electric vehicle battery

File:Inside_a_Lithium_Ion_Electric_Car_Battery_Cut_Open_by_EV_West.webm]]

{{See also|Comparison of commercial battery types}}

As of 2024, the lithium-ion battery (LIB) with the variants Li-NMC, LFP and Li-NCA dominates the BEV market. The combined global production capacity in 2023 reached almost 2000 GWh with 772 GWh used for EVs in 2023. Most production is based in China where capacities increased by 45% that year.{{rp|17}} With their high energy density and long cycle life, lithium-ion batteries have become the leading battery type for use in EVs. They were initially developed and commercialized for use in laptops and consumer electronics. Recent EVs are using new variations on lithium-ion chemistry that sacrifice specific energy and specific power to provide fire resistance, environmental friendliness, rapid charging and longer lifespans. These variants have been shown to have a much longer lifetime. For example, lithium-ion cells containing single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) show increased mechanical strength, suppressing degradation and leading to a longer battery lifetime.{{Cite journal |last1=Oh |first1=Hyeseong |last2=Kim |first2=Gyu-Sang |last3=Hwang |first3=Byung Un |last4=Bang |first4=Jiyoon |last5=Kim |first5=Jinsoo |last6=Jeong |first6=Kyeong-Min |date=2024-07-01 |title=Development of a feasible and scalable manufacturing method for PTFE-based solvent-free lithium-ion battery electrodes |journal=Chemical Engineering Journal |volume=491 |pages=151957 |doi=10.1016/j.cej.2024.151957 |issn=1385-8947|doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ChEnJ.49151957O }}{{Cite journal |last1=Dressler |first1=R. A. |last2=Dahn |first2=J. R. |date=March 2024 |title=Investigation of The Failure Mechanisms of Li-Ion Pouch Cells with Si/Graphite Composite Negative Electrodes and Single Wall Carbon Nanotube Conducting Additive |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |language=en |volume=171 |issue=3 |pages=030532 |doi=10.1149/1945-7111/ad3398 |issn=1945-7111|doi-access=free |bibcode=2024JElS..171c0532D }}

Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides offer high performance and have become the global standard in BEV production since the 2010s. On the other hand, the exploitation of the required minerals causes environmental problems. The downside of traditional NMC batteries includes sensitivity to temperature, low temperature power performance, and performance degradation with age.{{cite journal |last1=Jalkanen |first1=K. |last2=Karrpinen |first2=K. |last3=Skogstrom |first3=L. |last4=Laurila |first4=T. |last5=Nisula |first5=M. |last6=Vuorilehto |first6=K. |year=2015 |title=Cycle aging of commercial NMC/graphite pouch cells at different temperatures |journal=Applied Energy |volume=154 |pages=160–172 |bibcode=2015ApEn..154..160J |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.04.110}} Due to the volatility of organic electrolytes, the presence of highly oxidized metal oxides, and the thermal instability of the anode SEI layer, traditional lithium-ion batteries pose a fire safety risk if punctured or charged improperly. Early cells did not accept or supply charge when extremely cold. Heaters can be used in some climates to warm them.

The Lithium iron phosphate battery has a shorter range but is cheaper, safer and more sustainable than the NMC battery.{{Cite web |date=2024-04-12 |title=Why are LFP Cells so Attractive? |url=https://www.springerprofessional.de/battery/materials-technology/why-are-lfp-cells-so-attractive-/26938006 |access-date=2024-04-13 |website=springerprofessional.de}} It does not require the critical minerals manganese and cobalt.

Since 2023, LFP has become the leading technology in China while the market share in Europe and North America remains lower than 10%.{{rp|86}} LFP is the dominant type in grid energy storage.

Lithium titanate or lithium-titanium-oxide (LTO) batteries are known for their high safety profile, with reduced risk of thermal runaway and effective operation over a wide temperature range.{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Feixiang |last2=Chu |first2=Fulu |last3=Xue |first3=Zhichen |date=2022 |title=Lithium-Ion Batteries |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128197233001025 |journal=Encyclopedia of Energy Storage |volume=4 |pages=5–13 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-819723-3.00102-5 |isbn=978-0-12-819730-1 |access-date=June 23, 2024}} LTO batteries have an impressive cycle life, often exceeding 10,000 charge-discharge cycles.{{cite web |url=https://www.eetimes.com/all-about-batteries-part-12-lithium-titanate-lto/?_ga |title=All About Batteries, Part 12: Lithium Titanate (LTO) |last=Cowie |first=Ivan |website=EETimes |date=Jan 21, 2015 |access-date=June 23, 2024}} They also have rapid charging capabilities due to their high charge acceptance.{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Xiao-Guang |last2=Zhang |first2=Guangsheng |date=2018 |title=Fast charging of lithium-ion batteries at all temperatures |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=115 |issue=28 |pages=7266–7271 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1807115115 |doi-access=free |pmid=29941558 |pmc=6048525 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115.7266Y }} However, they have a lower energy density compared to other lithium-ion batteries.{{cite web |url=https://www.samaterials.com/cobalt-in-ev-batteries-advantages-challenges-alternatives.html |title=Cobalt in EV Batteries: Advantages, Challenges, and Alternatives |last=Trento |first=Chin |website=Stanford Advanced Materials |date=Dec 27, 2023 |access-date=June 23, 2024}}

The Sodium-ion battery completely avoids critical materials.{{cite web |title=Global EV Outlook 2023: Trends in batteries |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023/trends-in-batteries |publisher=IEA |location=Paris}} Due to the high availability of sodium which is a part of salt water, cost projections are low. In early 2024, various Chinese manufacturers began with the delivery of their first models. Analysts see a high potential for this type especially for the use in small EVs, bikes and three-wheelers.{{cite web |last1=Stephan |first1=Annegret |title=Alternatives to lithium-ion batteries: potentials and challenges of alternative battery technologies |url=https://www.isi.fraunhofer.de/en/blog/themen/batterie-update/alternative-batterie-technologien-lithium-ionen-potenziale-herausforderungen.html |publisher=Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI |date=2024-02-06}}

Sodium-ion batteries offer several advantages over other battery technologies. In contrast to lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries are relatively more affordable, possess a slightly lower energy density, exhibit enhanced safety features, and demonstrate similar power delivery characteristics.{{cite web |title=Sodium Ion Batteries: Advantageous Market Analysis |url=https://stellarix.com/insights/articles/sodium-ion-batteries-advantageous-market-analysis/ |website=Stellarix |access-date=20 June 2024}}

Several types are in development.

• The solid-state battery could offer high energy density and potential safety improvements.{{rp|26}}
• The lithium-sulfur battery is also expected to meet high performance demands.
• The LMFP battery is a LFP battery that includes manganese as a cathode component.

In the 20th century most electric vehicles used a flooded lead–acid battery due to their mature technology, high availability, and low cost. Lead–acid batteries powered such early modern EVs as the original 1996 versions of the EV1. There are two main types of lead–acid batteries: automobile engine starter batteries, and deep-cycle batteries which provide continuous electricity to run electric vehicles like forklifts or golf carts.{{Cite journal |last1=Pradhan |first1=S. K. |last2=Chakraborty |first2=B. |date=2022-07-01 |title=Battery management strategies: An essential review for battery state of health monitoring techniques |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352152X22004509 |journal=Journal of Energy Storage |volume=51 |pages=104427 |doi=10.1016/j.est.2022.104427 |bibcode=2022JEnSt..5104427P |issn=2352-152X}} Deep-cycle batteries are also used as auxiliary batteries in recreational vehicles, but they require different, multi-stage charging. Discharging below 50% can shorten the battery's life.{{cite book |last=Barre |first=Harold |title=Managing 12 Volts: How To Upgrade, Operate, and Troubleshoot 12 Volt Electrical Systenms |publisher=Summer Breeze Publishing |year=1997 |pages=63–65 |isbn=978-0-9647386-1-4}} Flooded batteries require inspection of electrolyte levels and occasional replacement of water, which gases away during the normal charging cycle. EVs with lead–acid batteries are capable of up to {{cvt|130|km}} per charge.

{{Main|Nickel–metal hydride battery}}

File:GM Ovonic NiMH Battery Module 90 Ah.jpg

Nickel–metal hydride batteries are considered a mature technology.{{cite web |url=https://www.mpoweruk.com/nimh.htm |title=Nickel Metal Hydride NiMH Batteries |website=mpoweruk.com |access-date=2020-04-26}} While less efficient (60–70%) in charging and discharging than even lead–acid, they have a higher specific energy of 30–80 W·h/kg. When used properly, nickel–metal hydride batteries can have exceptionally long lives, as has been demonstrated in their use in hybrid cars and in the surviving first-generation NiMH Toyota RAV4 EVs that still operate well after {{convert|100000|mi|km}} and over a decade of service. Downsides include finicky charge cycles and poor performance in cold weather.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}} GM Ovonic produced the NiMH battery used in the second generation EV-1.{{cite web |url=http://www.ev1.org/ |title=GM, Chevron and CARB killed the sole NiMH EV once, will do so again – Plug-in Electric cars and solar power reduce dependence on foreign oil by living oil-free, we review the options |language=en-US |access-date=2020-04-26}} Prototype NiMH-EVs delivered up to {{cvt|200|km}} of range.

{{Main|Molten salt battery}}

The sodium nickel chloride or "Zebra" battery was used in early EVs between 1997 and 2012. It uses a molten sodium chloroaluminate (NaAlCl₄) salt as the electrolyte. It has a specific energy of 120 W·h/kg. Since the battery must be heated for use, cold weather does not strongly affect its operation except for increasing heating costs. Zebra batteries can last for a few thousand charge cycles and are nontoxic. The downsides to the Zebra battery include poor specific power (<300 W/kg) and the need to heat the electrolyte to about {{convert|270|C}}, which wastes some energy, presents difficulties in long-term storage of charge, and is potentially a hazard.{{cite news |url=https://www.greencarcongress.com/2006/11/axeon_receives_.html |title=Axeon Receives Order for 50 Zebra Packs for Modec Electric Vehicle; Li-Ion UnderTesting |work=Green Car Congress |date=2006-11-24 |access-date=2019-12-15}}

Other types of rechargeable batteries used in early electric vehicles include

• nickel–cadmium
• Nickel–iron battery used in the Detroit Electric
• Lithium vanadium oxide made its way into the Subaru prototype G4e.{{Citation |last=Kurzweil |first=Peter |title=Chapter 16 - Lithium Battery Energy Storage: State of the Art Including Lithium–Air and Lithium–Sulfur Systems |date=2015-01-01 |work=Electrochemical Energy Storage for Renewable Sources and Grid Balancing |pages=269–307 |editor-last=Moseley |editor-first=Patrick T. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444626165000164 |access-date=2023-12-15 |place=Amsterdam |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-62616-5 |editor2-last=Garche |editor2-first=Jürgen}}

CTx series:

• Cell to Module (CTM) - battery cells put into modules, than into battery pack
• Cell to Pack (CTP) - battery cells into battery pack without modules
• Cell to Chassis (CTC) - battery cells into frame or chassis, batteries maybe used as part of structural integrity or to increase structural strength
• Cell to Body (CTB) - battery cells into vehicle body{{Cite press release |last=ReportLinker |date=2022-10-11 |title=CTP, CTC and CTB Integrated Battery Industry Research Report, 2022 |url=https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2022/10/11/2532207/0/en/CTP-CTC-and-CTB-Integrated-Battery-Industry-Research-Report-2022.html |access-date=2024-07-26 |website=GlobeNewswire News Room |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Battery |first=Bonnen |date=2023-10-12 |title=EVs Battery Pack Technology Today and Development Trends. |url=https://www.bonnenbatteries.com/evs-battery-pack-technology-today-and-development-trends/ |access-date=2024-07-26 |website=Bonnen Battery |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |last=University |first=Semco |date=2024-04-09 |title=Electric Vehicle Battery Integration: Pushing the Limits |url=https://semcouniversity.com/electric-vehicle-battery-integration-pushing-the-limits/ |access-date=2024-07-26 |website=Semco university - All about the Lithium-Ion Batteries |language=en-US}}

File:Geographical distribution of the global battery supply chain.png

{{See also|Electric vehicle supply chain}}

During the first stage, the materials{{cite web | url=https://blog.ucsusa.org/josh-goldman/electric-vehicles-batteries-cobalt-and-rare-earth-metals/ | title=Electric Vehicles, Batteries, Cobalt, and Rare Earth Metals | date=25 October 2017 }} are mined in different parts of the world, including Australia,{{cite news |title=About 50kg of nickel goes into each Tesla battery but the world isn't producing enough to keep up with demand |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-08-16/nickel-metal-batteries-energy-race-to-produce-to-match-demand/101334424 |work=ABC |date=15 August 2022}} Russia,{{cite news |title=Biden's sanctions of Russian energy give electric vehicle batteries a pass |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/10/energy/russia-sanctions-energy-nickel/index.html |work=CNN |date=10 March 2022}} New Caledonia and Indonesia.{{cite news |title=New Caledonia unrest pushes nickel sector deeper into crisis |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20240528-new-caledonia-unrest-pushes-nickel-sector-deeper-into-crisis |work=France 24 |date=28 May 2024}}{{cite news |title=Indonesia's massive metals build-out is felling the forest for batteries |url=https://apnews.com/article/indonesia-nickel-deforestation-rainforest-mining-tesla-ev-184550cddf1df6aad8e883862ab366df |work=AP News |date=15 July 2024}} All the following steps are currently dominated by China. After the materials are refined by pre-processing factories, battery manufacturing companies buy them, make batteries, and assemble them into packs. Car manufacturing companies buy and install them in cars. To address the environmental impact of this process, the supply chain is increasingly focusing on sustainability, with efforts to reduce reliance on rare-earth minerals and improve recycling.{{Citation |last1=Lampo |first1=Alessandro |title=Diffusion of Technologies: Delivering on the Promises of Battery Electric Vehicles |date=2024-01-01 |work=Walking the Talk? MNEs Transitioning Towards a Sustainable World |volume=18 |pages=223–235 |editor-last=van Tulder |editor-first=Rob |url=https://doi.org/10.1108/S1745-886220240000018016 |access-date=2024-08-05 |series=Progress in International Business Research |publisher=Emerald Publishing Limited |doi=10.1108/s1745-886220240000018016 |isbn=978-1-83549-117-1 |last2=Silva |first2=Susana C. |editor2-last=Grøgaard |editor2-first=Birgitte |editor3-last=Lunnan |editor3-first=Randi}}

There are mainly three stages during the manufacturing process of EV batteries: materials manufacturing, cell manufacturing and integration, as shown in Manufacturing process of EV batteries graph in grey, green and orange color respectively. This shown process does not include manufacturing of cell hardware, i.e. casings and current collectors. During the materials manufacturing process, the active material, conductivity additives, polymer binder and solvent are mixed first. After this, they are coated on the current collectors ready for the drying process. During this stage, the methods of making active materials depend on the electrode and the chemistry.

Cathodes mostly use transition metal oxides, i.e. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (Li-NMC), or else Lithium metal phosphates, i.e. Lithium iron phosphates (LFP). The most popular material for anodes is graphite. However, recently there have been a lot of companies started to make Si mixed anode ([https://silanano.com/ Sila Nanotech], ProLogium) and Li metal anode ([https://cuberg.net/ Cuberg], [https://solidpowerbattery.com/ Solid Power]).

In general, for active materials production, there are three steps: materials preparation, materials processing and refinement. Schmuch et al. discussed materials manufacturing in greater details.{{cite journal |last1=Schmuch |first1=Richard |last2=Wagner |first2=Ralf |last3=Hörpel |first3=Gerhard |last4=Placke |first4=Tobias |last5=Winter |first5=Martin |date=April 2018 |title=Performance and cost of materials for lithium-based rechargeable automotive batteries |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0107-2 |journal=Nature Energy |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=267–278 |bibcode=2018NatEn...3..267S |doi=10.1038/s41560-018-0107-2 |issn=2058-7546 |s2cid=139370819}}

File:Manufacturing schematic.png

In the cell manufacturing stage, the prepared electrode will be processed to the desired shape for packaging in a cylindrical, rectangular or pouch format. Then after filling the electrolytes and sealing the cells, the battery cells are cycled carefully to form SEI protecting the anode. Then, these batteries are assembled into packs ready for vehicle integration.

When an EV battery pack degrades to 70% to 80% of its original capacity, it is defined to reach the end-of-life. One of the waste management methods is to reuse the pack. By repurposing the pack for stationary storage, more value can be extracted from the battery pack while reducing the per kWh lifecycle impact.

Uneven and undesired battery degradation happens during EV operation depending on temperature during operation and charging/discharging patterns. Each battery cell could degrade differently during operation. Currently, the state of health (SOH) information from a battery management system (BMS) can be extracted on a pack level but not on a cell level. Engineers can mitigate the degradation by engineering the next-generation thermal management system. electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) can be used to ensure the quality of the battery pack.{{cite book |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/d394399e-en |title=Global EV Outlook 2020 |date=2020-06-18 |isbn=9789264616226 |doi=10.1787/d394399e-en |s2cid=242162623}}{{cite book |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.17226/26092 |title=Assessment of Technologies for Improving Light-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economyâ€"2025-2035 |date=2021 |publisher=The National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-37122-3 |doi=10.17226/26092 |s2cid=234202631}}

File:Reuse application.png

It is costly and time-intensive to disassemble modules and cells. The module must be fully discharged. Then, the pack must be disassembled and reconfigured to meet the power and energy requirement of the second life application. A refurbishing company can sell or reuse the discharged energy from the module to reduce the cost of this process. Robots are being used to increase the safety of the dismantling process.{{cite journal |last1=Harper |first1=Gavin |last2=Sommerville |first2=Roberto |last3=Kendrick |first3=Emma |last4=Driscoll |first4=Laura |last5=Slater |first5=Peter |last6=Stolkin |first6=Rustam |last7=Walton |first7=Allan |last8=Christensen |first8=Paul |last9=Heidrich |first9=Oliver |last10=Lambert |first10=Simon |last11=Abbott |first11=Andrew |date=2019-11-06 |title=Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles |journal=Nature |volume=575 |issue=7781 |pages=75–86 |bibcode=2019Natur.575...75H |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1682-5 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=31695206 |doi-access=free}}

Battery technology is non-transparent and lacks standards. Because battery development is the core part of EV, it is difficult for the manufacturer to label the exact chemistry of cathode, anode and electrolytes on the pack. In addition, the capacity and the design of the cells and packs changes on a yearly basis. The refurbishing company needs to closely work with the manufacture to have a timely update on this information. On the other hand, government can set up labeling standard.

Lastly, battery costs have decreased faster than predicted. The refurbished unit may be less attractive than the new batteries to the market.

Nonetheless, there have been several successes on the second-life application as shown in the examples of storage projects using second-life EV batteries. They are used in less demanding stationary storage application as peak shaving or additional storage for renewable-based generating sources.

File:Recycling companies.png

{{See also|Lithium-ion batteries#Solid waste and recycling}}

Although battery life span can be extended by enabling a second-life application, ultimately EV batteries need to be recycled. Recyclability is not currently an important design consideration for battery manufacturers, and in 2019 only 5% of electric vehicle batteries were recycled.{{cite news |last=Jacoby |first=Mitch |date=July 14, 2019 |title=It's time to get serious about recycling lithium-ion batteries |work=Chemical & Engineering News |url=https://cen.acs.org/materials/energy-storage/time-serious-recycling-lithium/97/i28}}

However, closing the loop is extremely important. Not only because of a predicted tightened supply of nickel, cobalt and lithium in the future, also recycling EV batteries has the potential to maximize the environmental benefit. Xu et al. predicted that in the sustainable development scenario, lithium, cobalt and nickel will reach or surpass the amount of known reserves in the future if no recycling is in place.{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Chengjian |last2=Dai |first2=Qiang |last3=Gaines |first3=Linda |last4=Hu |first4=Mingming |last5=Tukker |first5=Arnold |last6=Steubing |first6=Bernhard |date=December 2020 |title=Future material demand for automotive lithium-based batteries |journal=Communications Materials |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=99 |bibcode=2020CoMat...1...99X |doi=10.1038/s43246-020-00095-x |issn=2662-4443 |doi-access=free |hdl=1887/138961 |hdl-access=free}} Ciez and Whitacre found that by deploying battery recycling some green house gas (GHG) emission from mining could be avoided.{{cite journal |last1=Ciez |first1=Rebecca E. |last2=Whitacre |first2=J. F. |date=February 2019 |title=Examining different recycling processes for lithium-ion batteries |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0222-5 |journal=Nature Sustainability |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=148–156 |doi=10.1038/s41893-019-0222-5 |bibcode=2019NatSu...2..148C |issn=2398-9629 |s2cid=188116440}}

BEV technologies lack an established recycling framework in many countries, making the usage of BEV and other battery-operated electrical equipment a large energy expenditure, ultimately increasing {{CO2}} emissions - especially in countries lacking renewable energy resources.{{cite journal |last1=Manzetti |first1=Sergio |last2=Mariasiu |first2=Florin |date=2015-11-01 |title=Electric vehicle battery technologies: From present state to future systems |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032115006577 |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=51 |pages=1004–1012 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.010 |bibcode=2015RSERv..51.1004M |issn=1364-0321}}

There have been many efforts around the world to promote recycling technologies development and deployment. In the US, the Department of Energy Vehicle Technologies Offices (VTO) set up two efforts targeting at innovation and practicability of recycling processes. ReCell Lithium Recycling RD center brings in three universities and three national labs together to develop innovative, efficient recycling technologies. Most notably, the direct cathode recycling method was developed by the ReCell center. On the other hand, VTO also set up the battery recycling prize to incentivize American entrepreneurs to find innovative solutions to solve current challenges.{{cite web |date=2019-04-01 |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1525362/ |title=FY2018 Batteries Annual Progress Report |doi=10.2172/1525362 |osti=1525362 |s2cid=243075830 |last1=Howell |first1=David |last2=Boyd |first2=Steven |last3=Duong |first3=Tien |last4=Faguy |first4=Peter |last5=Cunningham |first5=Brian |last6=Gillard |first6=Samuel }}

Recycling of EV Batteries helps to recover valuable materials such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and rare-earth elements, reducing the need for new mining and conserving natural resources and reduces the environmental footprint associated with battery production by minimizing mining impacts, energy consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

File:EV batteries recycling emission.png

To develop a deeper understanding of the lifecycle of EV batteries, it is important to analyze the emission associated with different phases. Using NMC cylindrical cells as an example, Ciez and Whitacre found that around 9 kg CO₂e kg battery⁻¹ is emitted during raw materials pre-processing and battery manufacturing under the US average electricity grid. The biggest part of the emission came from materials preparation accounting for more than 50% of the emissions. If NMC pouch cell is used, the total emission increases to almost 10 kg CO₂e kg battery⁻¹ while materials manufacturing still contributes to more than 50% of the emission. During the end-of-life management phase, the refurbishing process adds little emission to the lifecycle emission. The recycling process, on the other hand, as suggested by Ciez and Whitacre emits a significant amount of GHG. As shown in the battery recycling emission plot a and c, the emission of the recycling process varies with the different recycling processes, different chemistry and different form factor. Thus, the net emission avoided compared to not recycling also varies with these factors. At a glance, as shown in the plot b and d, the direct recycling process is the most ideal process for recycling pouch cell batteries, while the hydrometallurgical process is most suitable for cylindrical type battery. However, with the error bars shown, the best approach cannot be picked with confidence. It is worth noting that for the lithium iron phosphates (LFP) chemistry, the net benefit is negative. Because LFP cells lacks cobalt and nickel which are expensive and energy intensive to produce, it is more energetically efficient to mine. In general, in addition to promoting the growth of a single sector, a more integrated effort should be in place to reduce the lifecycle emission of EV batteries. A finite total supply of rare earth material can apparently justify the need for recycling. But the environmental benefit of recycling needs closer scrutiny. Based on current recycling technology, the net benefit of recycling depends on the form factors, the chemistry and the recycling process chosen.

Transition to electric vehicles is estimated to require 87 times more than 2015 of specific metals by 2060 that need to be mined initially, with recycling covering part of the demand in future.{{cite journal |last1=Månberger |first1=André |last2=Stenqvist |first2=Björn |date=2018-08-01 |title=Global metal flows in the renewable energy transition: Exploring the effects of substitutes, technological mix and development |journal=Energy Policy |language=en |volume=119 |pages=226–241 |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.056 |issn=0301-4215 |s2cid=52227957 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018EnPol.119..226M }} According to IEA 2021 study, mineral supplies need to increase from 400 kilotonnes in 2020 to 11,800 kilotonnes in 2040 in order to cover the demand by EV. This increase creates a number of key challenges, from supply chain as 60% of production is concentrated in China to significant impact on climate{{Request quotation|date=March 2024}} and environment as result of such a large increase in mining operations.{{cite web |date=5 May 2021 |title=The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617105536/https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions |archive-date=2021-06-17 |access-date=2021-06-16 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}} [https://yibaienergy-china.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/TheRoleofCriticalMineralsinCleanEnergyTransitions.pdf Alt URL]{{Dead link|date=November 2022|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} However 45% of oil demand in 2022 was for road transport, and batteries may reduce this to 20% by 2050,{{Cite web |date=2023-06-22 |title=How EVs Will Drive Peak Oil This Decade, in Five Charts |url=https://about.bnef.com/blog/how-evs-will-drive-peak-oil-this-decade-in-five-charts/ |access-date=2024-03-29 |website=BloombergNEF |language=en-US}} which would save hundreds of times more raw material than that used to make the batteries.{{Cite web |date=2021-03-01 |title=Batteries vs oil: A comparison of raw material needs |url=https://www.transportenvironment.org/discover/batteries-vs-oil-comparison-raw-material-needs/ |access-date=2024-03-29 |website=Transport & Environment |language=en}}

Distributive and [https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/energy-justice energy injustice] concerns persist as resource-rich but economically disadvantaged communities bear social and ecological costs while wealthier nations benefit from these technologies.{{Cite journal |last=Lehmann |first=Paul |last2=Gawel |first2=Erik |last3=Meier |first3=Jan-Niklas |last4=Reda |first4=Milan Jakob |last5=Reutter |first5=Felix |last6=Sommer |first6=Stephan |date=2024-12-01 |title=Spatial distributive justice has many faces: The case of siting renewable energy infrastructures |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629624003608#:~:text=Infrastructures%20for%20using%20renewable%20energy,concerns%20of%20spatial%20distributive%20justice. |journal=Energy Research & Social Science |volume=118 |pages=103769 |doi=10.1016/j.erss.2024.103769 |issn=2214-6296|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last=Carley |first=Sanya |last2=Konisky |first2=David M. |date=August 2020 |title=The justice and equity implications of the clean energy transition |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41560-020-0641-6 |journal=Nature Energy |language=en |volume=5 |issue=8 |pages=569–577 |doi=10.1038/s41560-020-0641-6 |issn=2058-7546}} Scholars described these regions as sacrifice zones, where Indigenous and low-income groups experience slow violence and environmental degradation.{{Cite web |title="Sacrifice Zones" in the Green Energy Economy: Toward an Environmental Justice Framework |url=https://lawjournal.mcgill.ca/article/sacrifice-zones-in-the-green-energy-economy-toward-an-environmental-justice-framework/#:~:text=In%20the%20sacrifice%20zones%20of,effects%20that%20go%20with%20it. |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=McGill Law Journal |language=en-US}}{{Cite journal |last=Heikkinen |first=Anna |last2=Nygren |first2=Anja |last3=Custodio |first3=María |date=2023-06-01 |title=The slow violence of mining and environmental suffering in the Andean waterscapes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214790X2300045X |journal=The Extractive Industries and Society |volume=14 |pages=101254 |doi=10.1016/j.exis.2023.101254 |issn=2214-790X|doi-access=free }} In many cases, mining projects proceed without meaningful consultation/consent, leaving local communities without a voice in decisions impacting them, highlighting issues in procedural injustice.{{Cite journal |last=Canelas |first=Joana |last2=Carvalho |first2=António |date=2023-06-01 |title=The dark side of the energy transition: Extractivist violence, energy (in)justice and lithium mining in Portugal |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629623001561 |journal=Energy Research & Social Science |volume=100 |pages=103096 |doi=10.1016/j.erss.2023.103096 |issn=2214-6296|hdl=10316/115581 |hdl-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last=Kramarz |first=Teresa |last2=Park |first2=Susan |last3=Johnson |first3=Craig |date=2021-04-01 |title=Governing the dark side of renewable energy: A typology of global displacements |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214629620304771 |journal=Energy Research & Social Science |volume=74 |pages=101902 |doi=10.1016/j.erss.2020.101902 |issn=2214-6296}}{{Cite web |date=2025-01-09 |title=Philippines: Nickel mining projects approved despite inadequate consultation and serious risks to communities’ health and environment |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2025/01/philippines-nickel-mining-projects-approved-despite-inadequate-consultation-and-serious-risks-to-communities-health-and-environment/? |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}} Regulatory policies, like the [https://www.forestpeoples.org/sites/default/files/documents/DRC%20A%20rights-based%20analysis%20of%20mining%20legislation%20ENG DRC Mining Code]{{Cite web |title=Mining code in DR Congo: the challenges of reform |url=https://www.justicepaix.be/en/mining-code-in-dr-congo-the-challenges-of-reform/? |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=Justice & Peace Commission - French-speaking Belgium |language=en-GB}} and [https://mneguidelines.oecd.org/mining.htm OECD Due Diligence Guidance],{{Cite web |title=Demystifying the Due Diligence Process under the 2023 OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises on Responsible Business Conduct - Forum - Corporate Sustainability |url=https://thinktank.plmj.com/en/corporate-sustainability/forum/demystifying-the-due-diligence-process-under-the-2023-oecd-guidelines-for-multinational-enterprises/70/#:~:text=The%20OECD%20Guidelines%20provide%20non,laws%20and%20internationally%20recognised%20standards. |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=PLMJ Think Tank |language=en}} aim to address issues, but face weak enforcement, corruption, and non-binding commitments that limited their effectiveness.

Rising demand for EV batteries has intensified mining for nickel, copper, lithium, and cobalt, particularly in developing countries including the Philippines,{{Cite web |date=2024-04-05 |title=Focus - Philippines: Locals and activists campaign against booming nickel industry |url=https://www.france24.com/en/tv-shows/focus/20240405-philippines-locals-and-activists-campaign-against-booming-nickel-industry |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=France 24 |language=en}} the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),{{Cite news |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |access-date=2025-02-11 |work=NPR |language=en}} Chile,{{Cite web |date=2022-04-26 |title=Lithium Mining Is Leaving Chile’s Indigenous Communities High and Dry (Literally) |url=https://www.nrdc.org/stories/lithium-mining-leaving-chiles-indigenous-communities-high-and-dry-literally |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=www.nrdc.org |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=False solutions to climate change: Lithium extraction at the Atacama Desert of Chile – Global Justice Ecology Project |url=https://globaljusticeecology.org/false-solutions-to-climate-change-lithium-extraction-at-the-atacama-desert-of-chilefalse-solutions-to-climate-change-lithium-extraction-at-the-atacama-desert-of-chile/ |access-date=2025-02-10 |language=en-US}} and Indonesia.{{Cite web |last=Jong |first=Hans Nicholas |date=2024-02-26 |title=Indonesian nickel project harms environment and human rights, report says |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2024/02/indonesian-nickel-project-harms-environment-and-human-rights-report-says/? |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}} Nickel mining in Indonesia has caused significant deforestation and heavy metal contamination in rivers, affecting communities reliant on these ecosystems.{{Cite web |title=EU faces green dilemma in Indonesian nickel – DW – 07/16/2024 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/eu-faces-green-dilemma-in-sourcing-nickel-from-indonesia/a-69681557 |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=dw.com |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Nickel mining boom in Indonesia brings pollution and health crisis - EHN |url=https://www.ehn.org/nickel-mining-boom-in-indonesia-brings-pollution-and-health-crisis-2671123742.html? |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=news.mongabay.com |language=en}} In the DRC, mining exposes marginalized groups to elevated levels of toxic metals in the air, water, and soil, with little compensation or protection and lack the power to influence mining regulations or demand better working conditions.

In Chile's Salar de Atacama, lithium extraction consumes 65% of the region's freshwater supply, worsening droughts and impacting Indigenous communities.{{Cite web |last=Reid |first=Juliana |date=2022-05-17 |title=Water Security Issues for Lithium Mining in Chile 5/17/2022 |url=https://payneinstitute.mines.edu/water-security-issues-for-lithium-mining-in-chile/ |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=Payne Institute for Public Policy |language=en-US}} Producing one metric ton of lithium requires 400,000 to 2 million liters (100,000-500,000 gallons) of water.{{Cite web |date=2023-03-22 |title=World Water Day: The water impacts of lithium extraction |url=https://europe.wetlands.org/blog/world-water-day-the-water-impacts-of-lithium-extraction/? |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=Wetlands International Europe |language=en-US}} In January 2024, Indigenous-led protests blocked mining operations, demanding inclusion in decision-making regarding the salt flats.{{Cite web |date=2024-01-29 |title=Atacameño Communities Maintain Protest Camps in the Atacama Salt Flat and Raise Awareness about out the Environmental Impacts of Lithium Mining |url=https://salares.org/atacameno-communities-maintain-protest-camps-in-the-atacama-salt-flat-and-raise-awareness-about-out-the-environmental-impacts-of-lithium-mining/ |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=OPSAL |language=es}} Concerns remain over the lack of adherence to Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) in affected communities.{{Cite web |last=EARTHWORKS |date=2020-06-25 |title=Atacama, Chile |url=https://earthworks.org/blog/atacama-chile-lithium/ |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=Earthworks |language=en-US}}

{{Main|Rechargeable battery#Price history}}

Average battery costs have fallen by 90% since 2010 due to advances in battery chemistry and manufacturing.{{rp|3}}

Batteries represent a substantial portion of an EV's overall cost, often accounting for up to 30-40% of the vehicle's total price.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}} However, the cost of EV batteries has been decreasing steadily over the years due to advancements in technology, economies of scale, and improvements in manufacturing processes. EV batteries typically come with warranties covering a certain number of years or miles, reflecting confidence in their durability and reliability over time.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

File:2010- Battery prices for electric vehicles.svg

{{See also|Electric vehicle conversion}}

One issue is purchase price, the other issue is total cost of ownership. Total cost of ownership of electric cars is often less than petrol or diesel cars.{{Cite web |title=How much do electric vehicles (EVs) cost? |url=https://www.fleetnews.co.uk/fleet-faq/how-much-do-electric-vehicles-evs-cost |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=www.fleetnews.co.uk |language=en}} In 2024 Gartner predicted that by 2027, next-generation BEVs will, on average, be cheaper to produce than a comparable ICE“.{{Cite web|url=https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2024-03-07-gartner-outlines-a-new-phase-for-electric-vehicles|title=Gartner Outlines a New Phase for Electric Vehicles|website=Gartner}} In China, BEV are now cheaper than comparable combustion cars.{{cite web |last1=Fickling |first1=David |title=In China, It's Already Cheaper to Buy EVs Than Gasoline Cars |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2023-08-08/chinese-evs-are-now-cheaper-than-gasoline-cars |publisher=Bloomberg |date=2023-08-09}} The development is driven by subsidies in the Chinese market. The USA are protecting their own manufacturers with tariffs, in the EU this is debated. This can delay cost parity.

The weight of the electric vehicle battery is the limiting factor to reach range parity. Diesel and gasoline have more than the 50-fold energy density of current EV batteries.

In practical use, charging speed is more relevant than battery capacity (see rechaging section).

Typical EV batteries in passenger cars have a weight of {{cvt|300|to|1000|kg}}{{cite web |title=A Complete Guide on Electric Car Battery Weight |url=https://getevgas.com/blogs/electric-car-battery-weight/ |publisher=EVGas |date=2023-07-06}} resulting in ranges from {{convert|150|to|500|km|round=10|abbr=in}}, depending on temperature, driving style and car type.

Even with the same range as an average all-combustion vehicle, buyers must be assured that there are widely available and compatible charging stations for their vehicles.{{cite journal |last1=Bonges |first1=Henry A. |last2=Lusk |first2=Anne C. |date=2016-01-01 |title=Addressing electric vehicle (EV) sales and range anxiety through parking layout, policy and regulation |journal=Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice |language=en |volume=83 |pages=63–73 |doi=10.1016/j.tra.2015.09.011 |issn=0965-8564 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2016TRPA...83...63B }}

{{As of|2024}} the range of electric ships and large planes is less than combustion engined ones. To electrify all shipping standardized multi-megawatt charging is needed.{{Cite web |date=2024-03-19 |title=Fast charging for battery-powered ships: Horizon Europe guarantee |url=https://www.ukri.org/news-and-events/horizon-europe-what-we-are-doing-to-support-you/fast-charging-for-battery-powered-ships-horizon-europe-guarantee/ |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=www.ukri.org |language=en-GB}} But sometimes batteries can be swapped, for example for river shipping.{{Cite web |title=Largest Electric, Battery-Powered Containerships Commissioned in China |url=https://maritime-executive.com/article/largest-electric-battery-powered-containerships-commissioned-in-china |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=The Maritime Executive |language=en}} {{As of|2024}} pure electric large plane ranges of over 1000 km are not expected within a decade - meaning that for over half of scheduled flights range parity cannot be achieved.{{Cite web |date=2024-01-12 |title=90-seat Elysian airliner: 800-1,000-km range on batteries alone |url=https://newatlas.com/aircraft/elysian-electric-airliner/ |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=New Atlas |language=en-US}}

File:ASEAG 999 Batterie.jpg ]]

File:Iveco Stralis AD 190 E-truck. Lidl. Spielvogel.jpg e-Force One. Battery pack between the axles.]]

File:Lithium-Ion Cell cylindric.JPG

File:Lithium Ionen Akku Überwachungselektronik.jpg monitoring electronics (overcharge and over-discharge protection)]]

Battery pack designs for electric vehicles (EVs) are complex and vary widely by manufacturer and specific application. However, they all incorporate a combination of several simple mechanical and electrical component systems which perform the basic required functions of the pack.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}

The actual battery cells can have different chemistry, physical shapes, and sizes as preferred by various pack manufacturers. Battery packs will always incorporate many discrete cells connected in series and parallel to achieve the total voltage and current requirements of the pack. Battery packs for all electric drive EVs can contain several hundred individual cells. Each cell has a nominal voltage of 3-4 volts, depending on its chemical composition.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}

To assist in manufacturing and assembly, the large stack of cells is typically grouped into smaller stacks called modules. Several of these modules are placed into a single pack. Within each module the cells are welded together to complete the electrical path for current flow. Modules can also incorporate cooling mechanisms, temperature monitors, and other devices. Modules must remain within a specific temperature range for optimal performance.{{cite journal |last1=Duan |first1=X. |last2=Naterer |first2=G. F. |date=2010-11-01 |title=Heat transfer in phase change materials for thermal management of electric vehicle battery modules |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0017931010004229 |journal=International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer |language=en |volume=53 |issue=23 |pages=5176–5182 |doi=10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2010.07.044 |bibcode=2010IJHMT..53.5176D |issn=0017-9310}} In most cases, modules also allow for monitoring the voltage produced by each battery cell in the stack by using a battery management system (BMS).{{cite web |url=https://www.dmcinfo.com/latest-thinking/white-papers/id/151/phev-hev-and-ev-battery-pack-testing-in-a-manufacturing-environment |title=PHEV, HEV, and EV Battery Pack Testing in a Manufacturing Environment |publisher=DMC, Inc. |website=dmcinfo.com}}

The battery cell stack has a main fuse which limits the current of the pack under a short circuit. A "service plug" or "service disconnect" can be removed to split the battery stack into two electrically isolated halves. With the service plug removed, the exposed main terminals of the battery present no high potential electrical danger to service technicians.{{cite web |url=http://www.prba.org/File.aspx?Path=%5CPublic%5CJARI%20presentation%20November%2011%20final.pdf |title=Leader of Battery Safety & Battery Regulation Programs - PBRA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007014707/http://www.prba.org/File.aspx?Path=%5CPublic%5CJARI |access-date=2020-09-07 |archive-date=7 October 2011 |url-status=live}}

The battery pack also contains relays, or contactors, which control the distribution of the battery pack's electrical power to the output terminals. In most cases there will be a minimum of two main relays which connect the battery cell stack to the main positive and negative output terminals of the pack, which then supply high current to the electrical drive motor. Some pack designs include alternate current paths for pre-charging the drive system through a pre-charge resistor or for powering an auxiliary bus which will also have their own associated control relays. For safety reasons these relays are all normally open.

The battery pack also contains a variety of temperature, voltage, and current sensors. Collection of data from the pack sensors and activation of the pack relays are accomplished by the pack's battery monitoring unit (BMU) or BMS. The BMS is also responsible for communications with the vehicle outside the battery pack.

Batteries in BEVs must be periodically recharged. BEVs charge from the power grid at home or using a recharging point. The energy is generated from a variety of domestic resources, such as coal, hydroelectricity, nuclear, natural gas, photovoltaic solar cell panels and wind.

With suitable power supplies, good battery lifespan is usually achieved at charging rates not exceeding half of the capacity of the battery per hour ([http://www.batteriesinaflash.com/blog/battery-c-rating-explained-and-demystified/ "0.5C"]),{{cite web |url=https://qz.com/1768921/how-to-make-electric-car-batteries-last-longer/ |title=Fast charging is not a friend of electric car batteries |last=Coren |first=Michael J. |website=Quartz |date=15 December 2019 |language=en |access-date=2020-04-26}} thereby taking two or more hours for a full charge, but faster charging is available even for large capacity batteries.{{cite web |url=https://www.jdpower.com/cars/shopping-guides/how-long-does-it-take-to-charge-an-electric-car |title=How Long Does It Take to Charge an Electric Car? |website=J.D. Power |language=en |access-date=2020-04-26}}

Charging time at home is limited by the capacity of the household electrical outlet, unless specialized electrical wiring work is done. In the US, Canada, Japan, and other countries with 120{{nbsp}}V electricity, a normal household outlet delivers 1.5 kilowatts. In other countries with 230{{nbsp}}V electricity between 7 and 14 kilowatts can be delivered (230{{nbsp}}V single phase and 400{{nbsp}}V three-phase, respectively). In Europe, a 400{{nbsp}}V (three-phase 230{{nbsp}}V) grid connection is increasingly popular since newer houses don't have natural gas connection due to the European Union's safety regulations.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024|reason=what EU safety regulation? confusion with Phase-out of gas boilers?}}

New data has shown that exposure to heat and the use of fast charging promote the degradation of Li-ion batteries more than age and actual use, and that the average electric vehicle battery will retain 90% of its initial capacity after six years and six months of service. For example, the battery in a Nissan Leaf will degrade twice as fast as the battery in a Tesla, because the Leaf does not have an active cooling system for its battery.{{cite web |date=16 December 2019 |title=New Data Shows Heat & Fast-Charging Responsible For More Battery Degradation Than Age Or Mileage |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2019/12/16/new-data-shows-heat-fast-charging-responsible-for-more-battery-degradation-than-age-or-mileage/ |website=CleanTechnica}}

A December 2024 study published in Nature Energy has prompted significant discussion within the scientific and automotive communities regarding the longevity of electric vehicle (EV) batteries. The research suggests that EV batteries, in real-world conditions, may last up to a third longer than previously estimated under laboratory conditions. This finding challenges the assumption that laboratory tests, conducted under controlled and often harsher conditions, accurately predict battery life in everyday use.{{cite web | last=Ferris | first=David | title=EV batteries can last 38% longer than expected | website=E&E News by POLITICO | date=2024-12-10 | url=https://www.eenews.net/articles/ev-batteries-can-last-38-longer-than-expected-study/ | access-date=2024-12-11}}

File:EV-charging-curves-at-300-kW-chargers-35.png

With rapid recharging, the concern about limited travel ranges loses relevance as the duration of a stops at public charging stations can be minimized. There is a growing electric vehicle charging network{{cite web |url=https://openchargemap.org/ |title=Open Charge Map|access-date=2024-06-09}} with DC powers of 150 kW and more which can add up to 300 km of range within a typical 30 minute break. Charging speed depends on the power of the charging station and the maximum load which the specific EV model can handle. At charging states over 50%, charging speed generally slows down. Typical rapid charging powers are between 30 and 80 kW. Charging at home or smaller charging stations using alternating current usually takes several hours.

The table assumes a typical consumption of 15 kWh per 100 km and takes into account that drivers should take a break every 300 km anyway.

The charging power can be connected to the car in two ways. The first is a direct electrical connection known as conductive coupling. This might be as simple as a mains lead into a weatherproof socket through special high capacity cables with connectors to protect the user from high voltages. The modern standard for plug-in vehicle charging is the SAE{{nbsp}}1772 conductive connector (IEC{{nbsp}}62196 Type{{nbsp}}1) in the US. The ACEA has chosen the VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2 (IEC{{nbsp}}62196 Type{{nbsp}}2) for deployment in Europe, which, without a latch, means unnecessary extra power requirements for the locking mechanism.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}

The second approach is known as inductive charging. A special 'paddle' is inserted into a slot on the car. The paddle is one winding of a transformer, while the other is built into the car. When the paddle is inserted it completes a magnetic circuit which provides power to the battery pack. In one inductive charging system, one winding is attached to the underside of the car, and the other stays on the floor of the garage. The advantage of the inductive approach is that there is no possibility of electrocution as there are no exposed conductors, although interlocks, special connectors and ground fault detectors can make conductive coupling nearly as safe. Inductive charging can also reduce vehicle weight, by moving more charging componentry offboard.[http://www.theautochannel.com/news/press/date/19981123/press000865.html "Car Companies' Head-on Competition In Electric Vehicle Charging."] (Website). The Auto Channel, 1998-11-24. Retrieved on 2007-08-21. An inductive charging advocate from Toyota contended in 1998, that overall cost differences were minimal, while a conductive charging advocate from Ford contended that conductive charging was more cost efficient.

{{Main|Charging station}}

{{As of|2024|June}}, there more than 200,000 locations and 400,000 EV charging stations worldwide.{{cite web |url=https://openchargemap.org/site/stats |title=Open Charge Map - Statistics |website=openchargemap.org |access-date=2024-06-09}}

The range of a BEV depends on the number and type of batteries used. The weight and type of vehicle as well as terrain, weather, and the performance of the driver also have an impact, just as they do on the mileage of traditional vehicles. Electric vehicle conversion performance depends on a number of factors including the battery chemistry. Lithium-ion battery-equipped EVs provide {{cvt|320|-|540|km}} of range per charge.{{cite web | url=https://www.edmunds.com/car-news/electric-car-range-and-consumption-epa-vs-edmunds.html | title=Edmunds Tested: Electric Car Range and Consumption | date=9 February 2021 }}

The internal resistance of some batteries may be significantly increased at low temperature{{Cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/52818.pdf|title=Wayback Machine|website=www.nrel.gov}} which can cause noticeable reduction in the range of the vehicle and on the lifetime of the battery.

With an AC system or advanced DC system, regenerative braking can extend range by up to 50% under extreme traffic conditions without complete stopping. Otherwise, the range is extended by about 10 to 15% in city driving, and only negligibly in highway driving, depending upon terrain.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

BEVs (including buses and trucks) can also use genset trailers and pusher trailers in order to extend their range when desired without the additional weight during normal short range use. Discharged basket trailers can be replaced by recharged ones en route. If rented then maintenance costs can be deferred to the agency.

Auxiliary battery capacity carried in trailers can increase the overall vehicle range, but also increases the loss of power arising from aerodynamic drag, increases weight transfer effects and reduces traction capacity.

{{Main|Battery swapping}}

An alternative to recharging is to exchange drained or nearly drained batteries (or battery range extender modules) with fully charged batteries. This is called battery swapping and is done in exchange stations.{{cite web |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/4695844a6502.html |title=Electric cars wait in the wings |date=2008-09-17 |work=Manawatu Standard |access-date=2011-09-29}}

Features of swap stations include:{{cite web |url=http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/volkswagen-says-no-to-battery-swapping-yes-to-electrics-in-u.s/ |title=Volkswagen Says 'No' to Battery Swapping, 'Yes' to Electrics in U.S. : Greentech Media |publisher=greentechmedia.com |access-date=2014-02-01 |date=2009-09-17}}

1. The consumer is no longer concerned with battery capital cost, life cycle, technology, maintenance, or warranty issues;
2. Swapping is far faster than charging: battery swap equipment built by the firm Better Place has demonstrated automated swaps in less than 60 seconds;{{cite web |url=http://blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2010/04/battery-swap-program-begins-in-tokyo-with-taxi-company-demo.html |title=What's Hot: Car News, Photos, Videos & Road Tests | Edmunds.com |publisher=blogs.edmunds.com |access-date=2014-02-01 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707140614/http://blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2010/04/battery-swap-program-begins-in-tokyo-with-taxi-company-demo.html |archive-date=2012-07-07 |url-status=dead}}
3. Swap stations increase the feasibility of distributed energy storage via the electric grid;

Concerns about swap stations include:

1. Potential for fraud (battery quality can only be measured over a full discharge cycle; battery lifetime can only be measured over repeated discharge cycles; those in the swap transaction cannot know if they are getting a worn or reduced effectiveness battery; battery quality degrades slowly over time, so worn batteries will be gradually forced into the system)
2. Manufacturers' unwillingness to standardize open-source hardware battery access and implementation details,{{cite web |url=http://www.carsguide.com.au/car-news/battery-swap-model-wont-work-18187 |title=Battery swap model ?won?t work? | carsguide.com.au |publisher=carsguide.com.au |access-date=2014-03-03}} so users must find a proprietary station
3. Safety concerns

{{Main|Vehicle-to-grid}}

Smart grid allows BEVs to provide power to the grid at any time, especially:

• During peak load periods (When the selling price of electricity can be very high. Vehicles can then be recharged during off-peak hours at cheaper rates which helps absorb excess night time generation. The vehicles serve as a distributed battery storage system to buffer power.)
• During blackouts, as backup power sources.

The safety issues of battery electric vehicles are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO [https://www.iso.org/standard/68665.html 6469]. This standard is divided into three parts:

• On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery
• Functional safety means and protection against failures
• Protection of persons against electrical hazards.

Firefighters and rescue personnel receive special training to deal with the higher voltages and chemicals encountered in electric and hybrid electric vehicle accidents. While BEV accidents may present unusual problems, such as fires and fumes resulting from rapid battery discharge, many experts agree that BEV batteries are safe in commercially available vehicles and in rear-end collisions, and are safer than gasoline-propelled cars with rear gasoline tanks.{{cite web |url=http://www.autoconnectedcar.com/2014/07/are-ev-batteries-safe-electric-car-batteries-can-be-safer-than-gas-cars |title=Are EV batteries safe? Electric car batteries can be safer than gas cars |first=Lynn |last=Walford |work=auto connected car |date=2014-07-18 |access-date=2014-07-22}}

Usually, battery performance testing includes the determination of:

• State of charge (SOC)
• State of Health (SOH)
• Energy Efficiency

Performance testing simulates the drive cycles for the drive trains of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) and Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) as per the required specifications of car manufacturers (OEMs). During these drive cycles, controlled cooling of the battery can be performed, simulating the thermal conditions in the car.

In addition, climatic chambers control environmental conditions during testing and allow simulation of the full automotive temperature range and climatic conditions.

{{See also|open hardware|patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries}}

Patents may be used to suppress development or deployment of battery technology. For example, patents relevant to the use of Nickel metal hydride cells in cars were held by an offshoot of Chevron Corporation, a petroleum company, who maintained veto power over any sale or licensing of NiMH technology.{{cite web |url=http://investor.shareholder.com/ovonics/secfiling.cfm?filingID=950134-04-18744 |title=ECD Ovonics Amended General Statement of Beneficial Ownership |access-date=2009-10-08 |date=2004-12-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090729003948/http://investor.shareholder.com/ovonics/secfiling.cfm?filingID=950134-04-18744 |archive-date=2009-07-29}}{{cite web |url=http://investor.shareholder.com/ovonics/secfiling.cfm?filingID=32878-08-30 |title=ECD Ovonics 10-Q Quarterly Report for the period ending March 31, 2008 |access-date=2009-10-08 |date=2008-03-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090728030529/http://investor.shareholder.com/ovonics/secfiling.cfm?filingID=32878-08-30 |archive-date=2009-07-28}}

As of December 2019, billions of euro in research are planned to be invested around the world for improving batteries.{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-batteries-idUSKBN1YD0WJ |title=EU approves 3.2 billion euro state aid for battery research |date=2019-12-09 |work=Reuters |access-date=2019-12-10 |language=en}}{{cite web |url=https://www.tdworld.com/distributed-energy-resources/energy-storage/article/20973343/massive-investment-in-battery-technology-accelerates-energy-transition |title=StackPath |website=tdworld.com |date=5 November 2019 |access-date=2019-12-10}}

Researchers have come up with some design considerations for contactless BEV chargers. Inductively coupled power transfer (ICPT) systems are made to transfer power efficiently from a primary source (charging station) to one or more secondary sources (BEVs) in a contactless way via magnetic coupling.{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Chwei-Sen |last2=Stielau |first2=O.H. |last3=Covic |first3=G.A. |date=October 2005 |title=Design considerations for a contactless electric vehicle battery charger |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1512462 |journal=IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=1308–1314 |doi=10.1109/TIE.2005.855672 |s2cid=13046022 |issn=1557-9948|hdl=2292/243 |hdl-access=free }}

Europe has plans for heavy investment in electric vehicle battery development and production, and Indonesia also aims to produce electric vehicle batteries in 2023, inviting Chinese battery firm GEM and Contemporary Amperex Technology Ltd to invest in Indonesia.{{cite web |url=https://paultan.org/2019/12/19/indonesia-to-produce-ev-batteries-by-2022-report/ |title=Indonesia to produce EV batteries by 2022 - report |date=19 December 2019}}{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-autos-batteries-europe-factbox-idUSKCN1NE0K5 |title=Factbox: Plans for electric vehicle battery production in Europe |date=9 November 2018 |newspaper=Reuters }}{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/european-battery-production-to-receive-financial-boost/av-48578965 |title=European battery production to receive financial boost |publisher=DW |date=2 May 2019 |website=DW.COM |access-date=16 December 2019 |archive-date=16 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216085649/https://www.dw.com/en/european-battery-production-to-receive-financial-boost/av-48578965 |url-status=dead }}{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-germany-industry-idUSKCN1S80SF |title=France and Germany commit to European electric battery industry |date=2 May 2019 |newspaper=Reuters }}{{cite web |url=https://www.mining.com/europe-aims-take-place-global-ev-battery-production-stage/ |title=Europe aims to take its place on the global EV battery production stage |date=28 March 2019}}{{cite web |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2019/06/27/catl-plans-massive-increase-in-european-battery-production/ |title=CATL Plans Massive Increase In European Battery Production |date=27 June 2019 |website=CleanTechnica}}{{cite web |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/oil-and-gas/our-insights/recharging-economies-the-ev-battery-manufacturing-outlook-for-europe |title=The 2040 outlook for EV battery manufacturing |publisher=McKinsey |website=mckinsey.com}}{{cite web |url=https://blogs.platts.com/2019/05/02/eu-powerhouse-battery-production/ |title=EU aims to become powerhouse of battery production |date=2 May 2019 |publisher=Platts Insight |website=blogs.platts.com}}

Electric double-layer capacitors (or "ultracapacitors") are used in some electric vehicles, such as AFS Trinity's concept prototype, to store rapidly available energy with their high specific power, in order to keep batteries within safe resistive heating limits and extend battery life.{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/automobiles/13ULTRA.html |work=The New York Times |title=Closing the Power Gap Between a Hybrid's Supply and Demand |first=Matthew L. |last=Wald |date=2008-01-13 |access-date=2010-05-01}}{{cite press release|url=http://www.afstrinity.net/afstrinity-xh150-pressrelease.pdf |title=AFS TRINITY UNVEILS 150 MPG EXTREME HYBRID (XH™) SUV |access-date=2009-11-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229090138/http://www.afstrinity.net/afstrinity-xh150-pressrelease.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-29}}

Since commercially available ultracapacitors have a low specific energy, no production electric cars use ultracapacitors exclusively.

In January 2020, Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla, stated that the advancements in Li-ion battery technology have made ultra-capacitors unnecessary for electric vehicles.{{cite web |url=https://electrek.co/2020/01/21/tesla-acquisition-maxwell-big-impact-battery-elon-musk/ |title=Elon Musk: Tesla acquisition of Maxwell is going to have a very big impact on batteries |last=Lambert |first=Fred |date=2020-01-21 |website=Electrek |language=en-US |access-date=2020-04-26}}

On 2 May 2022, President Biden announced the administration will begin a $3.16 billion plan to boost domestic manufacturing and recycling of batteries, in a larger effort to shift the country away from gas-powered cars to electric vehicles. The goal of the Biden administration is to have half of U.S. automobile production electric by 2030.{{cite news |last1=Natter |first1=Ari |last2=Leonard |first2=Jenny |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-05-02/biden-team-looks-to-spark-u-s-made-batteries-with-3-billion |title=Biden's Team Puts Up Over $3 Billion to Boost U.S. Battery Output |work=Bloomberg News |date=2022-05-02 |access-date=2022-05-02}}

The Inflation Reduction Act, passed on 16 August 2022, aimed to incentivize clean energy manufacturing with a $7,500 consumer tax credit for EVs with US-built batteries, and subsidies for EV plants. By October 2022, billions of dollars of investment had been announced for over two dozen US battery plants, leading some commentators to nickname the Midwest as the "Battery Belt".{{cite web |last=Weisbrod |first=Katelyn |date=2022-10-27 |title=The EV Battery Boom Is Here, With Manufacturers Investing Billions in Midwest Factories |url=https://insideclimatenews.org/news/27102022/the-ev-battery-boom-is-here-with-manufacturers-investing-billions-in-midwest-factories/ |access-date=2022-10-29 |website=Inside Climate News |language=en-US}}{{cite web |last=Lewis |first=Michelle |date=2022-10-13 |title=Here's where the new US EV 'Battery Belt' is forming – and why |url=https://electrek.co/2022/10/13/us-ev-battery-belt/ |access-date=2022-10-29 |website=Electrek |language=en-US}}

• List of electric vehicle battery manufacturers
• List of battery types
• List of battery electric vehicles
• List of hybrid vehicles

{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}

• Battery electric multiple unit
• Battery locomotive
• Battery charging
• Charging station
• Dual-mode vehicle
• Electric aircraft
• Electric car energy efficiency
• Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents
• Rechargeable battery
• Salt water battery
• Traction motor
• Vehicle-to-grid (V2G)

{{Div col end}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{Wikibooks inline|Electric vehicle conversion chapter: technologies}}
• {{Commons category-inline|Traction batteries}}

Category:Electric vehicle technologies

Category:Battery applications

Category:Rechargeable batteries