Sur l'origine des Préalpes romandes |journal=Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat. Genève |volume=3 |pages=570–583 }}
{{Cite journal |last=Schardt |first=H. |year=1898 |title=Les régions exotiques du versant Nord des Alpes Suisse. Préalpes du Chablais et du Stockhorn et les Klippes |journal=Bull. Soc. Vaudoise Sci. Nat. |volume=34 |pages=113–219 }}
1907, resolution of the "Highlands Controversy": thrust faults get established: Lapworth, Peach and Horne working on parts of the Moine Thrust, Scotland.
{{Cite journal |vauthors=Peach BN, Horne J, Gunn W, Clough CT, Hinxman LW |year=1907 |title=The Geological Structure of the North-west Highlands of Scotland |journal=Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Scotland |place=Glasgow }}
{{Cite journal |title=Transverse architecture of the Moine Thrust Belt and Moine Nappe, Northern Highlands, Scotland: new insight on a classic thrust belt |first1=A.G. |last1=Leslie |first2=M. |last2=Krabbendam |url=http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/9844/1/LESLIE_PISA_transverse_2009__final.pdf |journal=Bollettino della Societa Geologica Italiana |volume=128 |issue=2 |pages=295–306 |year=2009 |doi=10.3301/IJG.2009.128.2.295 }}
Director-Generals of the British Geological Survey: Roderick Murchison (1855–1872) and Archibald Geikie (1881–1901)
Although Wegener's theory was formed independently and was more complete than those of his predecessors, Wegener later credited a number of past authors with similar ideas:{{Harvnb|Wegener|1929}}, {{Harvnb|Wegener|1966}} Franklin Coxworthy (between 1848 and 1890),{{sfn|Coxworthy|1924}} Roberto Mantovani (between 1889 and 1909), William Henry Pickering (1907){{sfn|Pickering|1907}} and Frank Bursley Taylor (1908).{{sfn|Wegener|1929}}
1912–1929: Alfred Wegener develops his continental drift hypothesis. ({{Harvnb|Wegener|1912a}}, {{Harvnb|Wegener|1929}})
In the 1920s Earth scientists refer to themselves as drifters (or mobilists) or fixists {{Harv|Frankel|1987|p=206}}. Terms introduced by the Swiss geologist Émile Argand in 1924 {{Harv|Krill|2011}}.
Moreover, most of the blistering attacks were aimed at Wegener himself, an outsider (PhD in astronomy) who seemed to be attacking the very foundations of geology.{{Cite web |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Wegener/wegener_5.php |title=The Wrath of Science |publisher=NASA – Earth Observatory|date=2001-02-08 }}

Controversy

File:230 Ma plate tectonic reconstruction.png, Ladinian stage (230 Ma).]]

File:Pangaea Glossopteris.jpg fossils (#1: South America, #2: Africa, #3: Madagascar, #4: Indian subcontinent, #5: Antarctica, #6: Australia).]]

File:Mineralogy igneous rocks EN.svg

File:Antecline (PSF).png and a syncline.]]

1912, Wegener presents his ideas at the German Geological Society, Frankfurt {{Harv|Wegener|1912a}}. Karl Erich Andrée (University of Marburg) must have delivered him some references. Strong points:
Matching of the coastlines of eastern South America and western Africa, and many similarities between the respective coastlines of North America and Europe.
Numerous geological similarities between Africa and South America, and others between North America and Europe.
Many examples of past and present-day life forms having a geographically disjunctive distribution.
Mountain ranges are usually located along the coastlines of the continents, and orogenic regions are long and narrow in shape.
The Earth's crust exhibits two basic elevations, one corresponding to the elevation of the continental tables, the other to the ocean floors.
The Permo-Carboniferous moraine deposits found in South Africa, Argentina, southern Brazil, India, and in western, central, and eastern Australia. {{Harv|Frankel|1987|pp=205–206}}
Flooded land-bridges contradict isostasy.
Note I: Wegener described in a sentence the seafloor spreading in the first publication only. But he believed it is a consequence of the continental drift ({{Harvnb|Wegener|1912a}} in {{Harvnb|Jacoby|1981}}). He abandoned this sentence probably under the advice of Emanuel Kayser, University of Marburg.{{Cite journal |url=http://www2.uibk.ac.at/downloads/oegg/Band_73_237_254.pdf |language=de |last=Flügel |first=Helmut W. |volume=73 |date=December 1980 |title=Wegener-Ampferer-Schwinner: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Geologie in Österreich |trans-title=Wegener-Ampferer-Schwinner: A Contribution to the History of the Geology in Austria |journal=Mitt. österr. Geol. Ges. }}
Note II: 'Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen' is one of the leading geographical monthlies of international reputation. {{Harv|Ruud|1930}}; Wladimir Köppen (father-in-law), {{Harv|Köppen|1921a}}, {{Harv|Köppen|1921b}}, {{Harv|Köppen|1925}} and Kurt Wegener (brother), {{Harv|Wegener|1925}}, {{Harv|Wegener|1941}}, {{Harv|Wegener|1942}} defended there the Continental drift hypothesis in a somewhat mirror controversy (in {{Harvnb|Demhardt|2005}}).
Note III: Although the climate distribution was not always similar to nowadays. In the Carboniferous, coal mines are remains of the Equatorial Realm, glaciation remains are near the South Pole, and between glaciation and Equatorial Realm (centered between latitude 30° and the Tropic of Cancer and the Capricorn) there are remains of deserts (evaporites, salt lakes and sand dunes) {{Harv|Brusatte|2004|p=4}}.{{Cite web |publisher=USGS |url=http://3dparks.wr.usgs.gov/nyc/mesozoic/mesozoicbasins.htm |title=NYC Regional Geology: Mesozoic Basins }} These are consequences of the evaporation rate and the atmospheric circulation.
1912, Patrick Marshall uses the term "andesite line".{{Cite journal|author-link=Noel Benson|author=Benson W. N. |year=1951 |title=Patrick Marshall |journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand |volume=79 |url=http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz/volume/rsnz_79/rsnz_79_01_002570.html#n274 |pages=152–155}}
1914, the idea of a strong outer layer (lithosphere), overlying a weak asthenosphere is introduced {{Harv|Barrel|1914}}.
H. Jeffreys and others, most important criticisms {{Harv|Frankel|1987|p=211}}, {{Harv|Hellman|1998b|p=146}}:
Continents can not "plow" through the sea, because the seafloor is denser than the continental crust.
Pole-fleeing force is too weak to move continents and produce mountains.
Paul Sophus Epstein calculated it to be one millionth of the gravity.
If the tidal force moves continents, than the Earth's rotation would stop after only one year.
{{Cite book |year=1926 |first=Reginald A. |last=Daly |author-link=Reginald Aldworth Daly |title=Our Mobile Earth |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |place=New York}}
Its opening sentence is Galileo's allegedly muttered rebellious phrase And yet it moves.
Quote: "Daly,..., seeks to substitute sliding for drifting, assuming that broad domes or bulges form at the earth's surface, and on the flanks of these domes the continental masses slide downward, moving over hot basaltic glass as over a lubricated floor". (pp. 170–291)
By the mid-1920s, A. Holmes had rejected contractionism and he had introduced a model with convection {{Harv|Frankel|1987|p=212}}, {{Harv|Holmes|1929a}}, {{Harv|Holmes|1929b}}, {{Harv|Holmes|1944}}.
Note: in a way, not only A. Wegener ({{Harvnb|Wegener|1912a}} in {{Harvnb|Jacoby|1981}}) but A. Holmes and K. Wegener suggested seafloor spreading as well. ({{Harvnb|Holmes|1929c}} in {{Harvnb|Vine|1966}}), ({{Harvnb|Wegener|1942}} in {{Harvnb|Demhardt|2005}})
The Alps were and still are the best investigated orogen worldwide. Otto Ampferer (Austrian Geological Survey) rejected contractionism 1906 and he defended convection, locally only at first. Otto Ampferer even used the word swallowed in a geological sense. The Geological Society Meeting in Innsbruck, held on 29 August 1912, changed a paradigm (T. Termier words, the acceptance of nappes and thrust faults). So that Émile Argand (1916) speculated that the Alps were caused by the North motion of the African shield, and finally accepted this reason 1922, following Wegener's Continental drift theory ({{Harvnb|Argand|1924}} as {{Harvnb|Staub|1924}}). Otto Ampferer in the meantime, at the Geological Society Meeting in Vienna, held on 4 April 1919, defended the link between the alpine faulting and Wegener's continental drift.{{Cite journal |last1=Krainer |first1=Karl |last2=Hauser |first2=Christoph |journal=Geo. Alp: Sonderband 1 |pages=91–100 |year=2007 |title=Otto Ampferer (1875–1947): Pioneer in Geology, Mountain Climber, Collector and Draftsman |url=http://www2.uibk.ac.at/downloads/c715/geoalp_sbd1_07/krainer_hauser.pdf }}{{Cite journal |first=Augusto |last=Gansser |title=Orogene Entwicklung in den Anden, im Himalaja und den Alpen: ein Vergleich |place=Lausanne |year=1973 |pages=23–40 |journal=Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae |volume=66 }}
Quote, translation: "The Alpine orogeny is the effect of the migration of the North African shield. Smoothing only alpine folds and nappes on the cross section between the Black Forest and Africa once again, then from the present distance of about 1,800 km, we have an initial gap of around 3,000 to 3,500 km, ie. a pressing of the alpine region, alpine region in a broader sense, of 1,500 km. To this amount must be Africa have moved to Europe. This brings us then to a true large scale continental drift of the African shield". {{Harv|Staub|1924|p=257}} cited in {{Harv|Wegener|1929|p=10}}
W.A.J.M. van Waterschoot van der Gracht, Bailey Willis, Rollin T. Chamberlin, John Joly, G.A.F. Molengraaff, J.W. Gregory, Alfred Wegener, Charles Schuchert, Chester R. Longwell, Frank Bursley Taylor, William Bowie, David White, Joseph T. Singewald Jr., and Edward W. Berry participated on a Symposium of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG, 1926) {{Harv|van der Gracht|1926}}{{Cite web |title=Some Physical Tests of the Displacement Hypothesis |last=Longwell |first=Chester R. |url=http://www.philoscience.unibe.ch/documents/kursarchiv/WS03/waterschoot1928.pdf |quote=We cannot disregard entirely the suggestion that continental masses have suffered some horizontal movement, because evidence for such movement is becoming ever more apparent in the structure of the Alps and of the Asiatic mountain systems.}} Although the chairman favored the drift hypothesis, it ceased to be an acceptable geological investigation subject in many universities under the influence of {{Harvtxt|Jeffreys|1924}} book {{Harv|Machamer|Pera|Baltas|2000|pp=72–75}}.
Quote, University of Chicago geologist Rollin T. Chamberlin: "If we are to believe in Wegener's hypothesis we must forget everything which has been learned in the past 70 years and start all over again." {{Harv|Hellman|1998b}}, {{Harv|Sullivan|1991|p=15}}
Quote, Bailey Willis: "further discussion of it merely incumbers the literature and befogs the mind of fellow students. (It is) as antiquated as pre-Curie physics". {{Harv|Hellman|1998b|p=150}}, {{Harv|Hallam|1983|p=136}}
Bailey Willis and William Bowie saw the sima with great strength and rigidity through the seismological studies, and tidal forces would act more on the sima (2800 to 3300 kg/m³) as it is denser than the sial (2700 to 2800 kg/m³) {{Harv|Frankel|1987|p=211}}.
Quote, W. Van Waterschoot van der Gracht (Wilson cycle): "there may have been a pre-Carboniferous "Atlantic" that was closed up during the Caledonian orogenis" {{Harv|Holmes|1929a}}.
By the late-1920s: discovery of the Wadati–Benioff zone by Kiyoo Wadati (two pairs plus one paper, 1927 to 1931) of the Japan Meteorological Agency, and Hugo Benioff of the California Institute of Technology.{{cite journal |last=Honda |first=Hirochiki |title=Kiyoo Wadati and the path to the discovery of the intermediate-deep earthquake zone |journal=Episodes |volume=24 |number=2 |pages=118–123 |year=1998 |url=http://www.episodes.co.in/www/backissues/242/118-123%20Classic.pdf |access-date=7 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324004649/http://www.episodes.co.in/www/backissues/242/118-123%20Classic.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2012 }}
Alexander du Toit's book. {{Harv|du Toit|1937}}
In 1923, he received a grant from the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and used this to travel to eastern South America to study the geology of Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil.
1931: Peacock named the calc-alkaline igneous rock series.
{{Cite journal |doi=10.1086/623788 |last=Peacock |first=M. A. |year=1931 |title=Classification of igneous rock series |journal=Journal of Geology |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=54–67 |bibcode=1931JG.....39...54P|s2cid=140563237 }}
1931, age of the Earth by the National Research Council of the US National Academy of Sciences.{{cite journal

| last=Dalrymple | first=G. Brent

| s2cid=130092094

| title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved | journal=Special Publications, Geological Society of London

| year=2001 | volume=190

| issue=1 | pages=205–221

| doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode = 2001GSLSP.190..205D }}

{{cite journal| language=fr| first=B.| last=Choubert| author-link=Boris Choubert| date=1935| title=Recherches sur la genèse des chaînes paléolithiques et antécambriennes| journal=Revue de Géographie Physique et de Géologie Dynamique| volume=8| issue=1| pages=5–50}}
1936, Augusto Gansser-Biaggi interpreted rocks located at the foot of Mount Kailash in the Indian part of the Himalayas as having originated in the seafloor. He brings back a sample with Ammonites of the Norian (Triassic). He later interpreted this Indus-Yarlung-Zangpo Suture Zone (ISZ) as the border between the Indian and the Eurasian Plate.{{Cite web |title=Augusto Gansser, Vermesser der Welt |url=http://dasmagazin.ch/index.php/augusto-gansser-vermesser-der-welt/ |publisher=Das Magazin |date=5 September 2008 |first=Ursula |last=Eichenberger}}
{{Cite journal |author=David T. Griggs |title=A theory of mountain-building |volume=237 |issue=9 |year=1939 |pages=611–650 |journal=American Journal of Science |doi=10.2475/ajs.237.9.611|bibcode=1939AmJS..237..611G |doi-access=free }}
January 1939: at the annual meeting of the German Geological Society, Frankfurt, Alfred Rittmann opposed the idea that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge was an orogenic uplift {{Harv|Rittmann|1939}}.
{{Cite journal |title=Atlantisheft I |trans-title=Atlantis Issue I |journal=Geologische Rundschau |date=May 1939 |volume=30 |issue=3 |ref=CITEREFAtlantisheft1939}}
Orogenic volcanism (Pacific Ring of Fire) is dominated by calc-alkaline igneous rocks (Calc series), lacking alkali-basaltic magmas (Sodic series); whereas the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (extension) has mainly alkali-basaltic magmas {{Harv|Ippolito|Marinelli|1981}}.
{{Harvtxt|Schwinner|1941}} sees subduction as the cause of Wadati–Benioff zone and volcanic activity, but does not link it to continental drifting. He was in a way an anti-drifter.
{{Cite book |last=Umbgrove |first=JHF |author-link=Johannes Herman Frederik Umbgrove |title=The Pulse of the Earth |edition=1 |publisher=Martinus Nyhoff |place=The Hague, NL |year=1942 }}
Mid-1940s, paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson finds flaws on the paleontology data. {{Harv|Frankel|1987|p=217}}
Alexander du Toit, Glossopteris findings in Russia are an erroneous identification. It was used as argument by anti-drifters {{Harv|Du Toit|1944}}.
1944, cores of deep ocean sediment show rapid rate of accumulation, suggesting that old oceans are an impossibility ({{Harv|Revelle|1944}} cited in {{Harv|Bullard|1975}}).
1948, Felix Andries Vening Meinesz, Dutch geophysicist who believes in convection currents as a result of his work on oceanic gravity anomalies. Highly respected by H. H. Hess, Hess even got a chance to work with him. {{Harv|Frankel|1987|p=230}}, {{Harv|Vening Meinesz|1948}}, {{Harv|Vening Meinesz|1952a}}, {{Harv|Vening Meinesz|1952b}}, {{Harv|Vening Meinesz|1955}}, {{Harv|Vening Meinesz|1959}}
1949, Niskanen calculates the viscosity under the crust to be 5 10²¹ CGS units.
{{Cite book |last=Niskanen |first=E. |year=1949 |title=Publn. Isostatic Inst |place=Helsinki |volume=23 }}
1950, fading of the hypothesis from view.
{{Cite journal|last=Gewers |first=T. W. |title=Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa |journal=Journal of Geology |year=1950 |volume=52 |issue=suppl |page=1 |quote=marked regression away from continental drift|bibcode=1948JG.....56..497. |doi=10.1086/625552 }}
1951, Alfred Rittmann shows that crystalline mantle is able to creep at its temperature and pressure and he shows subduction, volcanism and erosion in the mountainous regions. {{Harvtxt|Rittmann|1951}}, figure 4, p. 293.
1951, André Amstutz uses the word subduction.
{{Cite journal |first=André |last=Amstutz |year=1951 |language=fr |title=Sur l'évolution des structures alpines |issue=4–5 |journal=Archives des Sciences |place=Géneve |pages=323–329 |quote=4) Première phase tectogène, approximativement durant le crétacé: Premières contractions tangentielles et déversements du géanticlinal briançonnais dans la dépression Mt. Rose, par subduction (ce mot n'est-il préférable à celui de sous-charriage ?) de masses Mt. Rose sous de masses St.Bernard; et peut-être simultanément déversements dans la dépression valaisanne-dauphinoise. (pp. 325–326)}}
{{Cite journal |first=André |last=Amstutz |year=1955 |title=Structures Alpines: subductions successives dans l'Ossola |journal=Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences |volume=241 |pages=967–969 |place=Paris}}
1953, Adrian E. Scheidegger, anti-drifter.{{sfn|Scheidegger|1953}}
E.g.: it had been shown that floating masses on a rotating geoid would collect at the equator, and stay there. This would explain one, but only one, mountain building episode between any pair of continents; it failed to account for earlier orogenic episodes.

References

= Notes =

= Cited books =

{{Cite book |title=s:en:Novum Organum |first=Francis |last=Bacon |postscript=. Translated by Wood, Devey, Spedding, et al. |place=England |year=1620|title-link=:s:en:Novum Organum }}
P.M.S. Blackett, E.C. Bullard and S.K. Runcorn (ed). A Symposium on Continental Drift, held on 28 October 1965. pp. 323:
{{Cite journal |doi=10.1098/rsta.1965.0020 |title=The Fit of the Continents around the Atlantic |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=258 |issue=1088 |pages=41–51 |year=1965 |last1=Bullard |first1=E |last2=Everett |first2=J. E |last3=Smith |first3=A. G |s2cid=27169876 |pmid=17801943 |bibcode=1965RSPTA.258...41B }}
{{Cite journal |doi=10.1098/rsta.1965.0024|title=Tectonic Fabric of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and Continental Drift|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|volume=258|issue=1088|pages=90–106|year=1965|last1=Heezen|first1=B. C|last2=Tharp|first2=M|s2cid=121476006|bibcode=1965RSPTA.258...90H}}
{{Cite journal |doi=10.1098/rsta.1965.0029 |jstor=73340 |title=Evidence from Ocean Islands Suggesting Movement in the Earth |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=258 |issue=1088 |pages=145–167 |year=1965b |last1=Wilson |first1=J. T |bibcode=1965RSPTA.258..145W |s2cid=202574604 }}
{{Cite book |last1=Carey |first1=S. W. |year=1958 |contribution=The tectonic approach to continental drift |editor1-last=Carey |editor1-first=S. W. |title=Continental Drift—A symposium, held in March 1956 |publisher=Univ. of Tasmania |place=Hobart |pages=177–363 |postscript=Expanding Earth from p. 311 to p. 349.}}
{{Cite book |last=Coats |first=Robert R. |year=1962 |chapter=Magma type and crustal structure in the Aleutian arc |title=The Crust of the Pacific Basin |series=American Geophysical Union Monograph |volume=6 |pages=92–109 }}
{{Cite book |title=Controversies in the Earth sciences |editor1-first=R. |editor1-last=Cowen |editor2-first=J.H. |editor2-last=Lipps |publisher=West Publishing Co. |place=St. Paul, MN |year=1975 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/controversiesine0000cowe/page/439 439] |isbn=978-0-8299-0044-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/controversiesine0000cowe/page/439 }}
{{Cite book |last=Dana |first=James Dwight |title=Manual of Geology: Treating of the Principles of the Science with Special Reference to American Geological History |publisher=Bliss |year=1863 |page=805}}
{{Cite book |title=Glacial Geology and the Pleistocene Epoch |page=589 |first=R. F. |last=Flint |year=1947 |place=New York |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-1-4437-2173-8 }}
{{cite book |first=H. |last=Frankel |chapter=The Continental Drift Debate |title=Scientific Controversies: Case Solutions in the resolution and closure of disputes in science and technology |editor=H.T. Engelhardt Jr |editor2=A.L. Caplan |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1987 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lp_n-Ng-hhoC&pg=PA203|isbn=978-0-521-27560-6}}
{{Cite book |author=W.A.J.M. van Waterschoot van der Gracht |author2=Bailey Willis |author3=Rollin T. Chamberlin |author4=John Joly |author5=G.A.F. Molengraaff |author6=J.W. Gregory |author7=Alfred Wegener |author8=Charles Schuchert |author9=Chester R. Longwell |author10=Frank Bursley Taylor |author11=William Bowie |author12=David White |author13=Joseph T. Singewald, Jr. |author14=Edward W. Berry |editor=W.A.J.M. van Waterschoot van der Gracht |title=Theory of Continental Drift: a symposium on the origin and movement of land masses both intercontinental and intracontinental as proposed by Alfred Wegener, A Symposium of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG, 1926) |year=1928 |page=240 |place=Tulsa, OK |ref=CITEREFvan der Gracht1926}}
{{Cite book |last=Le Grand |first=H. E. |year=1990 |chapter=Is one picture worth a thousand experiments? |editor= Le Grand, H. E. |title=Experimental Inquiries: Historical, Philosophical and Social Studies of Experimentation in Science |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Kluwer |pages=241–270}}
{{Cite book |first=A. |last=Hallam |author-link = Anthony Hallam|year=1983 |title=Great Geological Controversies |pages=x+182 |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-854430-2 }}
{{Cite book |chapter=Lord Kelvin versus Geologists and Biologists – The Age of the Earth |title=Great Feuds in Science: Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever |first=Hal |last=Hellman |year=1998a |place=New York |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |pages=[https://archive.org/details/greatfeudsinscie00hell/page/105 105–120] |isbn=978-0-471-35066-8 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/greatfeudsinscie00hell/page/105 }}
{{Cite book |chapter=Wegener versus Everybody – Continental Drift |title=Great Feuds in Science: Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever |first=Hal |last=Hellman |year=1998b |place=New York |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |pages=[https://archive.org/details/greatfeudsinscie00hell/page/141 141–158] |isbn=978-0-471-35066-8 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/greatfeudsinscie00hell/page/141 }}
{{Cite book |first=H. H. |last=Hess |chapter-url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Hess1962.pdf |chapter=History of Ocean Basins |date=November 1962 |title=Petrologic studies: a volume to honor of A. F. Buddington |editor=A. E. J. Engel |editor2=Harold L. James |editor3=B. F. Leonard |place=Boulder, CO |publisher=Geological Society of America |pages=599–620 }}
{{Cite book |last=Holmes |first=Arthur |author-link = Arthur Holmes|title=Principles of Physical Geology |edition=1 |place=Edinburgh |publisher=Thomas Nelson & Sons |year=1944 |isbn=978-0-17-448020-4 }}
{{Cite book |last=Holmes |first=Arthur |author-link= Arthur Holmes|title=The Origin of Continents and Oceans |year=1929b }}
{{Cite book |last=Hopkins |first=Evan |title=On the connection of geology with terrestrial magnetism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XWdIAAAAYAAJ|publisher=R. Taylor |year=1844 |page=129}}
{{Cite book |last=Jeffreys |first=H. |title=The Earth – its Origin, History and Physical Constitution |year=1924 |edition=1 |page=429 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
{{Cite book |last=Jeffreys |first=H. |title=The Earth – its Origin, History and Physical Constitution |year=1952 |edition=3 |page=574 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20648-8 }}
{{Cite book |title=North Atlantic: geology and continental drift, a symposium |publisher=American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) |year=1969 |place=Tulsa, OK |editor-last=Kay |editor-first=Marshall}}
{{Cite book |last1=Keary |first1=P |last2=Vine |first2=F. J. |title=Global Tectonics |year=1990 |publisher=Blackwell Scientific Publications |place=Oxford |page=302}}
{{Cite book |first1=Philip |last1=Kearey |first2=Keith A. |last2=Klepeis |first3=Frederik J. |last3=Vine |edition=3 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2009 |title=Global tectonics |page=482 |isbn=978-1-4051-0777-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYqZntfg25UC&pg=PR9}}
{{Cite book |last1=Kious |first1=W. Jacquelyne |last2=Tilling |first2=Robert I. |title=This Dynamic Earth: the Story of Plate Tectonics |orig-date=1996 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html |access-date=2008-01-29 |edition=Online |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |isbn=978-0-16-048220-5 |chapter=Historical perspective |chapter-url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/historical.html |quote=Abraham Ortelius in his work Thesaurus Geographicus... suggested that the Americas were 'torn away from Europe and Africa... by earthquakes and floods... The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves, if someone brings forward a map of the world and considers carefully the coasts of the three [continents].' |date=February 2001}}
{{cite book|last1=Kious |first1=W. Jacquelyne |last2=Tilling |first2=Robert I. |title=This Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate Tectonics |year=1996 |publisher=DIANE Publishing |isbn=978-0-7881-3318-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5mZVQeigpMC&pg=PP3}}
{{Cite book |last=Krill |first=Allan |title=Fixists vs. Mobilists: In the Geology Contest of The Century, 1844–1969 |url=http://fixists.com/ |isbn=978-82-998389-1-7 |year=2011 }}
{{Cite book |last=Lilienthal |first=T. |title=Die Gute Sache der Göttlichen Offenbarung |publisher=Hartung |place=Königsberg |year=1756 |quote=This is also likely owing to the fact that the coasts of certain lands, situated opposite each other though separated by sea, have a corresponding shape, so that they would be congruent with one another were they to stand side by side; for example, the southern part of America and Africa. For this reason one supposes that perhaps both of these continents were previously attached to each other, either directly, or through the sunken island of Atlantis;...}}
{{Cite book |last=Lyell |first=Charles |title= Principles of Geology |edition= 12 |year= 1875}}
{{Cite book |editor1=Machamer, Peter |editor2=Pera, Marcella |editor3=Baltas, Aristides |place=New York et al. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/scientificcontro00mach/page/n288 278] |title=Scientific Controversies |isbn=978-0-19-511987-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/scientificcontro00mach |url-access=limited |postscript=. Wegener pp. 72–75. |ref=CITEREFMachamerPeraBaltas2000 }}
{{Cite book |last=Marvin |first=Ursula B. |title=Continental Drift: The Evolution of a Concept |page=239 |year=1973 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |isbn=978-0-87474-129-2 |postscript=(Dissertation). }}
{{Cite book |title=Annals of the Former World |first=John |last=McPhee |place=New York |publisher=Farrar, Straus & Giroux |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-374-10520-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/annalsofformerwo00mcph }}
{{Cite book |first=Naomi |last=Oreskes |author-link=Naomi Oreskes |title=The rejection of continental drift: theory and method in American earth science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EEQdk9GRfkoC&pg=PA96|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-511733-2 }}
{{Cite book |editor1= Naomi Oreskes |editor2=Homer Le Grand |title=Plate Tectonics: An Insider's History of the Modern Theory of the Earth |page=448 |date=December 2001 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-8133-3981-8 |ref=CITEREFOreskes2001 }}
{{Cite book |last=Ortelius |first=Abraham |author-link=Abraham Ortelius |title=Thesaurus Geographicus |place=Antwerp |publisher=Plantin |year=1596 |edition=3 |quote=The vestiges of the rupture reveal themselves, if someone brings forward a map of the world and considers carefully the coasts of the three [continents (Europe, Africa and Americas)] }}
{{Cite book |last=Pepper |first=John Henry |title=The Playbook of Metals |year=1861 |publisher=Routledge, Warne, and Routledge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/playbookmetalsi01peppgoog/page/n520 502] |url=https://archive.org/details/playbookmetalsi01peppgoog}}
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{{cite book |last=Revelle |first=R. R. |year=1944 |title=Marine bottom samples collected in the Pacific Ocean by the Carnegie on its Seventh Cruise |url=https://archive.org/details/imarinebottomsam00carn |publisher=Carnegie Inst. |place=Washington |series=Pub. 556, Part 1 }}
{{Cite book |editor-last=Runcorn |editor-first=S. K. |year=1962b |title=Continental Drift |publisher=Academic Press |place=New York and London |page=338}}
{{Cite book |title=La Création et ses mystères dévoilés |publisher=Frank and Dentu |place=Paris |first=Antonio |last=Snider-Pellegrini |year=1858 }}
{{Cite book |last1=Stampfli |first1=G.M. |last2=Borel |first2=G.D. |year=2004 |chapter=The TRANSMED Transects in Space and Time: Constraints on the Paleotectonic Evolution of the Mediterranean Domain |editor1=Cavazza W. |editor2=Roure F. |editor3=Spakman W. |editor4=Stampfli G.M. |editor5=Ziegler P |title=The TRANSMED Atlas: the Mediterranean Region from Crust to Mantle |publisher=Springer Verlag |isbn=978-3-540-22181-4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_GS4C3pOf8C&pg=PA53}}
{{Cite book |title=Die Entstehung der Alpen |trans-title=The Origin of the Alps |first=E. |last=Suess |year=1875 |publisher=W. Braumüller |quote=A mass movement, more or less horizontal and progressive, should be the cause underlying the formation of our mountain systems. }}
{{Cite book |last=Suess |first=Eduard |date=1885-08-19 |title=Das Antlitz der Erde |publisher=F. Tempsky |place=Vienna |trans-title=The Face of the Earth |postscript=. Three volumes. |translator=H. B. C. Sollas |ref=CITEREFSuess1901}}
{{Cite book |last=Sullivan |first=Walter |title=Continents in Motion: The New Earth Debate |year=1991 |publisher=American Inst. of Physics |edition=1 |page=425 |isbn=978-0-88318-703-6 }}
{{Cite book |first=Alexander |last=du Toit |title=Our wandering continents: an hypothesis of continental drifting |year=1937 |publisher=Oliver and Boyd |place=Edinburgh |isbn=978-0-8371-5982-9 }}
{{Cite book |last=Umbgrove |first=J.H.F. |author-link=Johannes Herman Frederik Umbgrove |title=The Pulse of the Earth |edition=2 |page=359 |publisher=Martinus Nyhoff |place=The Hague, NL |year=1947}}
{{cite book |last=Vening Meinesz |first=F.A. |title=Gravity expeditions at sea 1923–1938. Vol. IV. Complete results with isostatic reduction, interpretation on the results |year=1948 |publisher=Nederlandse Commissie voor Geodesie 9 |place=Delft |isbn=978-90-6132-015-9 |page=233 |url=http://www.ncg.knaw.nl/eng/publications/Green/09VeningMeinesz.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722200050/http://www.ncg.knaw.nl/eng/publications/Green/09VeningMeinesz.html |archive-date=2011-07-22 }}
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{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00284-9 |last1=Torsvik |first1=T.H. |last2=Van der Voo |first2=R. |last3=Meert |first3=J.G. |last4=Mosar |first4=J. |last5=Walderhaug |first5=H.J. |year=2001 |title=Reconstructions of the Continents Around the North Atlantic at About the 60th Parallel |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=187 |issue=1–2 |pages=55–69 |url=http://www.geodynamics.no/guest/Reconstructions2001.pdf |bibcode=2001E&PSL.187...55T |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703150204/http://www.geodynamics.no/guest/Reconstructions2001.pdf |archive-date=2012-07-03 }}
{{Cite journal |last1=Torsvik |first1=Trond Helge |last2=Steinberger |first2=Bernhard |last3=Gurnis |first3=Michael |last4=Gaina |first4=Carmen |year=2010 |title=Plate tectonics and net lithosphere rotation over the past 150 My |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=291 |issue=1–4 |pages=106–112 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2009.12.055 |url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~gurnis/Papers/2010_Torsvik_etal_EPSL.pdf |access-date=18 June 2010 |bibcode=2010E&PSL.291..106T |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516165855/http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~gurnis/Papers/2010_Torsvik_etal_EPSL.pdf |archive-date=16 May 2011 |hdl=10852/62004 }}
{{Cite journal |last=Vening Meinesz |first=F. A. |title=The Formation of the Continents by Convection |journal=Kon. Ned. Akad. Weten |volume=55 |issue=527 |year=1952a}}
{{Cite journal |last=Vening Meinesz |first=F. A. |title=The Origin of Continents and Oceans |journal=Geologie en Mijnbouw |series=New Series |volume=14 |pages=373–384 |year=1952b}}
{{Cite conference |last=Vening Meinesz |first=F. A. |title=Plastic Buckling of the Earth's Crust: the Origin of Geosynclines |book-title=Crust of the earth: A symposium |year=1955 |publisher=Geological Society of America}}
{{Cite journal |last=Vening Meinesz |first=F. A. |title=The results of the development of the Earth's topography in spherical harmonics up to the 31st order; provisional conclusions |journal=Koninkl. Ned. Akad. Van Wetenschappen Amsterdam |series=Proc. Ser. B., Phys. Sciences |volume=62 |year=1959 |pages=115–136}}
{{Cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.154.3755.1405 |first=F. J. |last=Vine |s2cid=44362406 |journal=Science |date=16 December 1966 |volume=154 |issue=3755 |pmid=17821553 |title=Spreading of the Ocean Floor: New Evidence |pages=1405–15 |url=http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~rcoe/eart206/Vine_SFspreading_Science06.pdf |bibcode = 1966Sci...154.1405V }}
{{Cite journal |journal=Nature |volume=199 |pages=947–949 |date=7 September 1963 |doi=10.1038/199947a0 |title=Magnetic Anomalies Over Oceanic Ridges |first1=F. J. |last1=Vine |first2=D. H. |last2=Matthews |s2cid=4296143 |url=http://courses.washington.edu/ess502/Vine_Matthews.pdf |issue=4897 |bibcode=1963Natur.199..947V}}
{{Cite journal |title=Magnetic Anomalies over a Young Oceanic Ridge off Vancouver Island |first1= F. J. |last1=Vine |first2=J. Tuzo |last2=Wilson |s2cid= 41107379 |journal= Science |date=October 1965 |volume=150 |issue=3695 |pages=485–9 |pmid=17842754 |doi=10.1126/science.150.3695.485 |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Vine1965.pdf |bibcode=1965Sci...150..485V|citeseerx= 10.1.1.473.7395 }}
{{Cite journal |last=Wegener |first=Alfred |year=1912a |title=Die Herausbildung der Grossformen der Erdrinde (Kontinente und Ozeane), auf geophysikalischer Grundlage |journal= Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen |volume=63 |pages= 185–195, 253–6, 305–9|quote=Diese (gemeint sind "relative geringfuegige Niveaudifferenzen der grossen ozeanischen Becken untereinander") scheinen es auch nahezulegen, die mittelatlantische Bodenschwelle als diejenige Zone zu betrachten, in welche bei der noch immer fortschreitenden Erweiterung des atlantischen Ozeans der Boden desselben fortwaehrend aufreisst und frischem, relativ fluessigen und hochtemperiertem Sima aus der Tiefe Platz macht [This (meaning the "relatively minor differences in level of the large oceanic basin with each other") seem to suggest also to consider the Mid-Atlantic Rift as the zone in which the expansion of the Atlantic Ocean is still ongoing, and its seafloor tears open constantly to make space to fresh, relatively fluid and tempered Sima]}} Presented at the annual meeting of the German Geological Society, Frankfurt am Main (6 January 1912).
{{Cite journal |last=Wegener |first=A. |s2cid=129316588 |title=Die Entstehung der Kontinente |journal=Geologische Rundschau |volume=3 |issue=4 |date=July 1912b |pages=276–292 |doi=10.1007/BF02202896 |bibcode=1912GeoRu...3..276W }} Just an overview of the article in Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen.
{{Cite journal |last=Wegener |first=K. |year=1925 |title=Die Kontinentalschollen |journal=Dr. A. Petermanns Mitteilungen |volume=71 |pages=51–53 }}
{{Cite journal |last=Wegener |first=K. |year=1941 |title=Geophysik und Geographie |journal=Dr. A. Petermanns Mitteilungen |volume=87 |pages=98–100 }}
{{Cite journal |last=Wegener |first=K. |year=1942 |title=Die Theorie Alfred Wegeners über die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane |journal=Dr. A. Petermanns Mitteilungen |volume=88 |pages=178–182 }} He gives reasons for the paleo connection of the Americas and Eurasia-Africa by naming paleontological similarities, parallelism of coastal forms and the recently researched submarine Atlantic mountain range as ideal seam of continental splits (p. 181).
{{Cite journal |doi=10.1038/197948a0 |last=Wells |first=J. W. |s2cid=36696148 |title=Coral Growth and Geochronometry |journal=Nature |year=1963 |volume=197 |pages=948–950 |issue=4871|bibcode = 1963Natur.197..948W }}
{{Cite journal |last1=White |first1=R. |last2=McKenzie |first2=D. |s2cid=140181589 |year=1989 |title=Magmatism at rift zones: The generation of volcanic continental margins and flood basalts |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=94 |pages=7685–7729 |doi=10.1029/JB094iB06p07685 |bibcode=1989JGR....94.7685W}}
{{Cite journal |title=Cabot Fault, an Appalachian Equivalent of San Andreas and Great Glen Faults and Some Implications for Continental Displacement |first=J. Tuzo |last=Wilson |s2cid=4289725 |journal=Nature |date=July 1962 |volume= 195 |issue= 4837 |pages=135–8 |doi=10.1038/195135a0 |bibcode=1962Natur.195..135W}}
{{Cite journal |title=Evidence from Islands on the Spreading of Ocean Floors |first=J. Tuzo |last=Wilson |s2cid=4255932 |journal=Nature |date=February 1963a |volume=197 |pages=536–8 |doi=10.1038/197536a0 |issue=4867 |bibcode=1963Natur.197..536W}}
{{Cite journal |title=A possible origin of the Hawaiian Islands |first=J. Tuzo |last=Wilson |journal=Canadian Journal of Physics |year=1963b |doi=10.1139/p63-094 |volume=41 |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Wilson1963.pdf |pages=863–870 |issue=6 |bibcode=1963CaJPh..41..863W}}
{{Cite journal |journal=Science |date=February 1963c |volume= 139|pmid=17788294 |issue= 3555 |pages= 592–4 |doi= 10.1126/science.139.3555.592 |title=Pattern of Uplifted Islands in the Main Ocean Basins |first=J. Tuzo |last=Wilson |s2cid=10792214 |bibcode = 1963Sci...139..592T }}
{{Cite journal|title=A new class of faults and their bearing on continental drift |first=J. Tuzo |last=Wilson |s2cid=4294401 |journal=Nature |date=July 1965a |doi=10.1038/207343a0 |volume=207 |pages=343–7 |url=http://www.rpi.edu/~mccafr/plates/reading/wilson_1965.pdf |issue=4995 |bibcode=1965Natur.207..343W |archive-date=August 6, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806140625/http://www.rpi.edu/~mccafr/plates/reading/wilson_1965.pdf}}
{{Cite journal |title=Did the Atlantic close and then re-open? |first=J. Tuzo |last=Wilson |s2cid=4226266 |journal=Nature |date=13 August 1966 |volume=211 |pages=676–681 |doi=10.1038/211676a0 |issue=5050 |bibcode=1966Natur.211..676W |url=http://www.geology.cwu.edu/facstaff/huerta/g501/pdf/Wilson1966.pdf }}{{dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }}
{{Cite journal |first=J. Tuzo |last=Wilson |date=December 1968 |title=A Revolution in Earth Science |journal=Geotimes |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=10–16 |place=Washington DC }}

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