Water cremation

The process is based on alkaline hydrolysis: the body is placed in a pressure vessel which is then filled with a mixture of water and potassium hydroxide, and heated to a temperature of around {{convert|160|C|F}} at an elevated pressure which precludes boiling. The body is efficiently broken down into its chemical components, (completely disintegrating its DNA), a process which takes approximately four to six hours. Also, lower temperatures ({{convert|208|F|C|order=flip}}) and pressures may be used such that the process takes a leisurely 14 to 16 hours. At the start, the mixture is very alkaline, with a pH level of approximately 14; this drops to approximately 11 by the end, but the exact value depends on the total operation time and the amount of fat in the body.

The result is a quantity of green-brown tinted liquid (containing amino acids, peptides, sugars and salts) and soft, porous white bone remains (calcium phosphate) easily crushed in the hand (although a cremulator is more commonly used) to form a white-colored dust. The "ash" can then be returned to the next of kin of the deceased. The liquid is disposed of either through the sanitary sewer system, or through some other method, including use in a garden or green space.Olson, P. R. (2014). Flush and Bone: Funeralizing Alkaline Hydrolysis in the United States. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 39(5), 666–693. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243914530475 To dispose of {{convert|1000|lb}} of biomass, approximately {{convert|60|–|240|gal}} of water are used, resulting in {{convert|120|–|300|gal}} of effluent, which carries a dried weight (inorganic and mineral

content) of {{convert|20|lb}} (approximately 2% of original weight).

This alkaline hydrolysis process has been championed by a number of ecological campaigning groups,The [http://www.groovygreen.com/groove/?p=1706 Groovy Green] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306210649/http://www.groovygreen.com/groove/?p=1706 |date=2012-03-06 }} website is one example of such sites. for using 90 kWh of electricity,{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JakNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA262 |title=Our Changing Journey to the End: Reshaping Death, Dying, and Grief in America |editor1=Staudt, Christina |editor2=Ellens, J. Harold |chapter=Reconfiguring Urban Spaces of Disposal, Sanctuary, and Remembrance |page=262 |author=Rothstein, Karla Maria |date= 2013 |isbn=978-1440828461 |publisher=Praeger |location=Santa Barbara, California |access-date=4 September 2017}} one-quarter the energy of flame-based cremation, and producing less carbon dioxide and pollutants. It is being presented as an alternative option at some British crematorium sites.See the October 2007 Newsletter of Worthing Crematorium, operated by Worthing Borough Council in West Sussex, England. {{As of|August 2007}}, about 1,000 people had chosen this method for the disposal of their remains in the United States.{{cite web |url=http://www.physorg.com/news105641250.html|title=UK firm: Don't burn bodies, boil them |date=2007-08-06 |work=Physorg News}} The operating cost of materials, maintenance, and labor associated with the disposal of {{convert|2000|lb}} of remains was estimated at $116.40, excluding the capital investment cost of equipment.

Alkaline hydrolysis has also been adopted by the pet and animal industry. A handful of companies in North America offer the procedure as an alternative to pet cremation.{{cite news|title=New 'petuary' liquifies deceased pets, green alternative to cremation |url=http://www.dailynews.com/lifestyle/20140529/new-petuary-liquifies-deceased-pets-green-alternative-to-cremation |newspaper=Los Angeles Daily News}} Alkaline hydrolysis is also used in the agricultural industry to sterilize animal carcasses that may pose a health hazard, because the process inactivates viruses, bacteria, and prions that cause transmissible spongiform encephalopathy.{{cite book |url=http://ssl.tamu.edu/edss/handbook/04_Alkaline.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310022127/http://ssl.tamu.edu/edss/handbook/04_Alkaline.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-10 |title=Managing Contaminated Animal and Plant Materials: Field Guide on Best Practices |chapter=Alkaline hydrolysis |publisher=Texas A&M University |access-date=4 September 2017}}{{cite journal |title=Efficacy of Alkaline Hydrolysis as an Alternative Method for Treatment and Disposal of Infectious Animal Waste |author1=Kaye, G |author2=Weber, P |author3=Evans, A |author4=Venezia, R |date=May 1998 |journal=Contemp Top Lab Anim Sci |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=43–46 |pmid=12456159}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p051f7vn|title=BBC World Service – People Fixing The World, Greener In Death|website=BBC|date=2 May 2017 |language=en-GB|access-date=2018-11-08}}

The process was patented by Amos Herbert Hobson in 1888 as a method to process animal carcasses into plant food.{{cite web |url=https://www.wired.com/2017/03/bath-turns-dead-bodies-coffee-colored-water/ |title=The Fight to Legalize a Machine That Melts Flesh From Bone |author=Stockton, Nick |date=10 March 2017 |publisher=Wired |access-date=4 September 2017}}{{cite patent |country=US |number=394982 |status= |title=Process of separating gelatine from bones |pubdate=25 December 1888 |gdate= |fdate=5 April 1888 |pridate= |inventor=Amos Herbert Hobson |invent1= |invent2= |assign1= |assign2= |class= |url=}} In 2005, Bio-Response Solutions designed, sold, and installed the first single cadaver alkaline hydrolysis system at the Mayo Clinic, where it was still in use as of 2019.{{Cite web|url=https://bioresponsesolutions.com/about/|title=About Us|website=Bio Response Solutions|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-04}} In 2007, a Scottish biochemist, Sandy Sullivan, started a company making the machines, and calling the process (and company) Resomation.{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/apr/04/lucy-siegle-innovator-sandy-sullivan-resomation|title=The innovator: Sandy Sullivan|last=Siegle|first=Lucy|date=2010-04-03|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-11-08}}

{{see also|Cremation#Religious views}}

In Christian countries and cultures, cremation has historically been discouraged and viewed as a desecration of God's image, and as interference with the resurrection of the dead taught in scripture. It is now acceptable to some denominations.{{cite book|last1=Gassmann|first1=Günther |last2=Larson|first2=Duane H.|last3=Oldenburg|first3=Mark W. |title=Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Htz8M1Xlqi4C&pg=PA48 |access-date=22 April 2014 |date=2001|publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0810866201|page=48 |quote=Cremation was unheard of from the time Charlemagne outlawed it (784) until the 17th century. At that point, the practice was urged primarily by those opposed to the church, and for a long time cremation was forbidden by Roman Catholicism and practiced only reluctantly by Protestants. Recently, these strictures have eased, and more and more churches have established columbaria or memorial gardens within their precincts for the reception of the ashes by the faithful.}} Desmond Tutu, former Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town, was aquamated, per his wish.{{cite news |date=31 December 2021 |title=Desmond Tutu: Body of South African Hero to be Aquamated |website=BBC.com |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-59842728 |access-date=1 January 2022}} The Eastern Orthodox Church does not allow cremation.

The Roman Catholic Church allows cremation of bodies as long as it is not done in denial of the beliefs in the sacredness of the human body or the resurrection of the dead.{{cite web |url=http://www.nyscatholic.org/2002/12/catholics-and-cremation-questions-and-answers-from-the-bishops-of-new-york-state/ |title=Catholics and Cremation: Questions and Answers from the Bishops of New York State |date=December 6, 2002 |publisher=New York State Catholic Conference |access-date=April 12, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607104538/http://www.nyscatholic.org/2002/12/catholics-and-cremation-questions-and-answers-from-the-bishops-of-new-york-state/ |archive-date=June 7, 2015 |url-status=dead }} In 2008, Renée Mirkes published the first Catholic moral analysis of alkaline hydrolysis.{{Cite journal |last=Robinson |first=Georgina M. |date=February 2021 |title=Dying to Go Green: The Introduction of Resomation in the United Kingdom |journal=Religions |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=97 |doi=10.3390/rel12020097 |issn=2077-1444 |doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Mirkes |first1=Renée |last2=The National Catholic Bioethics Center |date=2008 |title=The Mortuary Science of Alkaline Hydrolysis: Is It Ethical? |url=http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=ncbq_2008_0008_0004_0683_0695&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection |journal=The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=683–695 |doi=10.5840/ncbq2008848 |issn=1532-5490|url-access=subscription }} He argued that it is morally neutral and may be an alternative to burial on similar grounds to cremation. However, the Catholic Church in the United States does not approve of alkaline hydrolysis as a method of final disposal of human remains. In 2011, Donald Cardinal Wuerl, Archbishop of Washington and then chairman of the Committee on Doctrine of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB), determined it "unnecessarily disrespectful of the human body."{{Cite web |title=ALKALINE HYDROLYSIS Questions and Answers from a Catholic Perspective |url=https://www.archstl.org/Portals/0/Documents/Worship/AlkalineHydrolysisQandA.pdf }} The Archdiocese of St. Louis explained that it was considered this way because the Church took concern with the final disposal of the liquid solution, which is typically to the sewer system.{{Cite web |title=HOPE IN THE RESURRECTION: Church teaching on cremation and burial highlights dignity of humans |url=https://www.archstl.org/alkaline-hydrolysis-is-a-new-method-of-cremation-that-has-drawn-concerns-from-church-leaders-2835 |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.archstl.org |language=en-US}} This was considered disrespectful of the sanctity of the human body. Additionally, when alkaline hydrolysis was proposed in New York state in 2012, the New York State Catholic Conference condemned the practice, stating that hydrolysis does not show sufficient respect for the teaching of the intrinsic dignity of the human body.{{cite web |date=Mar 25, 2012 |title=NY Catholic conference opposes 'chemical digestion' of human remains |url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/24591/ny-catholic-conference-opposes-chemical-digestion-of-human-remains}}

Judaism forbids cremation as it is not in line with the religion’s teachings of respect and dignity for humans, who are believed by the religion to be created in God’s image. Islam also forbids cremation of the deceased. Both religions are likely to reject alkaline hydrolysis as they believe that the body must be laid to rest through burial in order to prepare for the afterlife. The Baháʼí Faith, like other Abrahamic religions, discourages cremation of the deceased. The human body is seen as having to be treated with respect, and merely wrapped in a shroud before burial no further than an hour from the place of death.

Sikhism, Hinduism, and Buddhism each place theological emphasis on the complete immolation of the corpse.

Native Hawaiians consider aquamation a way to approximate their traditional burial ritual, which involves removing the bones (iwi) cleanly from the flesh using a beachside underground oven (imu), wrapping the bones, and hiding them. The use of an imu on human bodies is no longer allowed, but aquamation may offer an alternative as it produces similarly clean bones.{{cite web |title=Lawmakers to Bolster Native Hawaiian Burial Traditions With Modern Technology |url=https://www.hawaiipublicradio.org/local-news/2021-02-24/lawmakers-to-bolster-native-hawaiian-burial-traditions-with-modern-technology |website=Hawai'i Public Radio |language=en |date=24 February 2021}}

Aquamation based in New South Wales is the only company to provide alkaline hydrolysis in Australia, with the remains being used as fertilizer on plantation forests, due to difficulty with obtaining permits from Sydney Water.{{Cite web |last=Kilvert |first=Nick |date=2019-04-27 |title=What's the greenest way to deal with your body after you die? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2019-04-27/green-death-funeral-environment/10994330 |access-date=2019-04-29 |website=ABC News |language=en-AU}}

Water Cremation Aotearoa {{Cite web |last=Zealand |first=Water Cremation Aotearoa New |title=Water Cremation Aotearoa New Zealand |url=https://watercremation.co.nz/ |access-date=2024-11-28 |website=Water Cremation Aotearoa New Zealand |language=en-US}} has been an advocate for bringing the service to New Zealand (Aotearoa). Water cremation services will be offered in Christchurch by Bell, Lamb and Trotter. {{Cite web |last=admin |title=Bell, Lamb & Trotter |url=https://belllambtrotter.co.nz/ |access-date=2024-11-28 |website=Bell, Lamb & Trotter |language=en-US}}

The Flemish minister of Interior Administration Bart Somers asked in September 2021 the opinion of an advisory bioethics committee on resomation. The advice, received in November 2021, saw no objections.{{Cite web |last=NWS |first=VRT |date=2021-11-30 |title=Ethisch groen licht voor "resomatie" of lichamen van doden in hete vloeistof oplossen, composteren minder evident |url=https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/nl/2021/11/30/resomatie-advies/ |access-date=2022-09-21 |website=vrtnws.be |language=nl}}

Saskatchewan approved the process in 2012, becoming the first province to do so.{{cite news |last=Christianson |first=Adriana |date=November 28, 2012 |title=Liquifying bodies new cremation technique offered in Saskatchewan |work=News Talk 650 CKOM |publisher=Rawlco Communications |url=http://www.newstalk650.com/story/liquifying-bodies-new-cremation-technique-offered-saskatchewan/85386 |url-status=dead |access-date=2012-11-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202144547/http://www.newstalk650.com/story/liquifying-bodies-new-cremation-technique-offered-saskatchewan/85386 |archive-date=February 2, 2014}} Quebec and Ontario have also legalized the process.{{cite news |last=Cohen |first=Jeremy |date=November 17, 2015 |title=Bio Cremation: A Greener Way To Die? |url=http://www.qeepr.com/blog/bio-cremation-a-greener-way-to-die/ |access-date=2015-11-17}}

A funeral home in Granby, Quebec, was the first in the province to receive an alkaline hydrolysis machine.{{cite news |last=Quenneville-Girard |first=Romy |date=April 1, 2015 |title=La bio-crémation débarque à Granby |work=Granby Express |url=http://www.granbyexpress.com/Actualites/2015-04-01/article-4097496/La-bio-cremation-debarque-a-Granby/1 |access-date=2015-04-01}}

In 2023, water cremation became available in Ireland, making it the first country in Europe to offer this form of burial.{{Cite web |last=Walsh |first=Louise |date=7 October 2023 |title=Ireland hosts Europe's first ever eco-friendly water-based cremations |url=https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/ireland-hosts-europes-first-ever-eco-friendly-water-based-cremations/a748688859.html |access-date=12 October 2023 |website=Independent.ie |language=en}}

When the process is complete, the remaining water undergoes further treatment to ensure that it is completely sterile. Analysis is then completed to ensure Water Authority standards are met. At this stage, the water can be recycled back to the Local Authority water treatment plant.

Since 2019, Grupo Gayosso offers alkaline hydrolysis in Baja California.{{Cite web |title=Aquamación, lo nuevo para sustituir al entierro o cremación |url=https://www.gayosso.com/aquamacion/}}

In May 2020, the Health Council of the Netherlands issued an advisory report on the admissibility of new techniques of disposing of the dead. The Council proposed a framework to assess alkaline hydrolysis. It concluded that alkaline hydrolysis is safe, dignified and sustainable.{{Cite web |date=25 May 2020 |title=Health Council of the Netherlands 2020 Admissibility of new techniques of disposing of the dead |url=https://www.healthcouncil.nl/documents/advisory-reports/2020/05/25/admissibility-of-new-techniques-of-disposing-of-the-dead |publisher=Health Council of the Netherlands}} In addition to alkaline hydrolysis, the council also considered human composting as a technique to dispose bodies yet concluded that too little is known about composting and hence it cannot be assessed whether this technique fulfills the conditions. Taking into account the council's recommendations, the Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations prepared a law proposal to amend the Corpse Disposal Act. Once the proposed law has been submitted to the Parliament, the democratic process to admit alkaline hydrolysis as body disposal technique can be commenced.

In November 2019, Avbob introduced aquamation in South Africa, following the mutual assurance society's recent introduction of the alkaline hydrolysis process at its Maitland agency in Cape Town.{{cite web |title=Avbob introduces a new 'green' cremation - no flames, just water and heat |url=https://www.businessinsider.co.za/funerals-cremation-green-alternative-cremation-aquamation-2019-11}} Aquamation has been legal in South Africa since then. Following his death in December 2021 the body of Archbishop Desmond Tutu was aquamated.

A public crematorium operated by Sandwell Metropolitan Borough Council at Rowley Regis, central England, was the first to receive planning permission to offer the process but in March 2017, the local water utility, Severn Trent Water, refused the council's application for a "trade effluent permit" because there was no water industry standard regulating the disposal of liquefied human remains into sewers.{{cite news |date=18 December 2017 |title=Fears over liquefied remains of the dead |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-birmingham-42385567 |access-date=18 December 2017}}{{cite news |last1=Kalia |first1=Ammar |date=9 July 2019 |title=A greener way to go: what's the most eco-friendly way to dispose of a body? |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2019/jul/09/greener-way-to-go-eco-friendly-way-dispose-of-body-burial-cremation |access-date=10 July 2019}}

In July 2023, the BBC reported that “[w]ater cremation is set to be made available for the first time in the UK.”{{cite news |title=Water cremation: Co-op Funeralcare to be first UK company to offer resomation |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-66081058 |access-date=2 July 2023 |publisher=BBC |date=2 July 2023}}

Alkaline hydrolysis as a method of final disposition of human remains is legal in 24 states {{as of|2022|lc=y}}.{{cite news|url=https://www.sltrib.com/news/politics/2018/01/29/utah-legislators-consider-plan-to-allow-water-cremation-as-an-alternative-to-burial-traditional-cremation/|title=Lawmakers pass bill to allow 'water cremation' as an alternative to burial, traditional cremation|author=Davidson, Lee|date=2018-02-16|work=The Salt Lake Tribune}} Legislation is pending in New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Virginia.{{cite web |author=Funerals360 |date=2020-01-14 |title=Alkaline Hydrolysis Laws in Your State |url=https://www.funerals360.com/blog/cremations/alkaline-hydrolysis-laws-in-your-state/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026122820/https://www.funerals360.com/blog/cremations/alkaline-hydrolysis-laws-in-your-state/ |archive-date=2020-10-26 |access-date=2021-08-21 |website=Funerals360}}{{cite web|url=https://lis.virginia.gov/cgi-bin/legp604.exe?ses=231&typ=bil&val=sb1487|title=Virginia Legislative Information System|date=14 February 2023|access-date=20 March 2023}} The process was legal in New Hampshire for several years but amid opposition by religious lobby groups it was banned in 2008{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna43257762|title=States consider: Is it legal to dissolve bodies?|work=msnbc.com|date=2 June 2011 }} and a proposal to legalize it was rejected in 2013.{{cite web|url=http://connectingdirectors.com/articles/39968-new-hampshire-senate-rejects-proposal-for-alkaline-hydrolysis|title=New Hampshire Senate Rejects Proposal For Alkaline Hydrolysis|work=Connecting Directors Funeral News|date=3 May 2013|access-date=12 August 2015|archive-date=1 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501133249/http://connectingdirectors.com/articles/39968-new-hampshire-senate-rejects-proposal-for-alkaline-hydrolysis|url-status=dead}}{{citation|url=http://www.gencourt.state.nh.us/bill_status/Bill_status.aspx?lsr=2743&sy=2008&sortoption=&ddlobody=s&txtsessionyear=2008|title=SB332 (2008): prohibiting the disposal of human remains through a reductive process utilizing alkaline hydrolysis in New Hampshire and establishing a committee to examine the practice of resomation.|year=2008|author=New Hampshire General Court|author-link=New Hampshire General Court}}

Alkaline hydrolysis has been used for cadavers donated for research at the University of Florida since the mid-1990s and at the Mayo Clinic since 2005.{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=4828249&page=1|title=New in mortuary science: Dissolving bodies with lye|author=ABC News|work=ABC News}} UCLA uses the process to dispose of donor bodies.{{cite web|url=http://donatedbodyprogram.ucla.edu/body.cfm?id=45|title=Bio Cremation – UCLA Donated Body Program|work=ucla.edu}}

• Burial
• Promession
• Human composting

{{Reflist|2}}

• [https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=4828249&page=1 New in mortuary science: Dissolving bodies with lye] – ABC News
• [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-14114555 New body 'liquefaction' unit unveiled in Florida funeral home] – BBC News

{{Death}}

Category:Death customs

Category:Biodegradation

Category:Funeral-related industry

Category:Legal aspects of death

Category:Waste management