Za'atar

The linguistic origins of za'atar trace back to ancient Semitic languages. Assyriologist Ignace Gelb identified the Akkadian word {{lang|akk-Latn|sarsar}} as potentially referring to a spice plant, which may represent an early cognate. This term appears related to the Syriac {{lang|syc-Latn|satre}} ({{lang|syc|ܨܬܪܐ}}) and Arabic {{lang|ar-Latn|za'atar}} ({{lang|ar|زعتر}}, alternatively spelled {{lang|ar-Latn|sa'tar}}, {{lang|ar|صعتر}}). Scholars suggest these terms may have influenced the Latin Satureia, referring to plants in the {{lang|la|Satureja}} genus.Gelb, 1956, p. 74.

The species Satureja thymbra demonstrates this linguistic connection through its various vernacular names across cultures: known as "Persian za'atar" in some contexts, while Arabic sources refer to it as {{lang|ar-Latn|za'atar rumi}} (Roman hyssop) and {{lang|ar-Latn|za'atar franji}} (European hyssop).Allen, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fniv9ShKmxcC&dq=satureia+za%27atar&pg=PA230 p. 230].Faculté de Médecine de Paris, 1818, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zmx4aCQVevkC&dq=satureia+capitata+artemesia&pg=PR178 p. clxxviii]. In Modern Hebrew, the term {{lang|he-Latn|za'atar}} ({{lang|he|זעתר}}) was adopted as a direct loanword from Arabic.

File:Origanum_syriacum,_March_2015.jpg, in springtime]]

Several aromatic plants from the Lamiaceae family are identified as za'atar across the Middle East. The primary species include Origanum syriacum, known regionally as Bible hyssop, Arabic oregano, or wild marjoram. This plant, along with its close relatives Origanum vulgare (European oregano) and Origanum majorana (sweet marjoram), forms the botanical basis for za'atar preparations, though these species are frequently confused due to their similar characteristics.{{cite news |author=Philologos |date=May 19, 2006 |title=Za'atar: On Language |url=http://forward.com/articles/1326/zaeatar/ |access-date=September 4, 2014 |newspaper=The Jewish Daily Forward}}Seidemann, 2005, p. 365.

The designation "za'atar" extends to other aromatic plants, including Thymbra spicata, a Levantine native cultivated in North America by Lebanese and Syrian immigrant communities since the 1940s.Gardner, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=idS5JjtHCKAC&dq=%22thymbra+spicata%22+za%27atar&pg=PA326 p. 326]. Another significant variety, Thymus capitatus (also classified as Satureja capitata), grows throughout the Mediterranean Middle East and holds particular cultural significance in Palestine, where thyme remains deeply tied to local culinary traditions.Basan, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-7wnpIi3VRwC&dq=zaatar+wild&pg=PA196 p. 196].The Poetry Society, 2006, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGbLc4erpoAC&dq=zaatar+salad&pg=PA5 p. 5].

Regional terminology sometimes includes Origanum vulgare under the name "wild za'atar" ({{langx|ar|زعتر بري}}), though it is more commonly known internationally as European oregano or wild marjoram. This species thrives across Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel, and Palestine, where it contributes to distinctive local variations of the spice mixture.{{cite web |title=Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database: Sorting Origanum names |url=http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Origanum.html |access-date=2009-08-28 |publisher=Michel H. Porcher, University of Melbourne}}

The use of za'atar plants dates back to ancient civilizations, with archaeological and textual evidence indicating its importance in multiple cultures. In Ancient Egypt, botanical remains identified as Thymbra spicata – one of the species used in modern za'atar preparations – were discovered in the tomb of Tutankhamun (14th century BCE). The Greek physician Dioscorides later recorded that this species was known to the Egyptians as saem, though the precise ancient Egyptian name for za'atar remains uncertain.Manniche, 1989, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ineypt6xGl4C&dq=za%27tar+salt&pg=PA150 p. 150].

Classical sources further document the plant's significance. Pliny the Elder's Natural History (1st century CE) mentions maron as a component of Regale Unguentum ("Royal Perfume"), a luxurious fragrance used by Parthian rulers. While the exact identification of maron remains debated, scholars have suggested possible connections to za'atar-related species.This is usually rendered as English marum (defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as Thymus mastichina or Teucrium marum), but Dalby interprets this as Origanum syriacum and translates it as zatar; Dalby, 2000, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ga-BjztOQd8C&dq=zaatar+recipes+medieval&pg=PA189 p. 189].Dalby, 2002, [https://books.google.com/books?id=7IHcZ21dyjwC&q=zatar+&pg=PA108 p. 108].

Jewish tradition has consistently associated za'atar with biblical references. Prominent scholars including Saadia Gaon (10th century), Abraham ibn Ezra (12th century), Maimonides (12th–13th century), and Obadiah of Bertinoro (15th–16th century) identified the ezov mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Exodus 12:22 and other passages) with the Arabic za'atar. This connection appears in both Rabbinic and Samaritan traditions, as evidenced by the consistent identification across different Hebrew and Samaritan scriptural versions.Isser, 1976, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aM0UAAAAIAAJ&dq=Maimonides+sa%27tar&pg=PA99 p. 99].

File:Red Zaatar.jpg berries]]

Za'atar refers both to wild herbs of the Origanum and Thymbra genera and to the prepared spice mixture that has become a culinary staple across the Middle East. Traditionally, the condiment is made by grinding Origanum syriacum and mixing it with roasted sesame seeds and salt, often enhanced with sumac berries for tartness. Where Origanum syriacum is unavailable, cooks substitute thyme, oregano, marjoram, or blends thereof, demonstrating the adaptability of this ancient seasoning. This practice of creating household variations throughout the Fertile Crescent, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula has contributed to Western observers' challenges in precisely identifying the spice components referenced in historical texts,Heine, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=1jE5k5qeKbgC&dq=zatar+spices+perfumes&pg=PA62 p. 69]. with some potential early mentions found in the Yale Babylonian Collection though lacking definitive attribution.Kaufman, 2006, [https://books.google.com/books?id=IFiIg7elnwIC&dq=za%27tar+spice&pg=PA29 p. 29].

Regional variations showcase za'atar's diversity. Lebanese versions are distinguished by their dark red hue from generous amounts of sumac, sometimes accented with orange zest, while Palestinian blends often incorporate caraway seeds for distinctive flavor notes.{{cite news |date=November 21, 2007 |title=Recipes of the West Bank Olive Harvest |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=16530921 |access-date=2008-03-14 |publisher=NPR}}Nabhan, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=MEQ45L3ZcegC&dq=zaatar+food&pg=PA89 p. 88–89]. Commercial preparations have adapted to modern markets, sometimes using wheat flour as a bulking agent or adding spices like savory, cumin, coriander, and fennel seed for complexity.Roberts, 2000, [https://books.google.com/books?id=YdWEcMjKVBYC&dq=za%27atar+culinary&pg=PA83 p. 84]. Like other traditional Arab spice blends such as baharat (the Egyptian mixture of cinnamon, cloves, and allspice), za'atar is valued not only for its flavor but also for its high antioxidant content.

File:Israeli zaatar manakeesh.jpg]]

Za'atar enjoys widespread use across Middle Eastern cuisine, both as a dried spice blend and fresh herb. The traditional preparation involves sun-drying the herb mixture before combining it with salt, toasted sesame seeds, and tart sumac.Swedenburg, 2003, [https://books.google.com/books?id=q7RTdcvtO2sC&dq=zatar+herb&pg=PA59 p. 59]. This versatile seasoning appears in numerous culinary applications, from simple daily fare to more elaborate dishes.

One of the most iconic uses is in baked goods, particularly manakish bi zaatar – flatbreads topped with a paste of za'atar and olive oil before baking.Carter et al., 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=EskzgI-229IC&dq=zaatar+cuisine&pg=PA68 p. 68]. Similarly, ka'ak, the soft sesame bread popular throughout the eastern Mediterranean, is frequently served with za'atar either as a dipping accompaniment or as a filling.{{cite news |author=Jacki Lyden |date=March 5, 2005 |title=Lebanese Writers Offer Alternate Views of Beirut |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4523229 |access-date=September 4, 2014 |work=Weekend Edition Saturday |publisher=NPR}}{{cite news |author=Joan Nathan |date=November 12, 2008 |title=A Short History of the Bagel |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/life/food/2008/11/a_short_history_of_the_bagel.html |access-date=September 4, 2014 |publisher=Slate}}Cheshin et al., 2001, [https://books.google.com/books?id=RO0tafb62oEC&dq=jerusalem+zaatar+street&pg=PA14 p. 14]. The combination of za'atar with olive oil creates za'atar-wu-zayt (called zeit ou za'atar in some regions), a creamy spread commonly enjoyed with pita bread.

Beyond breads, za'atar seasons a variety of dishes. It enhances grilled meats and roasted vegetables, adds depth to hummus, and complements dairy products like labneh, the thick strained yogurt cheese.{{cite news |author=Joan Nathan |date=November 9, 1996 |title=Diversity in the dining room helps ring in Israel's new year |url=http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id=1996_1364906 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231225452/http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id=1996_1364906 |archive-date=December 31, 2008 |access-date=2008-03-09 |newspaper=Houston Chronicle}}Marin and Deguilhem, 2002, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrglky5_u1sC&dq=zatar+herb&pg=PA69 p. 69]. In Lebanon, this pairing reaches its zenith with shanklish – labneh balls cured and rolled in za'atar for a flavorful coating.Savill and O'Meara, 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SghbwyzUskwC&dq=zaatar+balls&pg=PA273 p. 273]. Fresh za'atar leaves feature prominently in Levantine salads, particularly salatet al-zaatar al-akhdar, which combines the herb with onions, garlic, lemon, and olive oil.

The herb's versatility extends to stuffed pastries like börek and even beverages. In Oman, za'atar transforms into an aromatic herbal tea when steeped in hot water, showcasing its range beyond savory applications.Marshall Cavendish, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=bl36oP9be8cC&dq=zatar+herb&pg=PA309 p. 309]. These diverse uses reflect za'atar's integral role in the region's food culture, from everyday breakfasts in Jordan, Palestine, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Lebanon to specialty dishes across the Arab world.Ray, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=9zDWJaYSgdAC&dq=zaatar+history+food&pg=PA154 p. 154].

Za'atar has held a significant place in traditional medicine across Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cultures for centuries. Historical records document its therapeutic applications, with medieval Arabic medical texts particularly emphasizing its value. The 13th-century pharmacological work A-lma'tmd fi al-a'douiah al-mfrdah (The approved book in single drugs), attributed to physician al-Turkomani (1222–1297), classifies za'atar as both a culinary and medicinal herb, specifically noting its efficacy in treating gastrointestinal disorders. The text describes its ability to soothe abdominal pain, strengthen intestinal membranes, and improve digestion.{{Cite journal |last1=Khalil |first1=Mohamad |last2=Rita Caponio |first2=Giusy |last3=Diab |first3=Farah |last4=Shanmugam |first4=Harshitha |last5=Di Ciaula |first5=Agostino |last6=Khalifeh |first6=Hala |last7=Vergani |first7=Laura |last8=Calasso |first8=Maria |last9=De Angelis |first9=Maria |last10=Portincasa |first10=Piero |date=2022-03-01 |title=Unraveling the beneficial effects of herbal Lebanese mixture "Za'atar". History, studies, and properties of a potential healthy food ingredient |journal=Journal of Functional Foods |volume=90 |page=104993 |doi=10.1016/j.jff.2022.104993 |issn=1756-4646 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=11586/409774}}

This medicinal reputation extended across cultural traditions. The renowned Jewish philosopher-physician Maimonides (1135–1204), who practiced medicine in Al-Andalus, Morocco, and Egypt, recommended za'atar for its health-promoting properties in his medical writings.{{Cite news |last1=Inskeep |first1=Steve |last2=Godoy |first2=Maria |date=June 11, 2013 |title=Za'atar: A Spice Mix With Biblical Roots And Brain Food Reputation |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2013/06/11/190672515/zaatar-a-spice-mix-with-biblical-roots-and-brain-food-reputation |access-date=2020-08-01 |work=NPR News |language=en}}Marks, 2010, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ojc4Uker_V0C&dq=Maimonides+za%27atar&pg=PA630 p. 630] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101122627/https://books.google.com/books?id=ojc4Uker_V0C&pg=PA630&dq=Maimonides+za%27atar&hl=en&ei=0gKrTbGiMMHogQf3_fHzBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CEUQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=Maimonides%20za'atar&f=false|date=2022-11-01}} Some ancient Mediterranean cultures believed it could combat internal parasites.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}}

In Palestinian folk medicine, za'atar maintains a cognitive association, with traditional practice encouraging children to consume it at breakfast to enhance mental alertness before school.

File:Flrs 005.jpg]]

Za'atar holds deep cultural meaning across the Levant, serving as both a culinary staple and a symbol of heritage. The herb has been an integral part of Arab cuisine since medieval times, used alongside other spiced salts in daily cooking.Basan, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-7wnpIi3VRwC&dq=zaatar+cuisine&pg=PA27 p. 27].{{cite journal |author=Dorothea Bedigian |date=September 2004 |title=History and Lore of Sesame in Southwest Asia |journal=Economic Botany |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=330–353 |doi=10.1663/0013-0001(2004)058[0330:HALOSI]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0013-0001 |s2cid=85600193}} For Palestinians in particular, za'atar carries special significance as a cultural marker – its presence in a household often signifies a Palestinian home, while for refugees, it serves as a tangible connection to their villages and regions of origin.Lien and Nerlich, 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=7RZSJAaNIHMC&dq=za%27atar+culinary&pg=PA149 pp. 148–149.]

The plant's significance has evolved in modern political contexts. While traditionally harvested by Arab communities and used in Arab bakeries, za'atar has been widely adopted into Israeli cuisine since the mid-20th century.{{cite web |date=1998-07-01 |title=Hyssop: Adding Spice to Life in the Middle East |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Israel%20beyond%20the%20conflict/Hyssop-%20Adding%20Spice%20to%20Life%20in%20the%20Middle%20East |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040830053226/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Israel%20beyond%20the%20conflict/Hyssop-%20Adding%20Spice%20to%20Life%20in%20the%20Middle%20East |archive-date=August 30, 2004 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs}} Some Israeli producers market za'atar products using terms like "hyssop" or "holy hyssop," though true Hyssopus officinalis does not grow wild in the region, unlike the common Origanum vulgare.

Conservation efforts have created complex legal situations. In 1977, Israel declared Origanum syriacum a protected species due to overharvesting concerns, with stricter limits imposed in 2005 carrying potential fines for violations.{{cite news |author=Daniel Rogov |date=November 30, 2001 |title=A mixup over a biblical herb |url=http://www.haaretz.com/culture/food-wine/a-mixup-over-a-biblical-herb-1.76099 |access-date=2008-03-14 |newspaper=Haaretz}} While intended as environmental protection, these measures have drawn criticism from some Arab citizens who view them as restricting traditional foraging practices, with some characterizing the laws as "almost anti-Arab".{{cite news |last=Vered |first=Ronit |date=March 13, 2008 |title=Forbidden Fruit |url=http://www.haaretz.com/forbidden-fruit-1.241284 |access-date=September 4, 2014 |newspaper=Haaretz}} The regulations extended to the West Bank, where in 2006 there were reported instances of za'atar plants being confiscated at Israeli checkpoints.{{cite news |date=January 18, 2007 |title=The Palestinians: It is the little things that make an occupation |url=http://www.linktv.org/sitecontent/explore.org/research/middleeast/Its%20the%20little%20things%20that%20make%20an%20occupation.pdf |newspaper=The Economist |page=64}}

The use of za'atar spans the Levant, from Lebanon and Syria to Jordan, Palestine, and Israel, and extends across the Arab world to Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia.{{cite news |author=Rozanne Gold |date=July 20, 1994 |title=A Region's Tastes Commingle in Israel |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/20/garden/a-region-s-tastes-commingle-in-israel.html |access-date=September 4, 2014 |newspaper=The New York Times}}{{cite news |author=Jennifer Bain |date=August 15, 2007 |title=The zing of za'atar |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/2007/08/15/the_zing_of_zaatar.html |access-date=September 4, 2014 |newspaper=Toronto Star}}{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_vDAu6UoSwC&pg=PA63 |title=Israel and the Palestinian Territories |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-86450-277-0 |page=63}}

{{Notelist}}

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{{refend}}

• {{cite journal |journal=Economic Botany |date=April–June 1988 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=232–241 |title=Identification of biblical hyssop and origin of the traditional use of oregano-group herbs in the Mediterranean region |author=Alexander Fleisher |author2=Zhenia Fleisher |doi=10.1007/bf02858924|bibcode=1988EcBot..42..232F |s2cid=45220405 }}

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