aromatherapy

Oils and the belief that they had healing properties, along with other beliefs of the time, are described by Dioscorides in his De Materia Medica, written in the 1st century A.D.{{cite book |editor1-last=Gunther |editor1-first=R.T. |year=1959 |title=The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides |first1=Pedanius |last1=Dioscorides |author-link1=Pedanius Dioscorides |first2=John (trans.) |last2=Goodyer |location=New York |publisher=Hafner Publishing|page=34|oclc=3570794}} Distilled cedarwood oil was used by the ancient Egyptians, and the process of distilling essential oils like rose essence was refined by the 11th century Persian scholar Ibn Sina. Hildegard of Bingen used distilled lavender oil for medicinal treatments in the 12th century, and by the 15th century, oils were commonly distilled from various plant sources.{{cite book|title=Complementary Medicine for Veterinary Technicians and Nurses|page=204|year=2011|last=Scanlan|first=Nancy|isbn=978-0470958896|publisher=Wiley}}

In the era of modern medicine, the name "aromatherapy" first appeared in print in 1937 in a French book on the subject: {{Lang|fr|Aromathérapie: Les Huiles Essentielles, Hormones Végétales}} by René-Maurice Gattefossé, a chemist. An English version was published in 1993.{{cite book |last1=Gattefossé |first1=R.-M. |last2=Tisserand |first2=R. |year=1993 |title=Gattefossé's aromatherapy |location=Saffron Walden |publisher=C.W. Daniel |isbn=0-85207-236-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/gattefossesaroma00rene }}{{page needed|date=February 2013}}

Jean Valnet, a French surgeon, pioneered the supposed medicinal uses of essential oils, which he used as antiseptics in the treatment of wounded soldiers during World War II.{{cite book |last1=Valnet |first1=J. |last2=Tisserand |first2=R. |year=1990 |title=The practice of aromatherapy: A classic compendium of plant medicines & their healing properties |location=Rochester, VT |publisher=Healing Arts Press |isbn=0-89281-398-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/practiceofaromat00valn_0 }}{{page needed|date=February 2013}}

Aromatherapy products, and essential oils in particular, may be regulated differently depending on their intended use. Products that are marketed with a therapeutic use in the US are regulated by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA); products with a cosmetic use must meet safety requirements, regardless of their source. The US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) regulates any aromatherapy advertising claims.

There are no standards for determining the quality of essential oils in the United States; while the term "therapeutic grade" is in use, it does not have a regulatory meaning.{{cite web | title=The Quality of Essential Oils | website=New York Institute of Aromatic Studies | date=2013-12-01 | url=https://aromaticstudies.com/the-quality-of-essential-oils/ | ref={{sfnref | New York Institute of Aromatic Studies | 2013}} | access-date=2020-03-16}}

Analysis using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry has been used to identify bioactive compounds in essential oils.{{cite journal | last1=Song | first1=Shen | last2=Yao | first2=Wei-Feng | last3=Cui | first3=Xiao-bin | last4=Liu | first4=Xiao | last5=Qiu | first5=Rong-Li | title=Spectrum-effect relationship analysis by binary chromatographic fingerprint to identify components responsible for the antibacterial activity of the essential oil from Curcumae wenyujin | journal=International Journal of Food Properties | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=21 | issue=1 | year=2018 | issn=1094-2912 | doi=10.1080/10942912.2018.1453836 | pages=546–556 | doi-access=free }} These techniques are able to measure the levels of components to a few parts per billion.{{cite book |last=Adams |first=Robert P. |date=2007 |title=Identification of Essential Oil Components by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry}} This does not make it possible to determine whether each component is natural or whether a poor oil has been "improved" by the addition of synthetic aromachemicals, but the latter is often signalled by the minor impurities present.

There is no clinical evidence that aromatherapy can prevent or cure any disease,{{cite web |last1=Barrett |first1=S |title=Aromatherapy: Making Dollars out of Scents |url=http://www.srmhp.org/archives/aromatherapy.html |access-date=21 February 2013 |work=Science & Pseudoscience Review in Mental Health |publisher=Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice}} although it may be useful for managing symptoms.{{cite journal |vauthors=Lakhan SE, Sheafer H, Tepper D |date=2016 |title=The Effectiveness of Aromatherapy in Reducing Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Pain Research and Treatment |volume=2016 |page=13 |doi=10.1155/2016/8158693 |pmc=5192342 |pmid=28070420 |doi-access=free}}

Evidence for the efficacy of aromatherapy in treating medical conditions is poor, with a particular lack of studies employing rigorous methodology. In 2015, the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance; aromatherapy was one of 17 therapies evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found.{{cite web |author=Baggoley C |year=2015 |title=Review of the Australian Government Rebate on Natural Therapies for Private Health Insurance |url=http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/0E9129B3574FCA53CA257BF0001ACD11/$File/Natural%20Therapies%20Overview%20Report%20Final%20with%20copyright%2011%20March.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160626024750/http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/0E9129B3574FCA53CA257BF0001ACD11/$File/Natural%20Therapies%20Overview%20Report%20Final%20with%20copyright%2011%20March.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2016 |access-date=12 December 2015 |publisher=Australian Government – Department of Health}}

• {{lay source|template=cite web|author=Gavura, S.|date=19 November 2015|title=Australian review finds no benefit to 17 natural therapies|url=https://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/australian-review-finds-no-benefit-to-17-natural-therapies|website=Science-Based Medicine}}

Several systematic reviews have studied the clinical effectiveness of aromatherapy in respect to pain management in labor,{{cite journal |vauthors=Smith CA, Collins CT, Crowther CA |title=Aromatherapy for pain management in labour |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=7 |pages=CD009215 |date=2011 |pmid=21735438 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009215 }} the treatment of post-operative nausea and vomiting, managing challenging behaviors in people suffering from dementia,{{Cite journal|last1=Ball|first1=Emily L.|last2=Owen-Booth|first2=Bethan|last3=Gray|first3=Amy|last4=Shenkin|first4=Susan D.|last5=Hewitt|first5=Jonathan|last6=McCleery|first6=Jenny|date=19 August 2020|title=Aromatherapy for dementia|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2020|issue=8 |page=CD003150|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003150.pub3|issn=1469-493X|pmc=7437395|pmid=32813272}} and symptom relief in cancer.{{cite journal |vauthors=Shin ES, Seo KH, Lee SH, Jang JE, Jung YM, Kim MJ, Yeon JY |title=Massage with or without aromatherapy for symptom relief in people with cancer |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=6 |page=CD009873 |date=2016 |volume=2016 |pmid=27258432 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009873.pub3 |pmc=10406396 }}

According to the US National Cancer Institute, no studies of aromatherapy in cancer treatment have been published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. Results are mixed for other studies. Some showed improved sleep,{{cite journal | last=Her | first=Jihoo | last2=Cho | first2=Mi-Kyoung | title=Effect of aromatherapy on sleep quality of adults and elderly people: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis | journal=Complementary Therapies in Medicine | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=60 | year=2021 | issn=0965-2299 | doi=10.1016/j.ctim.2021.102739 | page=102739 |pmid=34166869| doi-access=free }} anxiety, mood, nausea, and pain, while others showed no change in symptoms.{{cite web |last1=PDQ |title=Aromatherapy With Essential Oils |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/patient/aromatherapy-pdq?redirect=true |website=National Cancer Institute |date=9 March 2007 }}

{{further|Alternative medicine#Criticism, legitimacy and effects}}

Aromatherapy carries several risks of adverse effects; combined with the lack of evidence of its therapeutic benefit, the practice is of questionable worth.{{cite journal |vauthors=Posadzki P, Alotaibi A, Ernst E |title=Adverse effects of aromatherapy: a systematic review of case reports and case series |journal=Int J Risk Saf Med |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=147–161 |date=2012 |pmid=22936057 |doi=10.3233/JRS-2012-0568}}

Many studies have explored the concerns that essential oils are highly concentrated and can irritate the skin when used in undiluted form, often referred to as neat application.{{cite journal |last1=Manion, Widder |first1=Chelsea, Rebecca |title=Essentials of essential oils |journal=American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy |date=May 2017 |volume=74 |issue= 9|pages=e153–e162 |doi=10.2146/ajhp151043 |pmid=28438819 }}{{cite book |first1=J |last1=Grassman |first2=E F |last2=Elstner |chapter=Essential Oils |title=Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition |edition=2nd |editor1-first=Benjamin |editor1-last=Caballero |editor2-first=Luiz C |editor2-last=Trugo |editor3-first=Paul M |editor3-last=Finglas |publisher=Academic Press |year=1973 |isbn=0-12-227055-X}}{{page needed|date=February 2013}} Therefore, they are normally diluted with a carrier oil for topical application such as jojoba oil, olive oil, sweet almond oil or coconut oil. Phototoxic reactions may occur with many cold-pressed citrus peel oils such as lemon or lime.{{cite journal |pmid=16389350 |year=2000 |last1=Cather |first1=JC |last2=MacKnet |first2=MR |last3=Menter |first3=MA |title=Hyperpigmented macules and streaks |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=405–406 |pmc=1312240 |journal=Proceedings |publisher=Baylor University Medical Center|doi=10.1080/08998280.2000.11927714 }}

Many essential oils have chemical components that are sensitisers (meaning that they will, after several uses, cause reactions on the skin and more so in the rest of the body). All cosmetic products and ingredients must meet the same safety requirements, regardless of their source. Chemical composition of essential oils could be affected by herbicides if the original plants are cultivated versus wild-harvested.{{cite journal |doi=10.1071/AP99036 |year=1999|title=Investigations into the use of flame and the herbicide, paraquat, to control peppermint rust in north-east Victoria, Australia |last1=Edwards |first1=J |last2=Bienvenu |first2=FE | journal=Australasian Plant Pathology |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=212|s2cid=36366606}}{{Cite web |last = Adamovic |first = DS |title = Variability of herbicide efficiency and their effect upon yield and quality of peppermint (Mentha X Piperital L.) | url= http://www.actahort.org/books/249/249_8.htm |access-date = 6 June 2009}} Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, with cats being particularly prone.{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/104063879801000223 |title=Australian Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia) Oil Poisoning in Three Purebred Cats |year=1998 |last1=Bischoff |first1=K |last2=Guale |first2=F |journal=Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=208–210 |pmid=9576358|doi-access=free }}

Most oils can be toxic to humans as well.{{cite web |last1=American College of Healthcare Sciences |title=Essential Oil |url=http://info.achs.edu/blog/aromatherapy-safety-basics |website=American College of Healthcare Sciences |date=20 April 2017 |publisher=Accredited Online Holistic Health College |access-date=13 April 2019}} A report on three different cases documented gynecomastia in prepubertal boys who were exposed to topical lavender and tea tree oils.{{cite journal |vauthors=Henley DV, Lipson N, Korach KS, Bloch CA |title=Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=356 |issue=5 |pages=479–485 |date=2007 |pmid=17267908 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa064725 |doi-access=free }} The Aromatherapy Trade Council of the UK issued a rebuttal.{{cite web|url=http://www.a-t-c.org.uk/pages/index.cfm?FuseAction=ShowPage&sec=6&page=189|title=Lavender & Tea Tree Oil Rebuttle (sic)|access-date=3 October 2010|archive-date=13 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313084655/http://www.a-t-c.org.uk/pages/index.cfm?FuseAction=ShowPage&sec=6&page=189|url-status=dead}}

Another article published by a different research group also documented three cases of gynecomastia in prepubertal boys who were exposed to topical lavender oil.{{cite journal |vauthors=Diaz A, Luque L, Badar Z, Kornic S, Danon M |title=Prepubertal gynecomastia and chronic lavender exposure: report of three cases |journal=J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=103–107 |date=2016 |pmid=26353172 |doi=10.1515/jpem-2015-0248 |s2cid=19454282 }} Persistent exposure to lavender products may be associated with premature breast development in girls and "that chemicals in lavender oil and tea tree oil are potential endocrine disruptors with varying effects on receptors for two hormones – estrogen and androgen".{{Cite web |url=https://factor.niehs.nih.gov/2019/9/feature/3-feature-lavender/ |title=Lavender oil linked to early breast growth in girls |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) |last=Weaver |first=Janelle |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407215103/https://factor.niehs.nih.gov/2019/9/feature/3-feature-lavender/ |archive-date=2022-04-07 |url-status=live |year=2019 |format= |quote=Persistent exposure to lavender products is associated with premature breast development in girls, according to new research by NIEHS scientists. The findings also reveal that chemicals in lavender oil and tea tree oil are potential endocrine disruptors with varying effects on receptors for two hormones – estrogen and androgen (see sidebar). The study was published Aug. 8 in the Endocrine Society's Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism.}}

Essential oils can be toxic when ingested or absorbed internally. Doses as low as 2 ml have been reported to cause clinically significant symptoms and severe poisoning can occur after ingestion of as little as 4 ml.{{cite web|url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/pim031.htm#SectionTitle:7.2%20%20Toxicity |title=Eucalyptus oil |publisher=International Programme on Chemical Safety (UPCS)}} A few reported cases of toxic reactions like liver damage and seizures have occurred after ingestion of sage, hyssop, thuja and cedar oils.{{cite journal |doi=10.3109/15563658108990357 |title=Toxicity of Some Essential Plant Oils. Clinical and Experimental Study |year=1981 |last1=Millet |first1=Y |last2=Jouglard |first2=J |last3=Steinmetz |first3=MD |last4=Tognetti |first4=P |last5=Joanny |first5=P |last6=Arditti |first6=J |journal=Clinical Toxicology |volume=18 |issue=12 |pages=1485–1498 |pmid=7333081}} Accidental ingestion may happen when oils are not kept out of reach of children. As with any bioactive substance, an essential oil that may be safe for the general public could still pose hazards for pregnant and lactating people.{{Cite journal|last1=Dw|first1=Sibbritt|last2=Cj|first2=Catling|last3=J|first3=Adams|last4=Aj|first4=Shaw|last5=Cs|first5=Homer|date=March 2014 |title=The Self-Prescribed Use of Aromatherapy Oils by Pregnant Women|journal=Women and Birth|volume=27|issue=1|pages=41–45|doi=10.1016/j.wombi.2013.09.005|language=en|pmid=24670414|hdl=10453/43623|hdl-access=free}}

Oils both ingested and applied to the skin can potentially have negative interactions with conventional medicine. For example, the topical use of methyl salicylate–heavy oils like wintergreen may cause bleeding in users taking the anticoagulant warfarin.

In late 2021, an aromatherapy spray was recalled after it was found to be contaminated with Burkholderia pseudomallei, the bacterial agent that causes melioidosis, which led to four cases of the disease and two deaths.{{cite web|title=Aromatherapy spray recalled in U.S. following rare tropical disease deaths | url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/health/aromatherapy-spray-recall-deaths-tropical-disease-melioidosis-1.6222016 | website=CBC News}}

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{{Commons category|Aromatherapy}}

{{Wikibooks|Complete Guide to Essential Oils}}

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