Wikipedia:School and university projects/7th Basic Ornithology Course, Pune/Common Myna

The Common Myna is readily identified by the brown body, black hooded head and the bare yellow patch behind the eye. The bill and legs are bright yellow. There is a white patch on the outer primaries and the wing lining on the underside is white. The sexes are similar and birds are usually seen in pairs.{{cite book|author1=Rasmussen, PC |author2=JC Anderton |name-list-style=amp |year=2005|title= Birds of South Asia: The Ripley Guide. Vol 2|publisher=Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions|page=584}}

The Common Myna obeys Gloger's rule in that the birds from northwest India tend to be paler than their darker counterparts in South India.{{cite book |title= Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Volume 5 |last=Ali |first=Salim |author2=Ripley, S. Dillon |year=2001|edition=2 (paperback) |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=India |isbn=0195659384 |page=177-181 }}{{cite book|title=Birds of South Asia - The Ripley Guide (volume 2) |last=Rasmussen|first=Pamela C. |author2=Anderton, John C.|year=2005 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution, Washington & Lynx edicions, Barcelona |location=|isbn=8487334660 |page=584 }}

It is a species of bird native to Asia with its initial home range spanning from Iran, the entire South Asian subcontinent, including Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka; as well as Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Myanmar, to Malaysia, peninsular Thaland, Indo-China and China.{{cite web|url=http://www.oiseaux.net/birds/distribution/common.myna.html |title=Common Myna|accessdate= December 23, 2007}}

The Myna has been introduced in many other parts of the world such as Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, South Africa, and islands in the Indian Ocean (Seychelles, Mauritius, Maldives, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep archipelago and also in islands of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

The distribution range of Common Myna is on the increase to an extent that in 2000 the IUCN Species Survival Commission declared it among the World's 100 worst invasive species. The Myna is one of only three birds in this list of invasive species.

The etymology of the scientific name is as follows :{{cite book |title=Latin names of Indian birds explained |last=Pande |first=Satish |year=2009 |publisher=Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press |location=Mumbai |isbn=9780198066255 |page=417 }}

• Acridotheres : Greek akris, akrodos, a locust; theres, a hunter.
• tristis : Latin tristis, sad, gloomy; Modern Latin tristis, dull-coloured).

The type locality of the nominate race is Pondicherry, (India).

The Common Myna has two subspecies :

• Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linnaeus, 1758). Widespread, including Sri Lanka.
• A. t. melanosternus Legge, 1879. Endemic to Sri Lanka.

The subspecies melanosternus is darker than the nominate subspecies, has half-black and half-white primary coverts and has a larger yellow cheek-patch.

Morphometry is as per Ali & Ripley (2001).

• Body length:23 cms.

File:Common_Myna_with_plastic.JPG

File:Starr_040617-0005_Pennisetum_clandestinum.jpg

The calls includes croaks, squawks, chirps, clicks and whistles, and the bird often fluffs its feathers and bobs its head in singing. The Common Myna screeches warnings to its mate or other birds in cases of predators in proximity or when its about to take off flying.{{cite journal|author=Griffin, Andrea S.|year=2008|title=Social learning in Indian mynahs, Acridotheres tristis: the role of distress calls.|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=75|issue=1|pages=79–89|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.04.008}} Common Mynas are popular as cage birds for their singing and "speaking" abilities. Before sleeping in communal roosts, mynas vocalise in unison which is called as "communal noise".{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |last2=Vaidya |first2=V.G. |year=1989 |title=Diurnal rhythms and seasonal changs in the roosting behaviour of Indian Myna 'Acridotheres tristis'' (Linnaeus) |journal= Proceedings of Indian Academy of Sciences (Animal Science) |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=199-209 |publisher=Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore }}

Common Mynas are believed to pair for life. They breed through much of the year depending on the location, building their nest in a hole in a tree or wall. They breed from sea-level to 3000 m in the Himalayas.

The normal clutch size is 4–6 eggs. The average size of the egg is 30.8 x 21.99 mm. The incuation period is 17 to 18 days and fledging period is 22 to 24 days. The Asian Koel is sometimes brood parasitic on this species.{{cite journal|author=Choudhury A. |year=1998|title= Common Myna feeding a fledgling koel|journal= Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume=95|issue=1|page=115}} Nesting material used by mynas include twigs, roots, tow and rubbish. Mynas have been known to use tissue paper, tin foil and sloughed off snake-skin.

During the breeding season, the daytime activity-time budget of Common Myna in Pune in April to June 1978 has been recorded to comprise the following: nesting activity (42%), scanning the environment (28%), locomotion (12%), feeding (4%), vocalisation (7%) and preening-related activities, interactions and other activities (7%).{{cite journal |author=Mahabal, Anil |year=1991|title=Activity-time budget of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) during the breeding season. |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=96-97 |publisher=Bombay Natural History Society}}

The Common Myna uses the nests of woodpeckers, parakeets, etc. and easily takes to nest boxes; it has been recorded evicting the chicks of previously nesting pairs by holding them in the beak and later sometimes not even using the emptied nest boxes. This aggressive behaviour is considered to contribute to its success as an invasive species.{{cite book |title=Birds of Western Ghats, Kokan and Malabar (including birds of Goa)|last=Pande |first=Satish |author2=Tambe, Saleel |author3=Clement, Francis M |author4=Sant, Niranjan |year=2003 |publisher=Bombay Natural History Society & Oxford University Press |location=Mumbai|isbn=0195668782 |page=312 }}

Like most starlings, the Common Myna is omnivorous. It feeds on insects, arachnids, crustaceans, reptiles, small mammals, seeds, grain and fruits and discarded waste from human habitation. It forages on the ground among grass for insects, and especially for grasshoppers, from which it gets the generic name Acridotheres, "grasshopper hunter". It however feeds on a wide range of insects, mostly picked from the ground.{{cite journal |year=1978|title= A comparative study of the feeding habits of certain species of Indian birds affecting agriculture.|journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume= 75|issue=4|pages=1178–1197|author1=Mathew, DN |author2=Narendran, TC |author3=Zacharias, VJ}} It is a cross-pollinator of flowers such as Salmalia and Erythrina. It walks on the ground with occasional hops and is an opportunistic feeder on the insects disturbed by grazing cattle as well as fired grass fields.

Image:Common Myna- Juvenile crying for food from Adult I IMG 8070.jpg]]

Common Mynas roost communally throughout the year, either in pure or mixed flocks with Jungle Mynas, Rosy Starlings, House Crows, Jungle Crows, Cattle Egrets and Rose-ringed Parakeets and other birds. The roost population can range from less than one hundred to thousands.{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |last2=Bastawade |first2=D.B. |year=1991 |title=Mixed roosting associates of Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis in Pune city, India |journal=Pavo |volume=29 |issue=1 & 2 |pages=23-32 |publisher=Department of Zoolgy, Maharaja Sayajirao Gaikwad University, Vadodara }}{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |last2= |first2= |year=1992 |title=Diurnal intra- and inter-specific assemblages of Indian Mynas |journal=Biovigyanam |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=116-118 |publisher=Maharashtra Association for the Cultivation of Science, Pune}}

The time of arrival of Mynas at the roost starts before and ends just after sunset. The mynas depart before sunrise. The time and timespan of arrival and departure, time taken for final settlement at the roost, duration of communal sleep, flock size and population vary seasonally.{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |last2=Bastawade |first2=D.B.|last3=Vaidya |first3=V.G. |year=1990 |title=Spatial and temporal fluctuations in the population of Common Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) in and around an Indian City |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=392-398|publisher=Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai }}{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |last2= |first2= |year=1993 |title=Seasonal changes in the flocking behaviour of Indian Myna 'Acridotheres tristis'' (Linnaeus) |journal=Biovigyanam |volume=19 |issue=1 & 2 |pages=55-64|publisher=Maharashtra Association for the Cultivation of Science, Pune }}

The function of communal roosting is to synchronise various social activities, avoid predators, exchange information about food sources.{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |last2= |first2= |year=1997 |title=Communal roosting in Common Mynas and its functional significanca |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=342-349|publisher=Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai }}

Communal displays (pre-roosting and post-roosting) comprise of aerial maneuvers which are exhibited in the pre-breeding season (November to March). It is assumed that this behaviour is related to pair formation.{{cite journal |last1=Mahabal |first1=Anil |last2= |first2= |year=1993 |title=Communal display behaviour of Indian Myna 'Acridotheres tristis''(Linnaeus) |journal=Pavo |volume=31 |issue=1&2 |pages=45-54 |publisher=Department of Zoolgy, Maharaja Sayajirao Gaikwad University, Vadodara }}

This abundant passerine is typically found in open woodland, cultivation and around habitation.

Although this is an adaptable species, its population has been decreasing significantly in Singapore and Malaysia (locally called as 'gembala kerbau', literally 'buffalo shepherd') due to competition with its cousin, the introduced Javan Myna.Bird Ecology Study Group, Nature Society (Singapore):. Accessed 25 Oct 2007

Image:Javan and Indian Myna.jpg

The Common Myna thrives in urban and suburban environments; in Canberra, for instance, 110 Common Mynas were released between 1968 and 1971. By 1991, Common Myna population density in Canberra averaged 15 birds per square kilometer.{{cite journal | last = Pell | first = A.S. |author2=C.R. Tidemann | title = The Ecology of the Common Myna in Urban Nature Reserves in the Australian Capital Territory | journal = Emu | volume = 97 | year = 1997 | pages = 141–149 | publisher = Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union | url = http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=MU97018.pdf | doi = 10.1071/MU97018}} Only three years later, a second study found an average population density of 75 birds per square kilometer in the same area.Pell 1997, p.146

The bird likely owes its success in the urban and suburban settings of Sydney and Canberra to its evolutionary origins; having evolved in the open woodlands of India, the Common Myna is pre-adapted to habitats with tall vertical structures and little to no vegetative ground cover,Pell 1997, p.141 features characteristic of city streets and urban nature preserves.

The Common Myna (along with European Starlings, House Sparrows, and feral Rock Doves) is a nuisance to city buildings; its nests block gutters and drainpipes, causing water damage to building exteriors.{{cite journal| last = Bomford | first = M. |author2=Ron Sinclair | title = Australian research on bird pests: impact, management and future directions | journal = Emu | volume = 102 | year = 2002 | pages = 35 | publisher = Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union | url = http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=MU01028.pdf | doi = 10.1071/MU01028}}

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The IUCN declared this myna as one of the only three birds among the world's 100 worst invasive species.Lowe S., Browne M., Boudjelas S. and de Poorter M. (2000). 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species. A selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), a specialist group of the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Auckland. (Other two invasive birds being Red-vented bulbul and European Starling)

It has been introduced widely elsewhere, including adjacent areas in Southeast Asia, Madagascar,{{cite journal|author=Wilme, Lucienne|year=1996|title=Composition and characteristics of bird communities in Madagascar|journal=Biogéographie de Madagascar|pages=349–362|url=http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/colloques2/010008477.pdf|format=PDF}}the Middle East, South Africa, Israel, North America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand and various oceanic islands, including a very prominent population in Hawaii.

The Common Myna is a pest in South Africa, North America, the Middle East, Australia, New Zealand and many Pacific islands. It is particularly problematic in Australia. Several methods have been tried to control the bird's numbers and protect native species.

File:Acridotheres tristis -Sydney, Australia-8.jpg, Australia]]

In Australia, the Common Myna is an invasive pest. They are now often the predominant bird in urban areas all along the East coast. In a 2008 popular vote, the bird was named "The Most Important Pest/Problem" in Australia, also earning the nickname "flying rats" due to their scavenging resembling that of rats.[http://www.abc.net.au/tv/wildwatch/results/award.htm ABC Wildwatch]

The Common Myna was first introduced to Australia in Victoria between 1863 and 1872 into Melbourne’s market gardens to control insects. The bird is likely to have spread to New South Wales (where it is currently most populous) at around the same time, but documentation is uncertain.{{cite journal | doi = 10.1071/MU9780227 | last = Hone | first = J. | title = Introduction and Spread of the Common Myna in New South Wales | journal = Emu | volume = 78 | issue = 4 | year = 1978 | pages = 227| publisher = Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union | url = http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=MU9780227.pdf}} The bird was later introduced to Queensland as a predator ofgrasshoppers and cane beetles; the reasons for its original introduction to Victoria is however, lost in history. Currently, Common Myna populations in Australia are concentrated along the eastern coast around Sydney and its surrounding suburbs, with sparser populations in Victoria and a few isolated communities in Queensland.{{cite journal | doi = 10.1071/MU9960166 | last = Martin | first = W.K. | title = The Current and Potential Distribution of the Common Myna Acridotheres tristis in Australia | journal = Emu | volume = 96 | year = 1996 | pages = 169–170 | publisher = Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union | url = http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=MU9960166.pdf}}

The bird can live and breed in a wide range of temperatures, though it thrives in hotter regions. Self-sustaining populations of Common Myna have been found in regions of mean warmest month temperature no less than 23.2°C and mean coldest month temperature no less than -0.4°C, implying that the Common Myna could potentially spread from Sydney northward along the eastern coast to Cairns and westward along the southern coast to Adelaide (though not toTasmania, Darwin, or across the Great Dividing Range to the arid interior regions).Martin 1996, pp.169–170

In South Africa where it escaped into the wild in 1902, it has become very common and its distribution is greater where human populations are greater or where there is more human disturbance.{{cite journal|journal=South African Journal of Science|volume=103|pages=465–473|year=2007|title=The distribution and spread of the invasive alien Common Myna, Acridotheres tristis L. (Aves: Sturnidae), in southern Africa|author=Derick S. Peacock, Berndt J. van Rensburg and Mark P. Robertson}} The bird is also notorious for being a pest, kicking other birds out of their nests and killing their young due to the Myna's strong territorial instinct, in South Africa it is considered somewhat of a major pest and disturbance of the natural habitat, so they are frequently shot and killed by people in urban environments and farmers alike.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}

Image:Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis)- Immature at nest in Kolkata I IMG 7877.jpg

The Common Myna is a hollow-nesting species; that is, it nests and breeds in protected hollows found either naturally in trees or artificially on buildings (for example, recessed windowsills or low eaves).Bomford 2002, p.34 Compared to native hollow-nesting species, the Common Myna is extremely aggressive, and breeding males will actively defend areas ranging up to 0.83 hectares in size (though males in densely populated urban settings tend to only defend the area immediately surrounding their nests).Pell 1997, p.148

This aggressiveness has enabled the Common Myna to displace many breeding pairs of native hollow-nesters, thereby reducing their reproductive success. In particular, the reproduction rates of native hollow-nesting parrots in thebush land of eastern Australia have been reduced by up to 80% by the Common Myna (which was even able to out-compete another aggressive introduced species in the area, the European Starling).

The Common Myna is also known to maintain up to two roosts simultaneously; a temporary summer roost close to a breeding site (where the entire local male community sleeps during the summer, the period of highest aggression), and a permanent all-year roost where the female broods and incubates overnight. Both male and female Common Mynas will fiercely protect both roosts at all times, leading to further exclusion of native birds.

File:Myna-face-closeup.jpg

The Common Myna (which feeds mostly on ground-dwelling insects, tropical fruits such as grapes plums and someberries and, in urban areas, discarded human food)Pell 1997, p.147 poses a serious threat to Australian blueberry crops, though its main threat is to native bird species.Bomford 2002, p.30

In Hawaii, where the Common Myna was introduced to control pest armyworms and cutworms in sugarcane crops, the bird has helped to spread the robust Lantana camara weed across the islands’ opengrasslands.{{cite journal | last = Pimentel | first = D. |author2=Lori Lach |author3=Rodolfo Zuniga |author4=Doug Morrison | title = Environmental and Economic Costs of Nonindigenous Species in the United States | journal = BioScience | volume = 50 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–56 | date = January 2000 | publisher = American Institute of Biological Sciences | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Jan99/species_costs.html | doi = 10.1641/0006-3568(2000)050[0053:EAECON]2.3.CO;2}}

The Common Myna widely appears under the name saarika in Indian culture from Vedic times, featuring both in classical Indian literature (Sanskrit) as well as in Prakrit Buddhist texts. The Sankrit term shuksarika, which refers to the Rose-ringed Parakeet (shuk) and the Common Myna (saarika), is used to indicate a pair or a couple, probably because both birds are vocal and capable of mimicking human sound.Pande, Dr Suruchi. (2007). Some reflections on birds in Sanskrit literature. (A Thesis submitted for the degree of Vidyavachaspati (PhD) (Sanskrit) awarded from Shri Balmukund Lohiya Centre of Sanskrit and Indological Studies, Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth, Pune).

In Sanskrit literature, the Common Myna has a number of names, most are descriptive of the appearance or behaviour of the bird. In addition to saarika, the names for the Common Myna include kalahapriya, which means "one who is fond of arguments" referring to the quarrelsome nature of this bird; chitranetra, meaning "picturesque eyes"; peetanetra (one with yellow eyes) and peetapaad (one with yellow legs).{{cite book |title=Birds in Sanskrit Literature |last=Dave |first=K. N.|edition=revised |year=2005 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Private Ltd |location=Delhi |isbn=8120818423 |page=468 }}

{{Reflist|2}}

• {{cite book | last = Feare | first = Chris |author2=Craig, Adrian | year = 1999 | title = Starlings and Mynas |publisher = Princeton University Press | isbn = 0-7136-3961-X}}
• Grimmett, Inskipp and Inskipp, Birds of India {{ISBN|0-691-04910-6}}
• Pell, A.S. & Tidemann, C.R. (1997) "The impact of two exotic hollow-nesting birds on two native parrots in savannah and woodland in eastern Australia", Biological Conservation, 79, 145-153. A study showing native birds being excluded from up to 80% of nesting sites in Canberra, Australia.

{{Sister project links|wikt=no|b=no|q=no|s=no|commons=Acridotheres tristis|n=no|v=no|species=Acridotheres tristis}}

• [http://sres-associated.anu.edu.au/myna/index.html ANU Indian Common Myna page] Explains why Mynas are a problem and what can be done to control them.
• [http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/common-myna-acridotheres-tristis Common Myna videos, photos & sounds] on the Internet Bird Collection
• [http://www.indianmyna.org/documents/Indian_Myna_Handbookl.pdf Indian Myna Control Handbook]
• {{ITIS | id=554025 | taxon=Acridotheres tristis | accessdate=23 February 2009 }}
• [http://srilankawilderness.blogspot.com/2010/05/common-mynaacridotheres-tristis.html Common Myna video] on Wild Sri Lanka