Vaccination and religion#Exemptions

One of the earliest documented cases of variolation involved a Buddhist nun (bhikkhuni) between 1022 and 1063 CE.{{Cite book |title=Smallpox and its eradication |date=1988 |publisher=WHO |isbn=978-92-4-156110-5 | author = Organisation mondiale de la santé |location=Geneva}} She ground smallpox scabs into a fine powder and administered it through the nostrils of an uninfected person to promote immunity. Centuries later, the 14th Dalai Lama continued the tradition of disease prevention by personally supporting polio vaccination campaigns.{{Cite web |date=2010 |title=Monthly Situation Reports |url=http://www.polioeradication.org/Mediaroom/Monthlysituationreports/2010/January.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522021336/https://polioeradication.org/Mediaroom/Monthlysituationreports/2010/January.aspx |archive-date=22 May 2023 |website=Polio Global Eradication Initiative |url-status=live}}

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In 1721, the influential Massachusetts preacher Cotton Mather was the first known person to attempt smallpox inoculation on a large scale, inoculating himself and more than two hundred members of his congregation with the help of a local doctor. While his view later became standard, there was a strong negative reaction against him at the time.Blake, John B. "The Inoculation Controversy in Boston: 1721–1722." New England Quarterly, vol. 25, no. 4, New England Quarterly, Inc., 1952, pp. 489–506, {{doi|10.2307/362582}}.

Rowland Hill (1744–1833) was a popular English preacher acquainted with Edward Jenner, the pioneer of smallpox vaccination, and he encouraged the vaccination of the congregations he visited or preached to.{{cite book| vauthors = Bazin H |title=The eradication of smallpox: Edward Jenner and the first and only eradication of a human infectious disease|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8bPuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA75|date=2000|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-083475-4|pages=75–}} He published a tract on the subject in 1806,{{cite book| vauthors = Glynn I, Glynn J |title=The Life and Death of Smallpox|url=https://archive.org/details/lifedeathofsmall00glyn|url-access=registration|date=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-84542-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lifedeathofsmall00glyn/page/112 112]–}} at a time when many medical men refused to sanction it. Later he became a member of the Royal Jennererian Society, which was established when vaccination was accepted in Britain, India, the US, and elsewhere. John C. Lettsom, an eminent Quaker physician of the day wrote to Rowland Hill commenting:

{{blockquote|You have done more good than you imagine; and for everyone you may have saved by your actual operation, you have saved ten by your example; and perhaps, next to Jenner, have been the means of saving more lives than any other individual.{{cite book| vauthors = Rhodes J |title=The End of Plagues: The Global Battle Against Infectious Disease|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hdRWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT50|date=2013|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-38131-6|pages=50–}}}}In 1804 during an outbreak of smallpox in New Spain Fr. Manuel Abad y Queipo personally paid for and brought the smallpox vaccine from the Capital to Valladolid.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fisher L |date=November 1935 |title=Manuel Abad y Queipo, Bishop of Michoacan |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=15 |issue=4 |page=428 |doi=10.2307/2506454 |jstor=2506454}}

In 1816 Iceland made the clergy responsible for smallpox vaccination and gave them the responsibility of keeping vaccination records for their parishes; Sweden also had similar practices.{{cite book | vauthors = Pétursson P |title=Church and Social Change: A Study of the Secularization Process in Iceland, 1830–1930 |publisher=Plus Ultra |year=1983 |isbn=91-970355-9-9 |series=Studies in religious experience and behaviour, nr. 4 |location=Helsingborg, Sweden |pages=70, 79}}

Catholic and Anglican missionaries vaccinated Northwest Coast Native Americans during an 1862 smallpox epidemic.{{Cite book | vauthors = Boyd RW |title=The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence: Introduced Infectious Diseases and Population Decline Among Northwest Coast Indians, 1774–1874 |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-295-97837-6 |location=Seattle |pages=172–201 |chapter=A final disaster: the 1862 smallpox epidemic in coastal British Columbia}}

In 1798, several Boston clergymen and devout physicians formed a society that opposed vaccination.David P. Mindell, The Evolving World: Evolution in Everyday Life (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007 [2006]), p. 10 Others complained that the practice was dangerous, going so far as to demand that doctors who carried out these procedures be tried for attempted murder.{{cite book |chapter= Theological opposition to inoculation, vaccination, and the use of anæsthetics |title= A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom | vauthors = White AD |publisher=Appleton |year= 1896 |chapter-url=http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/whitem10.html |access-date=2007-08-17}}

When vaccination was introduced into UK public policy, and adoption followed overseas, there was opposition from trade unionists and others, including sectarian ministers and those interested in self-help and alternative medicines like homeopathy.Durbach, Nadja. 2005. Bodily matters: the anti-vaccination movement in England, 1853–1907. Radical perspectives. Durham: Duke University Press. pp. 40–45.

Anti-vaccinationists were most common in Protestant countries. Those who were religious often came from minority religious movements outside of mainstream Protestantism, including Quakers in England and Baptists in Sweden.Bourdelais, Patrice. 2006. Epidemics laid low: a history of what happened in rich countries. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 25–26.

Jehovah's Witnesses condemned the practice of vaccination in 1931 as "a direct violation of the everlasting covenant that God made with Noah after the flood",Dorit Rubinstein Reiss, "Thou Shalt Not Take the Name of the Lord Thy God in Vain: Use and Abuse of Religious Exemptions from School Immunization Requirements", Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 65, Iss. 6 (2013), p. 1583. but reversed that policy in 1952. The decision of whether to vaccinate themselves or their family is left to individuals. Some more recent Jehovah's Witness publications have mentioned the success of vaccination programs.[http://www.religioustolerance.org/witness6.htm About the Jehovah's Witnesses Christian denomination{{snd}}Past opposition to vaccinations], religioustolerance.org

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In the UK, a number of Vaccination Acts were introduced to control vaccination and inoculation, starting in 1840, when smallpox inoculation was banned. The 1853 Act introduced compulsory free infant vaccination enforced by local authorities. By 1871, infant vaccination was compulsory and parents refusing to have their child vaccinated were fined and imprisoned if the fines were not paid. Resistance to compulsion grew, and in 1889, after riots in Leicester, a Royal Commission was appointed and issued six reports between 1892 and 1896. It recommended the abolition of cumulative penalties. This was done in an 1898 Act, which also introduced a conscience clause that exempted parents who did not believe vaccination was efficacious or safe. This extended the concept of the "conscientious objector" in English law. A further Act in 1907 made it easier to obtain exemption.{{Cite web |date=2021-12-23 |title=Vaccine mandates |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/article/explainer/vaccine-mandates |access-date=2025-03-11 |website=Institute for Government |language=en}}

{{See also|Vaccine hesitancy#Religion}}

{{Update section|date=March 2024}}

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Some conservative Christian groups in the United States oppose mandatory vaccination for diseases typically spread via sexual contact, arguing that the possibility of disease deters risky sexual contact.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} For example, the Family Research Council opposes mandatory vaccination against HPV, a virus that causes {{cite web |date=June 2016 |title=Human papillomavirus (HPV) and cervical cancer |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs380/en/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805111143/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs380/en/ |archive-date=5 August 2016 |website=WHO |df=dmy-all}}{{cite web |date=September 30, 2015 |title=The Link Between HPV and Cancer |url=https://www.cdc.gov/hpv/parents/cancer.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151109134544/http://www.cdc.gov/hpv/parents/cancer.html |archive-date=9 November 2015 |access-date=11 August 2016 |website=CDC}} various cancers: "Our primary concern is with the message that would be delivered to nine- to twelve-year-olds with the administration of the vaccines. Care must be taken not to communicate that such an intervention makes all sex 'safe'."{{cite web |date=2019-09-25 |title=Pinkbook – HPV – Epidemiology of Vaccine Preventable Diseases – CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/hpv.html |website=www.cdc.gov}}{{cite news | vauthors = Fortson D |date=2006-06-11 |title=Moral majority take on GSK and Merck over cancer drugs |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/moral-majority-take-on-gsk-and-merck-over-cancer-drugs-481844.html |access-date=2006-11-02 |work=The Independent |location=London}}{{cite news | vauthors = Sprigg P |date=2006-07-15 |title=Pro-family, pro-vaccine – but keep it voluntary |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/14/AR2006071401532.html |access-date=2008-06-15 |newspaper=Washington Post}} Studies have shown that HPV vaccination does not result in increased sexual activity.{{cite web |title=HPV Vaccination Does Not Lead to Increased Sexual Activity |url=https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/pages/HPV-Vaccination-Does-Not-Lead-to-Increased-Sexual-Activity.aspx |website=www.aap.org}}

Other Christians have supported vaccinations and mask wearing in the wake of COVID-19 to stop the spread of the disease, even using scripture to support the position.{{cite news | vauthors = White L |title=Should Christians Get the COVID 19 Vaccine? |url=https://www.beliefnet.com/wellness/should-christians-get-the-covid-19-vaccine.aspx |publisher=beliefnet.com |language=en}}{{cite news | vauthors = Wildes K |title=Christian Morality and the COVID-19 Vaccine |url=https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/responses/christian-morality-and-the-covid-19-vaccine |work=berkleycenter.georgetown.edu |publisher=Berkley |language=en}}

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has made vaccination an official initiative in its humanitarian relief program.{{Cite web |date=2021-01-19 |title=Senior Church leaders receive COVID-19 vaccine, encourage members to safeguard themselves, others 'through immunization' |url=https://www.thechurchnews.com/leaders-and-ministry/2021-01-19/church-leaders-vaccinated-president-nelson-first-presidency-202151 |access-date=2021-03-05 |website=Church News |language=en-US}}{{cite web | work = The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints |title=Church Makes Immunizations an Official Initiative, Provides Social Mobilization |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/church/news/church-makes-immunizations-an-official-initiative-provides-social-mobilization |access-date=2 August 2012}} The Church has also called on its members to see that their own children are properly vaccinated.[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/liahona/1978/07/immunize-children-leaders-urge?lang=eng "Immunize Children, Leaders Urge"], Liahona, July 1978 (accessed 2{{spaces}}August 2012). In March 2021, the Church added encouragement to vaccinate to its General Handbook of Instructions, noting that "Vaccinations administered by competent medical professionals protect health and preserve life.{{spaces}}... Members of the Church are encouraged to safeguard themselves, their children, and their communities through vaccination."{{cite web |date=31 March 2021 |title=See the March 2021 Update to the General Handbook |url=https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/article/general-handbook-update-march-2021 |access-date=8 April 2021 |website=Newsroom |publisher=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints}} In August 2021, the Church again encouraged vaccination, specifically against COVID-19, in a public statement from the First Presidency: "We know that protection from [Covid and its variants] can only be achieved by immunizing a very high percentage of the population.... To provide personal protection from such severe infections, we urge individuals to be vaccinated."{{Cite web |date=2021-08-12 |title=The Church Urges More Action to Limit the Spread of COVID-19 |url=http://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/article/first-presidency-message-covid-19-august-2021 |access-date=2021-08-27 |website=newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org |language=en}}

Although the Church of Christ, Scientist encourages reliance on prayer, it does not forbid vaccination or any other medical practice,Schoepflin, Rennie B. (2003). Christian Science on Trial: Religious Healing in America. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 192–193Trammell, Mary M. (March 26, 2010). [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/27/opinion/l27christian.html "Letter; What the Christian Science Church Teaches"]. The New York Times.{{cite web | vauthors = Livio SK |date=2014-11-19 |title=Nearly 9,000 N.J. school children skipped vaccinations on religious grounds last year |url=http://www.nj.com/healthfit/index.ssf/2014/11/9000_nj_school_children_skipped_vaccinations_on_religious_grounds.html |access-date=2015-03-11}}{{cite web |title=Outbreak of Measles Among Christian Science Students – Missouri and Illinois, 1994 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00031788.htm |access-date=2015-03-11}} and in 2015 it did not renew its application for religious exemption for vaccinations in Australia because it deemed the exemption "no longer current or necessary".

Islam and Judaism, religions with dietary prohibitions that regard particular animals as unclean, make exceptions for medical treatments derived from those animals.{{cite web |vauthors=Mynors G, Ghalamkari H, Beaumont S, Powell S, McGee P |url=http://archive.mcb.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Drugs-Derived-From-Pigs-and-their-Clinical-Alternatives_Booklet.pdf |title=Drugs of porcine origin and their clinical alternatives: an introductory guide |publisher=National Prescribing Centre |year=2004 |access-date=2009-05-12 |archive-date=2017-09-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911122705/http://archive.mcb.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Drugs-Derived-From-Pigs-and-their-Clinical-Alternatives_Booklet.pdf }}{{cite web |url=http://www.immunize.org/concerns/porcine.pdf |title= (Form letter EDB.7/3 P6/61/3) |publisher= World Health Organization, Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean |date=2001-07-17 | vauthors = Gezairy HA |access-date=2009-05-12}} However, this may not be universally accepted due to a lack of central authority in these religions. For example, in Aceh Province, an autonomous province of Indonesia with its own Islamic Sharia Law, eighty percent of people refuse all vaccinations due to concerns about pig, or its derivatives, being used to make some vaccines (eating pig is considered haram).{{cite web |url=https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&u=http://www.tribunnews.com/regional/2015/05/03/80-persen-warga-aceh-anggap-imunisasi-haram-ini-alasannya|title=80 Percent of Acehnese Consider Immunization Haram, This is the Reason| vauthors = Aco H |date=April 3, 2015}}

Hinduism consists of various denominations that share core beliefs but differ in philosophies and practices. With no single founder, it is known as Sanatan Dharma (the Eternal Tradition) and traces its origins to the Vedic texts of ancient India, dating back to between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE.{{Cite book | vauthors = Smith H |title=The world's religions |date=2010 |publisher=HarperOne |isbn=978-0-06-166018-4 |edition=50th anniversary |location=New York}}{{Cite book | vauthors = Noss DS, Grangaard BR |title=A History of the World's Religions |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0-13-614984-2 |edition=Twelfth |location=New Jersey}}

In Hinduism, the ethical and symbolic meanings of scriptures, as interpreted by spiritually enlightened gurus, are often prioritized over literal interpretations. Vaccination is generally accepted in countries with a predominantly Hindu population.{{cite journal | vauthors = Grabenstein JD | title = What the world's religions teach, applied to vaccines and immune globulins | journal = Vaccine | volume = 31 | issue = 16 | pages = 2011–2023 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23499565 | doi = 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.02.026 }}

Hindus uphold the principle of non-violence (ahimsa) and value all forms of life, believing that divinity exists in every being, including plants and animals.{{Citation |title=Hinduism |date=2025-02-28 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism |access-date=2025-03-10 |language=en}}{{Citation |title=Ahimsa |date=2025-02-06 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahimsa |access-date=2025-03-10 |language=en}}

Many Hindus follow a vegetarian diet to honor higher forms of life, while others consume meat only on specific days. Dietary practices differ across regions and communities. This review did not find any current concerns among Hindus regarding the presence of bovine-derived ingredients in some vaccines.

Buddhism is a religion with a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, which means "the awakened one." The Buddha shared his insights to help people overcome ignorance, desire, and suffering, ultimately leading to Nirvana—a state of liberation from suffering.{{Cite web |title=The Path of Light: Chapter III. Taking the Thought of Enlightenment |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/tpol/tpol06.htm |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=www.sacred-texts.com}} He taught in the eastern region of what is now India between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, possibly around 563–483 BCE.

Buddhism includes several major branches, such as Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana, and Zen, but lacks a single central text or authority to define its doctrines or ethics. In predominantly Buddhist countries, vaccination is generally accepted.

Buddhism does not oppose using non-animal-derived medicines to treat illnesses, viewing treatment as an act of compassion.{{Cite web |title=The Sermon At Benares |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/btg/btg17.htm |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=www.sacred-texts.com}}{{Cite web |title=Buddhism, health and disease |url=https://www.eubios.info/EJ145/ej145b.htm |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=www.eubios.info}} For example, while antibiotics destroy microorganisms, they are accepted because they help people stay healthy and maintain the harmony of body and mind, which supports progress toward Enlightenment. Preventing disease is seen as a way to preserve this harmony.{{Cite web |title=Buddhism, medicine, and health |url=http://blpusa.com/buddhismmedicine-and-health |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=blpusa.com}}

The Congregation of Universal Wisdom, a religion based on belief in chiropractic spinal adjustments and Universal Intelligence, forbids vaccinations.{{Citation |title=Congregation of Universal Wisdom |publisher=Congregation of Universal Wisdom |url=http://www.cuwisdom.org/ |access-date=April 11, 2015 }}{{Citation | vauthors = Kellner M |date=February 7, 2015 |title='Religious' objections to vaccinations? There really aren't any |publisher=Deseret News |url=http://national.deseretnews.com/article/3483/religious-objections-to-vaccinations-there-really-arent-any.html |access-date=April 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003204635/http://national.deseretnews.com/article/3483/religious-objections-to-vaccinations-there-really-arent-any.html |archive-date=October 3, 2016 }} The New York Times covered the Congregation of Universal Wisdom and noted that many families have used these religious memberships to avoid vaccination requirements.{{Citation | vauthors = McNeil Jr DG |date=January 14, 2003 |title=Worship Optional: Joining a Church To Avoid Vaccines |work=New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/01/14/science/worship-optional-joining-a-church-to-avoid-vaccines.html |access-date=April 11, 2015 }} In a court case citing the Congregation of Universal Wisdom, Turner v. Liverpool Cent. School, the United States District Court in New York affirmed the permissibility of claiming religious exemption from vaccination on the basis of such membership.[https://casetext.com/case/turner-v-liverpool-central-sch-bd-of-education#idm515056-fn4 Turner v. Liverpool Cent. School, 186 F. Supp.2d 187 (N.D.N.Y. 2002)]

The use of fetal tissue in vaccine development has also provoked some controversy among religions opposed to abortion. The cell culture media of vaccines for varicella, rubella (in the MMR vaccine), hepatitis A, rabies (Imovax) and the Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine (no longer used in the U.S.) are produced using fetal cells to grow viruses.{{Cite web |title=Vaccine Ingredients: Fetal Cells | work = Children's Hospital of Philadelphia |url=https://www.chop.edu/vaccine-education-center/vaccine-safety/vaccine-ingredients/fetal-tissues |access-date=2025-03-10 |language=en}} Since viruses require specific cells to reproduce, human cells are ideal for this purpose. Fetal cells, originally isolated from elective terminations in the 1960s, were chosen for their sterility, minimizing the risk of contamination. Fibroblast cells are used for all these vaccines except the J&J COVID-19 vaccine, which uses fetal retinal cells. Fetal cells obtained in the early 1960s have been continuously grown in laboratories and are still used for vaccine production today, with no need for additional sources. This method has led to moral controversy and considerations based on the principle of double effect by Thomas Aquinas. For example, the principle of double effect, originated by Thomas Aquinas, holds that actions with both good and bad consequences are morally acceptable in specific circumstances, and the question is how this principle applies to vaccination.{{cite journal |url=http://www.immunizationinfo.org/assets/files/pdfs/Moral_Considerations_With_Certain_Viral_Vaccines.pdf |title= Moral considerations with certain viral vaccines | vauthors = Grabenstein JD |journal= Christ Pharm |issn=1094-9534 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=3–6 |year=1999 |access-date=2009-05-11}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}

The Vatican Curia has expressed concern about the rubella vaccine's embryonic cell origin, saying Catholics have "...{{spaces}}a grave responsibility to use alternative vaccines and to make a conscientious objection with regard to those which have moral problems".{{cite journal |author= Pontifical Academy for Life |title= Moral reflections on vaccines prepared from cells derived from aborted human foetuses |year= 2005 |journal= Medicina e Morale |publisher= Center for Bioethics, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart |url= http://www.academiavita.org/template.jsp?sez=Documenti&pag=testo/vacc/vacc&lang=english |access-date= 2008-12-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060507072740/http://www.academiavita.org/template.jsp?sez=Documenti&pag=testo%2Fvacc%2Fvacc&lang=english |archive-date= 2006-05-07 }} The Vatican concluded that until an alternative becomes available it is acceptable for Catholics to use the existing vaccine, writing, "This is an unjust alternative choice, which must be eliminated as soon as possible." The Catholic Church advises its members to choose vaccines that are developed without the use of human cell lines whenever feasible. Nonetheless, the Vatican has stated that "all vaccinations recognized as clinically safe and effective can be used in good conscience, with the certain knowledge that the use of such vaccines does not constitute formal cooperation with the abortion."{{Cite web |title=Note of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on the morality of using some anti-Covid-19 vaccines |url=https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2020/12/21/201221c.html |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=press.vatican.va}}

Opposition to vaccination by Orthodox Jews is not a widespread phenomenon. The majority of Orthodox Rabbis view vaccination as a religious obligation.{{cite web|url=http://www.ou.org/news/statement-vaccinations-ou-rabbinical-council-america/|title=Statement on Vaccinations from the OU and Rabbinical Council of America|publisher=Orthodox Union|date=2015-02-10|access-date=2017-03-14}} A magazine called P.E.A.C.H. that presented an anti-immunization message to Orthodox Jews was distributed in Brooklyn, New York in early 2014. 96% of students at Yeshivas (who are essentially all Orthodox Jewish) in New York City were immunized according to information obtained in 2014, although this is a lower than average rate.{{cite web|url=http://forward.com/articles/205801/are-ultra-orthodox-turning-away-from-vaccination/?p=all|title=Are Ultra-Orthodox Turning Away From Vaccination?| vauthors = Nathan-Kazis J |work=Forward|date=2014-09-17|access-date=2017-03-14}}

In 2003 imams in northern Nigeria advised their followers not to have their children vaccinated with oral polio vaccine, perceived to be a plot by Westerners to decrease Muslim fertility.{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/29781528/ns/health-infectious_diseases/t/muslim-clerics-finally-embrace-polio-campaign/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325023402/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/29781528/ns/health-infectious_diseases/t/muslim-clerics-finally-embrace-polio-campaign/|archive-date=March 25, 2015|title=Muslim Clerics Finally Embrace Polio Campaign|website=NBC News |access-date=2015-03-11|date=2009-03-22}} The boycott caused the number of polio cases to rise not only in Nigeria but also in neighboring countries. The followers were also wary of other vaccinations, and Nigeria reported more than twenty thousand measles cases and nearly six hundred deaths from measles from January through March 2005.{{cite journal | vauthors = Clements CJ, Greenough P, Shull D | title = How vaccine safety can become political--the example of polio in Nigeria | journal = Current Drug Safety | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 117–119 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 18690921 | doi = 10.2174/157488606775252575 | url = http://bentham.org/cds/samples/cds1-1/Clements.pdf | access-date = 2007-07-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070928030913/http://bentham.org/cds/samples/cds1-1/Clements.pdf | archive-date = 2007-09-28 }} In 2006 Nigeria accounted for more than half of all new polio cases worldwide.{{cite web|title=Wild poliovirus 2000–2008 |date=2008-02-05 |url=http://www.polioeradication.org/content/general/casecount.pdf |publisher=Global Polio Eradication Initiative |access-date=2008-02-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927204139/http://www.polioeradication.org/content/general/casecount.pdf |archive-date=2007-09-27 }} Outbreaks continued thereafter; for example, at least 200 children died in a late-2007 measles outbreak in Borno State.{{cite news |title='Hundreds' dead in measles outbreak |publisher=IRIN |date=2007-12-14 |url=http://irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=75883 |access-date=2008-02-10 |archive-date=2012-02-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208011542/http://irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=75883 }} In 2013, nine health workers administering polio vaccine were targeted and killed by gunmen on motorcycles in Kano, but this was an isolated incident.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-21381773|title=Polio vaccinators killed in Nigeria|date=8 February 2013|work=BBC News}}{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-33650543 | work=BBC News | title=Nigeria marks one year without recorded polio case | date=2015-07-24}} Local traditional and religious leaders and polio survivors worked to support the vaccination campaign,{{cite news| url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-polio-nigeria-idUSKCN0PX2RF20150723 | work=Reuters | title=Nigeria marks polio-free year, raising global eradication hopes | date=2015-07-23}} and Nigeria has not had a polio case since July 24, 2014; in 2016, Nigeria was declared polio-free.{{cite web|url=https://polioeradication.org/where-we-work/polio-free-countries/| publisher=Global Polio Eradication Initiative | title=Polio-Free Countries | access-date=2022-03-27}}

In the 2000s, in Pakistan and Afghanistan, some Taliban issued fatwas opposing vaccination as an American plot to sterilize Muslims, and kidnapped, beat, and assassinated vaccination officials; the head of Pakistan's vaccination campaign in Bajaur Agency was assassinated in 2007, on his way back from a meeting with a religious leader.{{cite news|url=http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110714/full/news.2011.418.html|title=Fake vaccination campaign raises real fears| vauthors = Brumfiel G |work=Nature News|date=2011-07-14|access-date=2017-03-14|doi=10.1038/news.2011.418}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Warraich HJ | title = Religious opposition to polio vaccination | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 15 | issue = 6 | pages = 978 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19523311 | pmc = 2727330 | doi = 10.3201/eid1506.090087 }} In 2011, a CIA spy ran a fake hepatitis vaccination campaign to search for Osama bin Laden; such actions were strongly condemned by US{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/02/aid-groups-cia-osama-bin-laden-polio-crisis|title=CIA tactics to trap Bin Laden linked with polio crisis, say aid groups| vauthors = Shah S |work=The Guardian|date=2012-03-02|access-date=2017-03-14}} and international health NGOs, the doctor involved was jailed{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/23/doctor-bin-laden-cia-jail|title=Doctor who helped US in search for Osama Bin Laden jailed for 33 years| vauthors = Boone J |work=The Guardian|date=2012-05-23|access-date=2017-03-14}} and the CIA promised not to use vaccination as a cover again.{{cite news|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/2014/10/26/mistrust-and-polio-pakistan/xxBRaW1A6JnbkoKCeRdSSK/story.html|title=Mistrust and polio in Pakistan| vauthors = Carroll J |work=The Boston Globe|date=2014-10-27|access-date=2017-03-14}} A genuine polio vaccinator had previously vaccinated Osama bin Laden's children and grandchildren in his compound in Abbottabad.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/11/cia-fake-vaccinations-osama-bin-ladens-dna|title=CIA organised fake vaccination drive to get Osama bin Laden's family DNA| vauthors = Shah S |work=The Guardian|date=2011-07-11|access-date=2017-03-14}} Both major sides of the Afghan civil war now support polio vaccination,{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-26121732 | work=BBC News | title=Afghanistan polio: First case in Kabul since 2001 | date=2014-02-11}} and polio rates are declining rapidly in Afghanistan, with only five cases in January–July 2015. In Pakistan there were 28 cases in the same period.

In 2015, leaders of the Nation of Islam spoke out against a California Bill that removed philosophical exemptions to school vaccination requirements,{{cite news|title=Nation Of Islam Leader Voices Opposition To Mandatory Vaccine Bill|url=http://losangeles.cbslocal.com/2015/06/23/nation-of-islam-leader-voices-opposition-to-bill-that-would-require-public-school-students-to-be-immunized/|agency=CBS Los Angeles}} alleging a link between MMR vaccine and autism. They also said that government mandated vaccines were another Tuskegee Syphilis Study.{{cite news | vauthors = McGreevy P | date = 22 June 2015 |title=Nation of Islam opposes California vaccine mandate bill|url=http://www.latimes.com/local/political/la-me-pc-nation-of-islam-california-vaccine-mandate-bill-20150622-story.html|work=Los Angeles Times}}

According to a March 2021 poll conducted by The Associated Press/NORC, vaccine skepticism is more widespread among white evangelicals than most other blocs of Americans. 40% of white evangelical Protestants stated they weren't likely to get vaccinated against COVID-19.{{Cite web|date=2021-04-05|title=Vaccine skepticism runs deep among white evangelicals in US|url=https://apnews.com/article/coronavirus-vaccine-skepticism-white-evangelicals-us-32898166bbb673ad87842af24c8daefb|access-date=2021-04-07|website=The Associated Press}}

The spread of COVID-19 has brought vaccine hesitancy into the global spotlight, but what influences the significant differences in vaccination rates across regions? Research spanning 195 regions worldwide suggests that religiosity (an institutionalized belief) and spirituality (more personal and intuition-based) play a key role in shaping vaccination trends.{{cite journal | vauthors = Martens JP, Rutjens BT | title = Spirituality and religiosity contribute to ongoing COVID-19 vaccination rates: Comparing 195 regions around the world | journal = Vaccine | volume = 12 | pages = 100241 | date = December 2022 | pmid = 36407820 | doi = 10.1016/j.jvacx.2022.100241 }}

In the first study, data from 23 global regions revealed a negative correlation between both spirituality and religiosity and COVID-19 vaccination rates. These findings remained consistent even after adjusting for vaccine supply limitations. The second study, which analyzed data from 144 regions, reinforced this trend—religiosity continued to be a strong negative predictor of vaccination rates, even when accounting for factors such as GDP, population age, collectivism, vaccine skepticism, and past vaccination history. The third study focused on all U.S. states and the District of Columbia, once again showing that higher levels of spirituality and religiosity were linked to lower vaccination rates, even after controlling for other variables. Overall, these studies highlight a strong relationship between spirituality, religiosity, and vaccine uptake, suggesting that regional differences in these factors may significantly influence real-world vaccination behaviors.

Additionally, in another study, Cross-National Comparison of Religion as a Predictor of COVID-19 Vaccination Rates, researchers explored the impact of religiosity on COVID-19 vaccination rates across nations while accounting for socio-economic and cultural factors.{{cite journal | vauthors = Trepanowski R, Drążkowski D | title = Cross-National Comparison of Religion as a Predictor of COVID-19 Vaccination Rates | journal = Journal of Religion and Health | volume = 61 | issue = 3 | pages = 2198–2211 | date = June 2022 | pmid = 35556198 | doi = 10.1007/s10943-022-01569-7 | pmc = 9095816 }} Analyzing data from 90 countries, covering 86% of the global population, they found a negative correlation between Christianity and vaccination rates, whereas no such relationship was observed for Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, or non-belief. Factors such as the importance of religion, freedom of expression, sex ratio, median age, and most cultural variables showed no significant connection to vaccination rates, while the Human Development Index did. The study also highlighted how different religions influence vaccine uptake.

File:State Exemption Policies for School Immunizations.jpg

In the U.S., all 50 states and Washington D.C. require certain vaccines for students to attend school, aligning with recommendations from the CDC's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices.{{Cite web |title=State Non-Medical Exemptions from School Immunization Requirements |url=https://www.ncsl.org/health/state-non-medical-exemptions-from-school-immunization-requirements |access-date=2025-03-06 |website=www.ncsl.org}} While medical exemptions are permitted in every state, laws regarding non-medical exemptions for religious or personal reasons differ. Thirty states and D.C. permit religious exemptions, while thirteen allow either religious or personal exemptions. Louisiana and Minnesota do not specify whether non-medical exemptions must be religious or personal. Five states (Mississippi, California, West Virginia, Maine, and New York) are the only states that do not allow any non-medical exemptions, meaning all other states permit religious exemptions for parents who choose not to vaccinate their children for religious reasons.[https://www.wsj.com/articles/new-york-ends-religious-exemptions-for-school-vaccinations-11560467427 "New York Ends Religious Exemptions for School Vaccinations"]. The Wall Street Journal.

The number of religious exemptions rose greatly in the late 1990s and early 2000s; for example, in Massachusetts, the rate of those seeking exemptions rose from 0.24% in 1996 to 0.60% in 2006.{{Cite journal|title=Against medical advice: the anti-consumption of vaccines|journal=Journal of Consumer Marketing|volume=28|issue=7|pages=484–490|publisher=The University of Auckland Business School, Auckland, New Zealand|doi=10.1108/07363761111181464|year=2011| vauthors = Lee MS, Male M }} Some parents falsely claim religious beliefs to get exemptions.{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-10-17-19819928_x.htm |date=2007-10-17 |access-date=2007-11-24 | vauthors = LeBlanc S |agency=AP |title= Parents use religion to avoid vaccines |work= USA Today}} The American Medical Association opposes such exemptions, saying that they endanger health not only for the unvaccinated individual but also for neighbors and the community at large.{{cite web |url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ad-com/polfind/Hlth-Ethics.pdf |author=American Medical Association |title=Health and Ethics Policies of the AMA House of Delegates |quote=H-440.970 Religious Exemptions from Immunizations |pages=460–61 |year=2009 |access-date=2009-05-13 |archive-date=2015-03-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320143132/http://www.ama-assn.org/ad-com/polfind/Hlth-Ethics.pdf }}

On January 1, 2016, Australia introduced legislation that removed eligibility for childcare and welfare benefits if parents refuse to vaccinate their children, removing religious exemptions at the same time as the only religion to apply for an exemption (Church of Christ, Scientist) deemed their exemption to no longer be relevant.{{cite news| url=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/no-jab-no-pay-reforms-religious-exemptions-for-vaccination-dumped/news-story/5941541520ab64a115704f58633a1d68 | title=religious exemption removed}}

Mennonite Community in Texas: In early 2025, a significant measles outbreak occurred in Gaines County, Texas, primarily affecting an under-vaccinated Mennonite community.{{Cite web |last=Killelea |first=Eric |date=Feb 27, 2025 |title=Mennonite pastor says his community isn't at fault for Texas measles outbreak |url=https://www.chron.com/culture/religion/article/mennonites-measles-west-texas-20189910.php |website=CHRON}} Despite the church not opposing vaccinations, some members' hesitancy contributed to the outbreak, leading to over 200 infections, hospitalizations, and two deaths.{{Cite web |last=Partain |first=Claire |date=March 25, 2025 |title=How Houston schools are responding to state measles outbreak - and where vaccination rates are lowest |url=https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/education/hisd/article/texas-measles-outbreak-houston-schools-20226049.php |website=Houston Chronicle}}{{Cite web |last=Ensor |first=Josie |date=2025-02-28 |title=Fear spreads at epicentre of deadly measles outbreak in Texas |url=https://www.thetimes.com/us/news-today/article/measles-outbreak-texas-death-md7hlmkxc?utm_source=chatgpt.com®ion=global |access-date=2025-03-26 |website=www.thetimes.com |language=en}}

Amish Community in New York: Concurrently, New York's Amish community faced legal challenges regarding religious exemptions to vaccination mandates. After the state's 2019 repeal of religious exemptions following a 2018 measles outbreak, the Amish contested this decision. In March 2025, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the repeal, emphasizing public health over religious exemptions.{{Cite web |last=Moore |first=Chadwick |date=2025-03-15 |title=NY's Amish, vaccinations and the battle for the 'greater good' |url=https://nypost.com/2025/03/15/opinion/nys-amish-vaccinations-and-the-battle-for-the-greater-good/?utm |access-date=2025-03-26 |language=en-US}}

West Virginia's Legislative Decision: In March 2025, West Virginia's House of Delegates rejected a bill that would have introduced religious and philosophical exemptions to mandatory childhood vaccinations. This decision was influenced by concerns over public health, especially amid ongoing measles outbreaks in neighboring states.{{Cite web |date=2025-03-24 |title=One state jumps into the fray over vaccine exemptions |url=https://apnews.com/article/west-virginia-vaccinations-exemption-patrick-morrisey-8d3a60d825611e71960c28b605930aaf |access-date=2025-03-26 |website=AP News |language=en}}

Expert Warnings in Texas: Dr. Peter Hotez, co-director of the Center for Vaccine Development, highlighted the dangers of declining vaccination rates in Texas. He warned that reduced immunization could lead to the resurgence of diseases like measles, emphasizing the need for increased public awareness and vaccination efforts.

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