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Western Yugur language

{{Short description|Siberian Turkic language of Gansu, China}}

{{Cleanup lang|date=October 2024|iso=ybe}}

{{Infobox language

| name = Western Yugur

| altname = Yellow Uyghur

| nativename = {{lang|ybe|yoğır lar}}
{{lang|ybe|yoğır śoz}}

| states = China

| region = Gansu

| ethnicity = 7,000 Yugur (2007){{cite web |title=Yugur, West |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/ybe/ |website=Ethnologue |access-date=17 January 2025}}

| speakers = ~2,000 (~1,000 fluent)

| date = 2019

| ref = {{cite thesis |last=Zhong |first=Yarjis Xueqing |date=2019 |title=Rescuing a Language from Extinction: Documentation and Practical Steps for the Revitalisation of (Western) Yugur |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/items/883a0e42-af65-4d48-9082-015cbd28a847 |work= |degree= PhD|location=Australian National University |publisher= |access-date=17 January 2025}}

| familycolor = Altaic

| fam1 = Turkic

| fam2 = Common Turkic

| fam3 = Siberian Turkic{{Cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&q=salars+oghuz&pg=PA1109 |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |last2=Ogilvie |first2=Sarah |publisher=Elsevier |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-08-087774-7 |page=1109}} (Northeastern Turkic){{Cite book |last=Roos |first=Marti |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cgNQdljvk70C&q=salar+oghuz&pg=PA28 |title=The Mainz Meeting: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Turkish Linguistics, August 3–6, 1994 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=1998 |isbn=3-447-03864-0 |editor-last=Johanson |editor-first=Lars |series=Turcologica Series |location=Wiesbaden |page=28 |chapter=Preaspiration in Western Yugur Monosyllables}}

| fam4 = South Siberian

| fam5 = Yenisei Turkic

| ancestor = Old Turkic

| ancestor2 = Old Uyghur

| script = Old Uyghur alphabet (until 19th century)
Latin alphabet (current)

| iso3 = ybe

| glotto = west2402

| glottorefname = West Yugur

| notice = IPA

| map = Siberian Turkic Languages distribution map.png

| mapcaption = {{legend-inline|F100CB|Western Yugur (lower part of the map, center)}}

| map2 = Lang Status 40-SE.svg

| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Western Yugur is classified as Severely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger}}}}

}}

Western Yugur ({{lang|ybe-Latn|Yoğır lar}}{{sfnp|Roos|2000}} 'Yugur speech' or {{lang|ybe-Latn|Yoğır śoz}} 'Yugur word'), also known as Neo-Uygur,{{sfn|Clauson|1965|p=57}} is the Turkic language spoken by the Yugur people. It is contrasted with Eastern Yugur, a Mongolic language spoken within the same community. Traditionally, both languages are indicated by the term Yellow Uygur, from the endonym of the Yugur.

There are approximately 2,000 speakers of Western Yugur.

Classification

Besides similarities with Uyghuric languages, Western Yugur also shares a number of features, mainly archaisms, with several of the Northeastern Turkic languages, but it is not closer to any one of them in particular. Neither Western nor Eastern Yugur are mutually intelligible with the modern Uyghur language spoken amongst the Uyghurs of China's Xinjiang autonomous region.{{Cite book |last=Olson |first=James S. |title=An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-313-28853-4 |location=Westport, Connecticut |page=377}}

Western Yugur also contains archaisms which are attested in neither modern Uyghuric nor Siberian, such as its anticipating counting system coinciding with Old Uyghur, and its copula dro, which also originated from Old Uyghur but substitutes the Uyghur copulative personal suffixes.Chen et al., 1985

Geographic distribution

Speakers of Western Yugur reside primarily in the western part of Gansu province's Sunan Yugur Autonomous County. They are concentrated in the Dahe and Minghua townships and the northern portion of the Huangcheng township.

Phonology

A special feature in Western Yugur is the occurrence of preaspiration, corresponding to the so-called pharyngealised low vowels in Tuvan and Tofa, and short vowels in Yakut, Turkmen, and Khalkha Mongolian. Examples of this phenomenon include {{IPA|/oʰtɯs/}} 'thirty', {{IPA|/jɑʰʂ/}} 'good', and {{IPA|/iʰt/}} 'meat'.

The vowel harmony system, typical of Turkic languages, has largely collapsed. However, it still exists for a-suffixes (back a; front i), however for stems containing last close vowels are chosen unpredictably ({{IPA|/pɯlɣi/}} 'knowing' vs. {{IPA|/ɯstqɑ/}} 'pushing'). Voicing as a distinguishing feature in plosives and affricates was replaced by aspiration, as in Chinese.

=Consonants=

West Yugur has 28 native consonants and two more (indicated in parentheses) found only in loan words.

class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"

|+Consonant phonemes{{cite thesis |last=Zhong |first=Yarjis Xueqing |date=2019 |title=Rescuing a Language from Extinction: Documentation and Practical Steps for the Revitalisation of (Western) Yugur |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/items/883a0e42-af65-4d48-9082-015cbd28a847 |work= |degree= PhD|location=Australian National University |publisher= |access-date=17 January 2025}}

! colspan="2" |

!Labial

!Alveolar

!Retroflex

!Palatal

!Velar

!Uvular

!Glottal

colspan="2" |Nasal

|{{IPA link|m}}

|{{IPA link|n}}

|

|

|{{IPA link|ŋ}}

|

|

rowspan="2" |Plosive

!{{small|unaspirated}}

|{{IPA link|p}}

|{{IPA link|t}}

|

|

|{{IPA link|k}}

|{{IPA link|q}}

|

{{small|aspirated}}

|{{IPA link|pʰ}}

|{{IPA link|tʰ}}

|

|

|{{IPA link|kʰ}}

|{{IPA link|qʰ}}

|

rowspan="2" |Affricate

!{{small|unaspirated}}

|

|{{IPA link|t͡s}}

|{{IPA link|ʈ͡ʂ}}

|{{IPA link|t͡ɕ}}

|

|

|

{{small|aspirated}}

|

|({{IPA link|t͡sʰ}})

|{{IPA link|ʈ͡ʂʰ}}

|{{IPA link|t͡ɕʰ}}

|

|

|

rowspan="2" |Fricative

!{{small|voiceless}}

|({{IPA link|f}})

|{{IPA link|s}}

|{{IPA link|ʂ}}

|{{IPA link|ɕ}}

|{{IPA link|x}}

|

|{{IPA link|h}}

{{small|voiced}}

|

|{{IPA link|z}}

|{{IPA link|ʐ}}

|

|{{IPA link|ɣ}}

|

|

colspan="2" |Trill

|

|{{IPA link|r}}

|

|

|

|

|

colspan="2" |Approximant

|

|{{IPA link|l}}

|

|{{IPA link|j}}

|{{IPA link|w}}

|

|

=Vowels=

Western Yugur has eight vowel phonemes typical of many Turkic languages, which are {{IPA|/i, y, ɯ, u, e, ø, o, ɑ/}}. The phoneme {{IPA|/e/}} is currently merging with {{IPA|/i/}}, especially for speakers in the younger generation.{{sfnp|Roos|2000}} In the table below, the IPA symbol for each vowel is given and alongside it the standard Turcological orthographic form is provided in angular brackets.

class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

|+ Western Yugur vowel phonemes

! rowspan="2" |

! colspan="2" | Front

! colspan="2" | Back

{{small|unrounded}}

! {{small|rounded}}

! {{small|unrounded}}

! {{small|rounded}}

High

| {{IPA link|i}} {{langle}}i{{rangle}}

| {{IPA link|y}} {{langle}}ü{{rangle}}

| {{IPA link|ɯ}} {{langle}}ï{{rangle}}

| {{IPA link|u}} {{langle}}u{{rangle}}

Low

| {{IPA link|e|e}} {{langle}}e{{rangle}}

| {{IPA link|ø|ø}} {{langle}}ö{{rangle}}

| {{IPA link|ɑ|ɑ}}1 {{langle}}a{{rangle}}

| {{IPA link|o|o}} {{langle}}o{{rangle}}

1 Zhong, 2019 uses the symbol {{IPA|/a/}}, used by the IPA for the front low unrounded vowel, but describes it as "low back unrounded" (p. 93). The IPA symbol matching that description, low back unrounded {{IPA|/ɑ/}}, is used in this article for descriptions of the phoneme, while {{langle}}a{{rangle}} is used in most practical orthographies of the language.

==Allophony==

The following allophonic realizations may occur.

  • {{IPA|/i/}} is generally {{IPA|[i]}} when morpheme-medial and {{IPA|[ɪ]}} when morpheme-final, especially after an obstruent.
  • {{IPA|/ɯ/}} is generally {{IPA|[ɯ]}} when in a word-initial syllable and {{IPA|[ɯ̞̈]}} in a word-final syllable, except when word-final and preceding {{IPA|[ɾ]}}.
  • {{IPA|/u/}} is realized as {{IPA|[ʊ]}} when preceding by a velar or uvular stop, and as {{IPA|[u]}} otherwise.
  • {{IPA|/ɑ/}} is realized as {{IPA|[ɑ]}} after uvular stops or the fricatives {{IPA|/x, ɣ, h/}}, as well as when preceding {{IPA|/ŋ/}}. When preceding {{IPA|/j/}} or when after {{IPA|/j, tɕ/}} and before /n/, {{IPA|[ɛ]}} occurs as an allophone. Otherwise, {{IPA|[ä]}} typically occurs.
  • {{IPA|/e/}} is realized as {{IPA|[ɛ]}} when preceding coda {{IPA|/m, n, r/}}, in particular when following an aspirated stop. Word-initial {{IPA|/e/}} is variably realized as [ɪ] and [e] for certain speakers. Otherwise, {{IPA|[e]}} generally occurs.
  • {{IPA|/o, ø, y/}} do not tend to vary in pronunciation and are simply realized as {{IPA|[o, ø, y]}} respectively.

=Diachronic processes=

Several sound changes affected Western Yugur phonology while evolving from its original Common Turkic form, the most prolific being:

==Vowels==

  • High vowels were delabialized in non-initial syllables: CT *tütün > *tütin > WYu tuʰtïn "to smoke", CT *altun > *altïn > WYu aʰltïm "gold"
  • CT *u was lowered to WYu o in some words, most commonly around velars and r: CT *burun > WYu pʰorn "before, front"
  • All high vowels were merged – as front vowels in palatal contexts, and as back otherwise: CT *üčün > WYu utɕin "with, using", CT *yïlan > WYu yilan "snake"
  • This had several consequences:
  • # It made the Common Turkic allophonic difference between *k and *q phonemic.
  • # Vowel harmonic class of resulting words was thus determined lexically in Western Yugur.
  • # Former vowel harmonic suffixes with high vowels became invariable: CT: *-Ki/*-Kï > WYu -Kï "attributive noun suffix"
  • Front vowels *ä, *e, *ö were raised to *i, *ü except before *r, *l, *ŋ and (excluding *ö) *g: CT *ärän > WYu erin "man", CT *kȫk > WYu kük, CT *-lar/*-lär > WYu -lar/-lir "plural suffix"
  • CT *ay is reflected as WYu ey~e in the initial syllable and as i otherwise.
  • In the initial syllable exclusively, short vowels acquire pre-aspiration of the following consonant, length distinction is otherwise lost.

==Consonants==

  • As in most Turkic language, initial *b was assimilated to *m in words containing nasals.
  • Initial plosives and affricates, CT *b, *t, *k, *g, *č, are all reflected as voiceless with unpredictable aspiration: CT *temir > WYu temïr, CT *bog- > WYu pʰoɣ- "to tie with a rope"
  • Labials are merged into *w intervocally and after liquids which later in some cases forms diphthongs or get elided: CT *yubaš > WYu yüwaʂ "calm", CT *harpa > WYu harwa "barley"
  • Finally and in most consonant clusters *p is preserved and *b elided.
  • Dental and velar voiceless plosives are preserved in most positions, with aspiration occurring almost exclusively in the initial position.
  • CT *g is spirantized into ɣ and CT *d into z.
  • With some exceptions, CT *š develops into s: CT *tāš > WYu tas "stone"
  • CT *z is preserved, except for devoicing when final in polysyllabic words: CT *otuz > WYu oʰtïs "thirty"
  • CT *č generally becomes WYu š in syllable codas.
  • CT *ñ develops into WYu y; initial CT *y- is mostly preserved; CT *h- is seemingly preserved in some words but the extent to which WYu h- corresponds to it is unclear.

Vocabulary

Western Yugur has retained many words from East Old Turkic language and is the only Turkic language that preserved the anticipating counting system, known from Old Turkic.{{Cite book |last=Erdal |first=Marcel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l4yGbSQcrBoC&q=anticipating+counting+system&pg=PA220 |title=A Grammar of Old Turkic |date=2004 |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-10294-9 |location=Leiden |page=220}} In this system, upper decimals are used, i.e. per otus (per: one, otus: thirty) means "one (on the way to) thirty", is 21.{{Cite book |url=https://www.ayu.edu.tr//static/kitaplar/TTD_cilt_1.pdf |title=Endangered Turkic Languages I: Theoretical and General Approaches, Volume 1 |date=2016 |publisher=Hodja Akhmet Yassawi International Turkish-Kazakh University |isbn=978-9944-237-48-2 |editor-last=Eker |editor-first=Süer |location=Ankara-Astana |page=445 |editor-last2=Şavk |editor-first2=Ülkü Çelik |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323144854/http://www.ayu.edu.tr/static/kitaplar/TTD_cilt_1.pdf |archive-date=2021-03-23}}

For centuries, the Western Yugur language has been in contact with Mongolic languages, Tibetan, and Chinese, and as a result has adopted a large number of loanwords from these languages, as well as grammatical features. Chinese dialects neighboring the areas where Yugur is spoken have influenced the Yugur language, giving it loanwords.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xGZedef70zAC&q=yellow+uyghurs&pg=PA664 |title=The Handbook of Language Contact |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4051-7580-7 |editor-last=Hickey |editor-first=Raymond |page=664}}

Grammar

Personal markers in nouns as well as in verbs were largely lost. In the verbal system, the notion of evidentiality has been grammaticalised, seemingly under the influence of Tibetan.{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}}

=Grammatical cases{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}}=

class="wikitable"

! colspan="2" |

!After obstruents

!After nasals

!After -z

colspan="2" |Nominative

| colspan="3" |-∅

colspan="2" |Accusative

|-ti

| colspan="2" |-ni

colspan="2" |Genitive

|-tiŋ

| colspan="2" |-niŋ

rowspan="2" |Dative

!Back

| colspan="2" |-qa

|-ɣa

Front

| colspan="3" |-ki

rowspan="2" |Locative

!Back

| colspan="3" |-ta

Front

| colspan="3" |-ti

rowspan="2" |Ablative

!Back

| colspan="3" |-tan

Front

| colspan="3" |-tin

Four kinship terms have distinct vocative forms, and used when calling out loudly: aqu (← aqa "elder brother"), qïzaqu (← qïzaqa "elder sister"), açu (← aça "father"), and anu (← ana "mother"). There are two possessive suffixes, first and second person -(ï)ŋ and third person -(s)ï, but these suffixes are largely not used outside of kinship terms (anaŋ, anasï "mother"), similar to the concept of inalienable possessions. Four kinship nouns have irregular 1st and 2nd person forms by eliding the final vowel and using the consonantic variant: aqa → aqïŋ "elder brother".

=Verbs=

Western Yugur verbal system, like Salar, is characterized by contact-induced (namely, under the influence of Chinese){{Citation needed|date=January 2025}} loss of person-number copular markers in finite verb forms, e.g. contrast the sentence “I have eaten enough” Men {{nowrap|toz-dï}} in Western Yugur with the Uzbek equivalent Men {{nowrap|to’y-dïm}}; the latter has a first-person marker suffix -(I)m attached to the verb while the equivalent Western Yugur sentence does not.

History

{{main|Old Uyghur|Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom}}

Modern Uyghur and Western Yugur belong to entirely different branches of the Turkic language family, respectively the Karluk languages spoken in the Kara-Khanid Khanate{{sfnp|Arik|2008|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3tAqIU0dPsC&pg=PA145 145]}} (such as the Xākānī language described in Mahmud al-Kashgari's Dīwān al-Luġat al-Turk{{harvnb|Clauson|1965|p=57}}) and the Siberian Turkic languages, which include Old Uyghur.{{sfnp|Coene|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7XuMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}}

The Yugur are descended from the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom, Qocho and the Uyghur Khaganate.

Grigory Potanin recorded a glossary of Salar language, Western Yugur language, and Eastern Yugur language in his 1893 Russian language book The Tangut-Tibetan Borderlands of China and Central Mongolia.{{Cite journal |last=Poppe |first=Nicholas |date=1953 |title=Remarks on the Salar Language |url=http://altaica.ru/LIBRARY/POPPE/poppe_salar.pdf |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=16 |issue=3/4 |pages=438–477 |doi=10.2307/2718250 |jstor=2718250 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316172207/http://altaica.ru/LIBRARY/POPPE/poppe_salar.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-16}}{{sfnp|Roos|2000}}{{Cite book |last=Potanin |first=Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=crgQAQAAMAAJ |title=Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886 |date=1893 |publisher=Typ. A. S. Suvoryna |language=ru |script-title=ru:Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886}}{{Cite book |last=Potanin |first=Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1QMyAQAAMAAJ |title=Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886 |date=1893 |publisher=Typ. A. S. Suvoryna |volume=2 |language=ru |script-title=ru:Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886}}{{Cite book |last=Potanin |first=Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PwTAAAAIAAJ |title=Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886 |date=1893 |publisher=Typ. A. S. Suvoryna |language=ru |script-title=ru:Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886}}

References

=Bibliography=

{{refbegin}}

  • {{Cite book |last=Arik |first=Kagan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3tAqIU0dPsC |title=One Thousand Languages: Living, Endangered, and Lost |date=2008 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-25560-9 |editor-last=Austin |editor-first=Peter K. |location=Berkeley |pages=136–153 |chapter=Central, Western, and Northern Asian Languages}}
  • Chén Zōngzhèn & Léi Xuǎnchūn. 1985. Xībù Yùgùyǔ Jiānzhì [Concise grammar of Western Yugur]. Peking.
  • {{Cite journal |last=Clauson |first=Gerard |date=1965 |title=[Review of the book An Eastern Turki-English Dictionary by Gunnar Jarring] |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |publisher=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |issue=1/2 |pages=57 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00123640 |jstor=25202808 |s2cid=163362680}}
  • {{Cite book |last=Coene |first=Frederik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7XuMAgAAQBAJ |title=The Caucasus: An Introduction |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-20302-3 |location=London}}
  • Léi Xuǎnchūn (proofread by Chén Zōngzhèn). 1992. Xībù Yùgù Hàn Cídiǎn [Western Yugur - Chinese Dictionary]. Chéngdu.
  • Malov, S. E. 1957. Jazyk zheltykh ujgurov. Slovar' i grammatika. Alma Ata.
  • Malov, S. E. 1967. Jazyk zheltykh ujgurov. Teksty i perevody. Moscow.
  • {{Cite thesis |last=Roos |first=Martina Erica |title=The Western Yugur (Yellow Uygur) Language: Grammar, Texts, Vocabulary |date=2000 |degree=Doctoral |publisher=Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden |url=http://members.home.nl/marcmarti/yugur/biblio/ROOS_WesternYugurLanguage.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304121456/http://members.home.nl/marcmarti/yugur/biblio/ROOS_WesternYugurLanguage.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-04 |url-status=dead}}
  • Roos, Marti, Hans Nugteren, Zhong Jìnwén. 1999. On some Turkic proverbs of the Western and Eastern Yugur languages. Turkic Languages 3.2: 189–214.
  • Tenishev, È. R. 1976. Stroj saryg-jugurskogo jazyka. Moscow.

{{refend}}

External links

{{incubator|ybe}}

  • [http://horsethatleaps.com/chapter-11 Slide Shows and maps of author Eric Enno Tamm's visit to Lianhua and Hongwansi]
  • [http://members.home.nl/marcmarti/yugur/index.htm "Western Yugur Steppe" – A collection of literature and linguistic information] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120919143754/http://members.home.nl/marcmarti/yugur/index.htm|date=2012-09-19}}
  • The Tangut-Tibetan Borderlands of China and Central Mongolia by Grigory Potanin (Russian)

{{Languages of China}}{{Turkic languages}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Yugur, Western, Language}}

Category:Agglutinative languages

Category:Uyghurs

Category:Siberian Turkic languages

Category:Languages of Gansu

Category:Severely endangered languages

Category:Endangered languages of China

Category:Endangered Turkic languages