emotion classification

In discrete emotion theory, all humans are thought to have an innate set of basic emotions that are cross-culturally recognizable. These basic emotions are described as "discrete" because they are believed to be distinguishable by an individual's facial expression and biological processes.{{cite journal|last=Colombetti|first=Giovanna|title=From affect programs to dynamical discrete emotions|journal=Philosophical Psychology|date=August 2009|volume=22 |issue= 4|pages=407–425|doi=10.1080/09515080903153600|citeseerx= 10.1.1.728.9666|s2cid=40157414}} Theorists have conducted studies to determine which emotions are basic. A popular example is Paul Ekman and his colleagues' cross-cultural study of 1992, in which they concluded that the six basic emotions are anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.{{cite journal|last=Ekman|first=Paul|title=Facial Expressions of Emotion: New Findings, New Questions|journal=Psychological Science|date=January 1992|volume=3 |issue= 1|pages=34–38|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00253.x|s2cid=9274447}} Ekman explains that there are particular characteristics attached to each of these emotions, allowing them to be expressed in varying degrees in a non-verbal manner.{{Cite journal |last=Bąk |first=Halszka |date=2023-12-01 |title=Issues in the translation equivalence of basic emotion terms |journal=Ampersand |volume=11 |pages=100128 |doi=10.1016/j.amper.2023.100128 |issn=2215-0390|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Elfenbein |first1=Hillary Anger |last2=Ambady |first2=Nalini |date=2003-10-01 |title=Universals and Cultural Differences in Recognizing Emotions |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/1467-8721.01252 |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |language=en |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=159–164 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.01252 |s2cid=262438746 |issn=0963-7214}} Each emotion acts as a discrete category rather than an individual emotional state.

Humans' subjective experience is that emotions are clearly recognizable in ourselves and others. This apparent ease of recognition has led to the identification of a number of emotions that are said to be basic, and universal among all people. However, a debate among experts has questioned this understanding of what emotions are. There has been recent discussion of the progression on the different views of emotion over the years.{{cite journal|last1=Gendron|first1=Maria|last2=Barrett|first2=Lisa Feldman|title=Reconstructing the Past: A Century of Ideas About Emotion in Psychology|journal=Emotion Review|date=October 2009|volume=1|issue=4|pages=316–339|doi=10.1177/1754073909338877|pmid=20221412|pmc=2835158}}

On "basic emotion" accounts, activation of an emotion, such as anger, sadness, or fear, is "triggered" by the brain's appraisal of a stimulus or event with respect to the perceiver's goals or survival. In particular, the function, expression, and meaning of different emotions are hypothesized to be biologically distinct from one another. A theme common to many basic emotions theories is that there should be functional signatures that distinguish different emotions: we should be able to tell what emotion a person is feeling by looking at his or her brain activity and/or physiology. Furthermore, knowledge of what the person is seeing or the larger context of the eliciting event should not be necessary to deduce what the person is feeling from observing the biological signatures.{{cite journal|last=Ekman|first=Paul|title=An Argument for Basic Emotions|journal=Cognition and Emotion|year=1992|volume=6|issue=3/4|pages=169–200|doi=10.1080/02699939208411068|citeseerx=10.1.1.454.1984}}

On "constructionist" accounts, the emotion a person feels in response to a stimulus or event is "constructed" from more elemental biological and psychological ingredients. Two hypothesized ingredients are "core affect" (characterized by, e.g., hedonic valence and physiological arousal) and conceptual knowledge (such as the semantic meaning of the emotion labels themselves, e.g., the word "anger"). A theme common to many constructionist theories is that different emotions do not have specific locations in the nervous system or distinct physiological signatures, and that context is central to the emotion a person feels because of the accessibility of different concepts afforded by different contexts.{{cite journal|last=Barrett|first=Lisa Feldman|title=Solving the Emotion Paradox: Categorization and the Experience of Emotion|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review|year=2006|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–46|doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr1001_2|pmid=16430327|s2cid=7750265}}

For both theoretical and practical reasons, researchers define emotions according to one or more dimensions. In his philosophical treatise, The Passions of the Soul, Descartes defines and investigates the six primary passions (Wonder, love, hate, desire, joy, and sadness). In 1897, Wilhelm Max Wundt, the father of modern psychology, proposed that emotions can be described by three dimensions: "pleasurable versus unpleasurable", "arousing or subduing", and "strain or relaxation".{{Cite web |title=Outlines of Psychology. (1897). In: Classics in the history of psychology |url=http://psychclassics.asu.edu/index.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010224041216/http://psychclassics.asu.edu/index.htm |archive-date=2001-02-24}} In 1954, Harold Schlosberg named three dimensions of emotion: "pleasantness–unpleasantness", "attention–rejection" and "level of activation".{{cite journal | last1 = Schlosberg | first1 = H. | s2cid = 27914497 | year = 1954 | title = Three dimensions of emotion | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 61 | issue = 2| pages = 81–8 | doi=10.1037/h0054570| pmid = 13155714 }}

Dimensional models of emotion attempt to conceptualize human emotions by defining where they lie in two or three dimensions. Most dimensional models incorporate valence and arousal or intensity dimensions. Dimensional models of emotion suggest that a common and interconnected neurophysiological system is responsible for all affective states.{{cite journal|last=Posner|first=Jonathan |author2=Russell, J.A. |author3=Peterson, B. S.|title=The circumplex model of affect: An integrative approach to affective neuroscience, cognitive development, and psychopathology|journal=Development and Psychopathology|year=2005|volume=17|issue=3 |pages=715–734|doi=10.1017/s0954579405050340|pmid=16262989|pmc=2367156}} These models contrast theories of basic emotion, which propose that different emotions arise from separate neural systems. Several dimensional models of emotion have been developed, though there are just a few that remain as the dominant models currently accepted by most. The two-dimensional models that are most prominent are the circumplex model, the vector model, and the Positive Activation – Negative Activation (PANA) model.{{cite journal|last=Rubin|first=D. C.|author2=Talerico, J.M.|title=A comparison of dimensional models of emotion|journal=Memory|year=2009|volume=17|issue=8|pages=802–808|doi=10.1080/09658210903130764|pmid=19691001|pmc=2784275}}

File:Circumplex model of emotion.svg

The circumplex model of emotion was developed by James Russell.{{cite journal|last=Russell|first=James|title=A circumplex model of affect|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|year=1980|volume=39|issue=6|pages=1161–1178|doi=10.1037/h0077714|hdl=10983/22919|hdl-access=free}} This model suggests that emotions are distributed in a two-dimensional circular space, containing arousal and valence dimensions. Arousal represents the vertical axis and valence represents the horizontal axis, while the center of the circle represents a neutral valence and a medium level of arousal. In this model, emotional states can be represented at any level of valence and arousal, or at a neutral level of one or both of these factors. Circumplex models have been used most commonly to test stimuli of emotion words, emotional facial expressions, and affective states.{{cite journal|last=Remington|first=N. A.|author2=Fabrigar, L. R. |author3=Visser, P. S. |title=Re-examining the circumplex model of affect|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|year=2000|volume=79|issue=2|pages=286–300|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.79.2.286|pmid=10948981}}

Russell and Lisa Feldman Barrett describe their modified circumplex model as representative of core affect, or the most elementary feelings that are not necessarily directed toward anything. Different prototypical emotional episodes, or clear emotions that are evoked or directed by specific objects, can be plotted on the circumplex, according to their levels of arousal and pleasure.{{cite journal|last=Russell|first=James|author2=Feldman Barrett, Lisa|title=Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: dissecting the elephant|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|year=1999|volume=76|issue=5|pages=805–819|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.805|pmid=10353204}}

File:Vector model of emotion.svg

The vector model of emotion appeared in 1992.{{cite journal|last=Bradley|first=M. M.|author2=Greenwald, M. K. |author3=Petry, M.C. |author4=Lang, P. J. |title=Remembering pictures: Pleasure and arousal in memory|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|year=1992|volume=18|issue=2|pages=379–390|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.18.2.379 |pmid=1532823}} This two-dimensional model consists of vectors that point in two directions, representing a "boomerang" shape. The model assumes that there is always an underlying arousal dimension, and that valence determines the direction in which a particular emotion lies. For example, a positive valence would shift the emotion up the top vector and a negative valence would shift the emotion down the bottom vector. In this model, high arousal states are differentiated by their valence, whereas low arousal states are more neutral and are represented near the meeting point of the vectors. Vector models have been most widely used in the testing of word and picture stimuli.

The positive activation – negative activation (P.A.N.A.) or "consensual" model of emotion, originally created by Watson and Tellegen in 1985, suggests that positive affect and negative affect are two separate systems. Similar to the vector model, states of higher arousal tend to be defined by their valence, and states of lower arousal tend to be more neutral in terms of valence. In the P.A.N.A. model, the vertical axis represents low to high positive affect and the horizontal axis represents low to high negative affect. The dimensions of valence and arousal lay at a 45-degree rotation over these axes.{{cite journal|last=Watson|first=D.|author2=Tellegen, A.|title=Toward a consensual structure of mood|journal=Psychological Bulletin|year=1985|volume=98|issue=2|pages=219–235|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.219|pmid=3901060}}

Robert Plutchik offers a three-dimensional model that is a hybrid of both basic-complex categories and dimensional theories. It arranges emotions in concentric circles where inner circles are more basic and outer circles more complex. Notably, outer circles are also formed by blending the inner circle emotions. Plutchik's model, as Russell's, emanates from a circumplex representation, where emotional words were plotted based on similarity.{{cite news|url=http://americanscientist.org/articles/01articles/Plutchik.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010716082847/http://americanscientist.org/articles/01articles/Plutchik.html |archive-date=July 16, 2001 |title=The Nature of Emotions |publisher=American Scientist |last=Plutchik |first=R |author-link=Robert Plutchik |access-date=14 April 2011 |url-status=unfit }} There are numerous emotions, which appear in several intensities and can be combined in various ways to form emotional "dyads".{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaQauznPoiEC&q=robert+plutchik's+the+nature+of+emotions&pg=PA34|title=The Emotions|first=Robert|last=Plutchik|date=16 September 1991|publisher=University Press of America|access-date=16 September 2017|via=Google Books|page=110|isbn=9780819182869}}{{cite news

|url=http://americanscientist.org/articles/01articles/Plutchik.html

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{{cite web|url=http://www.adliterate.com/archives/Plutchik.emotion.theorie.POSTER.pdf |title=Robert Plutchik's Psychoevolutionary Theory of Basic Emotions |website=Adliterate.com |access-date=2017-06-05}}{{cite book|author=Jonathan Turner|title=On the Origins of Human Emotions: A Sociological Inquiry Into the Evolution of Human Affect|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aEeSmDRsXkcC&pg=PA76|date=1 June 2000|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-6436-0|page=76}}{{cite journal|title=A Fuzzy Inference System for Synergy Estimation of Simultaneous Emotion Dynamics in Agents|journal=International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research|volume=2|issue=6|date=June 2011|url=http://www.ijser.org/paper/A_Fuzzy_Inference_System_for_Synergy_Estimation_of_Simultaneous_Emotion_Dynamics_in_Agents.html|author1=Atifa Athar|author2=M. Saleem Khan|author3=Khalil Ahmed|author4=Aiesha Ahmed|author5=Nida Anwar}}

{{Main articles|PAD emotional state model}}

The PAD emotional state model is a psychological model developed by Albert Mehrabian and James A. Russell to describe and measure emotional states. PAD uses three numerical dimensions to represent all emotions.{{cite book |title=Basic dimensions for a general psychological theory |first=Albert |last=Mehrabian |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89946-004-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/basicdimensionsf0000mehr/page/39 39–53] |publisher=Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/basicdimensionsf0000mehr/page/39 }}{{cite book |title=Social interaction systems: theory and measurement |first=Robert Freed |last=Bales |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7658-0872-1 |pages=139–140 |publisher=Transaction Publishers }} The PAD dimensions are Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance.

• The Pleasure-Displeasure Scale measures how pleasant an emotion may be. For instance, both anger and fear are unpleasant emotions, and score high on the displeasure scale. However, joy is a pleasant emotion.

• The Arousal-Nonarousal Scale measures how energized or soporific one feels. It is not the intensity of the emotion—for grief and depression can be low arousal intense feelings. While both anger and rage are unpleasant emotions, rage has a higher intensity or a higher arousal state. However boredom, which is also an unpleasant state, has a low arousal value.

• The Dominance-Submissiveness Scale represents the controlling and dominant nature of the emotion. For instance, while both fear and anger are unpleasant emotions, anger is a dominant emotion, while fear is a submissive emotion.

Ethnographic and cross-cultural studies of emotions have shown the variety of ways in which emotions differ with cultures. Because of these differences, many cross-cultural psychologists and anthropologists challenge the idea of universal classifications of emotions altogether. Cultural differences have been observed in the way in which emotions are valued, expressed, and regulated. The social norms for emotions, such as the frequency with or circumstances in which they are expressed, also vary drastically.{{cite journal|last=Mesquita|first=Batja|author2=Nico Frijda|title=Cultural variations in emotions: a review|journal=Psychological Bulletin|date=September 1992|volume=112|issue=2|pages=179–204|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.112.2.179|pmid=1454891}}{{cite journal|last=Russell|first=James|title=Culture and Categorization of Emotions|journal=Psychological Bulletin|year=1991|volume=110|issue=3|pages=426–450|url=https://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/psyc-bull1991.pdf|access-date=15 December 2015|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.110.3.426|pmid=1758918|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304190605/https://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/psyc-bull1991.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-04|url-status=dead}} For example, the demonstration of anger is encouraged by Kaluli people, but condemned by Utku Inuit.{{cite journal|last=Eid|first=Michael|author2=Ed Diener|title=Norms for experiencing emotions in different cultures: Inter- and intranational differences|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|date=November 2001|volume=81|issue=5|pages=869–885|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.869 |pmid=11708563}}{{subscription required}}

The largest piece of evidence that disputes the universality of emotions is language. Differences within languages directly correlate to differences in emotion taxonomy. Languages differ in that they categorize emotions based on different components. Some may categorize by event types, whereas others categorize by action readiness. Furthermore, emotion taxonomies vary due to the differing implications emotions have in different languages. That being said, not all English words have equivalents in all other languages and vice versa, indicating that there are words for emotions present in some languages but not in others.{{cite journal|last=Wierzbicka|first=Anna|title=Human Emotions: Universal or Culture-Specific?|journal=American Anthropologist|date=September 1986|volume=88|issue=3|pages=584–594|doi=10.1525/aa.1986.88.3.02a00030|jstor=679478}}{{subscription required}} Emotions such as the schadenfreude in German and saudade in Portuguese are commonly expressed in emotions in their respective languages, but lack an English equivalent.

Some languages do not differentiate between emotions that are considered to be the basic emotions in English. For instance, certain African languages have one word for both anger and sadness, and others for shame and fear. There is ethnographic evidence that even challenges the universality of the category "emotions" because certain cultures lack a specific word relating to the English word "emotions".

Emotions are categorized into various affects, which correspond to the current situation.{{cite journal|title=Solving the Emotion Paradox : Categorization and the Experience of Emotion|author=Lisa Feldman Barrett|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review|year=2006|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–46|s2cid=7750265|doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr1001_2|pmid=16430327}} An affect is the range of feeling experienced.{{cite web|url=http://catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk/samplechapter/0132431564.pdf|title=Emotions and Moods|website=Catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk|access-date=20 October 2017|archive-date=8 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108054918/http://catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk/samplechapter/0132431564.pdf|url-status=dead}} Both positive and negative emotions are needed in our daily lives.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PYKmAgAAQBAJ&q=positive+vs+negative+emotions|title=The Positive Side of Negative Emotions|last=Parrott|first=W. Gerrod|date=27 January 2014|publisher=Guilford Publications|isbn=9781462513338|access-date=19 December 2018|via=Google Books}} Many theories of emotion have been proposed,{{cite journal|url=http://brainblogger.com/2014/10/22/comparing-the-5-theories-of-emotion/|title=Comparing The 5 Theories of Emotion – Brain Blogger|journal=Mind|year=1884|volume=os-IX|issue=34|pages=188–205|doi=10.1093/mind/os-IX.34.188|access-date=23 November 2017}} with contrasting views.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ExILFpIhgpAC&q=contrasting+theories+on+emotion&pg=PA10|title=Emotion|last=Candland|first=Douglas|date=23 November 2017|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=9780595270262|access-date=23 November 2017|via=Google Books}}

• William James in 1890 proposed four basic emotions: fear, grief, love, and rage, based on bodily involvement.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nPFIy6WBgPYC&q=Fear,+grief,+love,+rage+william+james&pg=PA449|title=The Principles of Psychology|last=James|first=William|date=1 April 2007|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|isbn=9781602063136|access-date=20 October 2017|via=Google Books}}
• Paul Ekman identified six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.{{cite web|url=http://www.theemotionmachine.com/classification-of-emotions|title=Classification of Emotions|last=Handel|first=Steven|date=2011-05-24|access-date=30 April 2012}} Wallace V. Friesen and Phoebe C. Ellsworth worked with him on the same basic structure.{{cite web|url=https://www.paulekman.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Are-There-Basic-Emotions1.pdf|title=Are There Basic Emotions?|website=Paulekam.com|access-date=20 October 2017}} The emotions can be linked to facial expressions. In the 1990s, Ekman proposed an expanded list of basic emotions, including a range of positive and negative emotions that are not all encoded in facial muscles.{{citation|last=Ekman|first=Paul|title=Handbook of Cognition and Emotion|url=http://www.paulekman.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Basic-Emotions.pdf|year=1999|editor1-last=Dalgleish|editor1-first=T|contribution=Basic Emotions|place=Sussex, UK|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|editor2-last=Power|editor2-first=M}} The newly included emotions are: amusement, contempt, contentment, embarrassment, excitement, guilt, pride in achievement, relief, satisfaction, sensory pleasure, and shame.
• Richard and Bernice Lazarus in 1996 expanded the list to 15 emotions: aesthetic experience, anger, anxiety, compassion, depression, envy, fright, gratitude, guilt, happiness, hope, jealousy, love, pride, relief, sadness, and shame, in the book Passion and Reason.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kj5RDAAAQBAJ|title=Passion and Reason: Making Sense of Our Emotions|last1=Lazarus|first1=Richard S.|last2=Lazarus|first2=Bernice N.|date=23 September 1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195104615|access-date=23 September 2017|via=Google Books}}{{cite web|url=http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/recognizing.htm|title=Emotional Competency – Recognize these emotions|website=Emotionalcompetency.com|access-date=23 September 2017}}
• Researchers{{cite journal|title=Self-report captures 27 distinct categories of emotion bridged by continuous gradients|last1=Cowen|first1=Alan S.|last2=Keltner|first2=Dacher|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|date=2017|volume=114|issue=38|pages=E7900–E7909|doi=10.1073/pnas.1702247114|pmid=28874542|pmc=5617253|bibcode=2017PNAS..114E7900C |doi-access=free}} at University of California, Berkeley identified 27 categories of emotion: admiration, adoration, aesthetic appreciation, amusement, anger, anxiety, awe, awkwardness, boredom, calmness, confusion, craving, disgust, empathic pain, entrancement, excitement, fear, horror, interest, joy, nostalgia, relief, romance, sadness, satisfaction, sexual desire and surprise.{{cite web|url=http://www.sci-news.com/othersciences/psychology/27-categories-emotion-05212.html|title=Psychologists Identify Twenty Seven Distinct Categories of Emotion – Psychology|website=Sci-news.com|access-date=23 November 2017}} This was based on 2185 short videos intended to elicit a certain emotion. These were then modeled onto a "map" of emotions.{{Cite web|url=https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html|title=The Emotions Evoked by Video|access-date=2017-09-11}}

A 2009 review{{cite web|url=http://www.visio-moralis.co.uk/mind_and_brain/publications/pdf_files/NJPemotionsPaper.pdf|title=Brain function, mental experience and personality|author=Robinson, D. L.|date=2009|publisher=The Netherlands Journal of Psychology|pages=152–167|volume=64}} of theories of emotion identifies and contrasts fundamental emotions according to three key criteria for mental experiences that:

1. have a strongly motivating subjective quality like pleasure or pain;
2. are a response to some event or object that is either real or imagined;
3. motivate particular kinds of behavior.

The combination of these attributes distinguishes emotions from sensations, feelings and moods.

Researchers distinguish several emotion dynamics, most commonly how intense (mean level), variable (fluctuations), inert (temporal dependency), instable (magnitude of moment-to-moment fluctuations), or differentiated someone's emotions are (the specificity of granularity of emotions), and whether and how an emotion augments or blunts other emotions.{{cite journal |author=Reitsema, A.M. |year=2022 |title=Emotion dynamics in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic and descriptive review |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/157627760/2021_Reitsema_Emotion_Dynamics_in_Children_and_Adolescents.pdf |journal=Emotion |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=374–396 |doi=10.1037/emo0000970 |pmid=34843305 |s2cid=244748515}} Meta-analytic reviews show systematic developmental changes in emotion dynamics throughout childhood and adolescence and substantial between-person differences.

The emotion annotation and representation language (EARL) proposed by the Human-Machine Interaction Network on Emotion (HUMAINE) classifies 48 emotions.{{cite web|url=http://emotion-research.net/projects/humaine/earl|title=HUMAINE Emotion Annotation and Representation Language|publisher=Emotion-research.net|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411092724/http://emotion-research.net/projects/humaine/earl|archive-date=April 11, 2008|access-date=June 30, 2006}}{{div col|colwidth=13em}}

• Negative and forceful
• Anger
• Annoyance
• Contempt
• Disgust
• Irritation
• Negative and not in control
• Anxiety
• Embarrassment
• Fear
• Helplessness
• Powerlessness
• Worry
• Negative thoughts
• Doubt
• Envy
• Frustration
• Guilt
• Shame
• Negative and passive
• Boredom
• Despair
• Disappointment
• Hurt
• Sadness
• Agitation
• Stress
• Shock
• Tension
• Positive and lively
• Amusement
• Delight
• Elation
• Excitement
• Happiness
• Joy
• Pleasure
• Caring
• Affection
• Empathy
• Friendliness
• Love
• Positive thoughts
• Pride
• Courage
• Hope
• Humility
• Satisfaction
• Trust
• Quiet positive
• Calmness
• Contentment
• Relaxation
• Relief
• Serenity
• Reactive
• Interest
• Politeness
• Surprise

{{div col end}}

A tree-structured list of emotions was described in Shaver et al. (1987),{{cite journal|author1=Shaver, P.|author2=Schwartz, J.|author3=Kirson, D.|author4=O'connor, C.|year=1987|title=Emotion knowledge: further exploration of a prototype approach|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=52|issue=6|pages=1061–86|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061|pmid=3598857}} and also featured in Parrott (2001).{{cite book|title=Emotions in Social Psychology|author=Parrott, W.|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0863776830|series=Key Readings in Social Psychology|location=Philadelphia}}

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}}In 1980, Robert Plutchik diagrammed a wheel of eight emotions: joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger and anticipation, inspired by his Ten Postulates.{{cite web|url=http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html|title=Basic Emotions—Plutchik|website=Personalityresearch.org|access-date=1 September 2017}}{{cite news|url=http://americanscientist.org/articles/01articles/Plutchik.html|title=The Nature of Emotions|last=Plutchik|first=R|access-date=14 April 2011|url-status=unfit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010716082847/http://americanscientist.org/articles/01articles/Plutchik.html|archive-date=July 16, 2001|publisher=American Scientist|author-link=Robert Plutchik}} Plutchik also theorized twenty-four "Primary", "Secondary", and "Tertiary" dyads (feelings composed of two emotions).{{cite web|url=http://www.adliterate.com/archives/Plutchik.emotion.theorie.POSTER.pdf|title=Robert Plutchik's Psychoevolutionary Theory of Basic Emotions|website=Adliterate.com|access-date=2017-06-05}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aEeSmDRsXkcC&pg=PA76|title=On the Origins of Human Emotions: A Sociological Inquiry Into the Evolution of Human Affect|author=Jonathan Turner|date=1 June 2000|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-6436-0|page=76}}{{cite journal|author1=Atifa Athar|author2=M. Saleem Khan|author3=Khalil Ahmed|author4=Aiesha Ahmed|author5=Nida Anwar|date=June 2011|title=A Fuzzy Inference System for Synergy Estimation of Simultaneous Emotion Dynamics in Agents|url=http://www.ijser.org/paper/A_Fuzzy_Inference_System_for_Synergy_Estimation_of_Simultaneous_Emotion_Dynamics_in_Agents.html|journal=International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research|volume=2|issue=6}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yUAlDwAAQBAJ&q=plutchik+dyads&pg=PA67|title=Alienation and Affect|last=TenHouten|first=Warren D.|date=1 December 2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9781317678533|access-date=25 June 2019|via=Google Books}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vBWcCgAAQBAJ&q=plutchik+dyads&pg=PA47|title=Entertainment Computing - ICEC 2015: 14th International Conference, ICEC 2015, Trondheim, Norway, September 29 - October 2, 2015, Proceedings|last1=Chorianopoulos|first1=Konstantinos|last2=Divitini|first2=Monica|last3=Hauge|first3=Jannicke Baalsrud|last4=Jaccheri|first4=Letizia|last5=Malaka|first5=Rainer|date=24 September 2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783319245898|access-date=25 June 2019|via=Google Books}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaQauznPoiEC&q=emotion+intensity+plutchik+wheel|title=The Emotions|last=Plutchik|first=Robert|date=25 June 1991|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=9780819182869|access-date=25 June 2019|via=Google Books}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CDGICgAAQBAJ&q=plutchik+adoration&pg=PT481|title=Consumer Behaviour: Perspectives, Findings and Explanations|last=O'Shaughnessy|first=John|date=4 December 2012|publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education|isbn=9781137003782|access-date=25 June 2019|via=Google Books}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The wheel emotions can be paired in four groups:

: Primary dyad = one petal apart = Love = Joy + Trust

: Secondary dyad = two petals apart = Envy = Sadness + Anger

: Tertiary dyad = three petals apart = Shame = Fear + Disgust

: Opposite emotions = four petals apart = Anticipation ∉ Surprise

There are also triads, emotions formed from 3 primary emotions, though Plutchik never describes in any detail what the triads might be.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaQauznPoiEC&q=triad+plutchik+the+emotions&pg=PA115|title=The Emotions|last=Plutchik|first=Robert|date=31 December 1991|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=9780819182869|access-date=31 December 2018|via=Google Books}} This leads to a combination of 24 dyads and 32 triads, making 56 emotions at 1 intensity level.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7DQNAQAAMAAJ&q=24+dyads+and+32+triads|title=The face of emotion|last=Izard|first=Carroll Ellis|date=31 December 1971|publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts|isbn=9780390478313|via=Google Books|access-date=31 December 2018}} Emotions can be mild or intense;{{cite web|url=http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/papers/plutchiknatureofemotions%202001.pdf|title=The Nature of Emotions|website=Emotionalcompetency.com|access-date=2017-09-16}} for example, distraction is a mild form of surprise, and rage is an intense form of anger. The kinds of relation between each pair of emotions are:

Similar emotions in the wheel are adjacent to each other.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaQauznPoiEC&q=robert+plutchik's+the+nature+of+emotions&pg=PA34|title=The Emotions|last=Plutchik|first=Robert|date=16 September 1991|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=9780819182869|page=110|access-date=16 September 2017|via=Google Books}} Anger, Anticipation, Joy, and Trust are positive in valence, while Fear, Surprise, Sadness, and Disgust are negative in valence. Anger is classified as a "positive" emotion because it involves "moving toward" a goal,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=luHgAwAAQBAJ&q=plutchik+loneliness&pg=PA15|title=Emotion and Reason: Mind, Brain, and the Social Domains of Work and Love|last=TenHouten|first=Warren D.|date=23 June 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317580614|via=Google Books|access-date=10 December 2019}} while surprise is negative because it is a violation of someone's territory.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fLZ_AgAAQBAJ&q=plutchik+%22unhappy+surprise%22&pg=PT83|title=A General Theory of Emotions and Social Life|last=TenHouten|first=Warren D.|date=22 November 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134229079|via=Google Books|access-date=10 December 2019}} The emotion dyads each have half-opposites and exact opposites:{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Iugww7z9JIC&q=plutchik+dyad+half-opposites&pg=PA73|title=A General Theory of Emotions and Social Life|last=TenHouten|first=Warren D.|date=22 November 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134229086|via=Google Books|access-date=10 December 2019}}

MIT researchers published a paper titled "An Affective Model of Interplay Between Emotions and Learning: Reengineering Educational Pedagogy—Building a Learning Companion" that lists six axes of emotions with different opposite emotions, and different emotions coming from ranges.{{cite book|title=Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies|last1=Kort|first1=B.|last2=Reilly|first2=R.|last3=Picard|first3=R.W.|year=2001|isbn=0-7695-1013-2|pages=43–46|chapter=An affective model of interplay between emotions and learning: Reengineering educational pedagogy-building a learning companion|doi=10.1109/ICALT.2001.943850|s2cid=9573470|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/568626|via=Academia.edu}}

They also made a model labeling phases of learning emotions.

Tiffany Watt Smith listed 154 different worldwide emotions and feelings.{{cite web |url=http://anarchiveforemotions.com/files/DisOrder_uploads/images/TheBookOfHumanEmotions.pdf |title=The Book of Human Emotions: An Encyclopedia of Feeling from Anger to Wanderlust |author=Tiffany Watt Smith |website=Anarchiveforemotions.com |access-date=2017-05-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418032350/http://anarchiveforemotions.com/files/DisOrder_uploads/images/TheBookOfHumanEmotions.pdf |archive-date=18 April 2021 |url-status=dead}}

{{div col|colwidth=13em}}

• A
• Abhiman
• Acedia
• Amae
• Ambiguphobia
• Anger
• Anticipation
• Anxiety
• Apathy
• L’appel du vide
• Awumbuk
• B
• Bafflement
• Basorexia
• Befuddlement
• Bewilderment
• Boredom
• Brabant
• Broodiness
• C
• Calm
• Carefree
• Cheerfulness
• Cheesed (off)
• Claustrophobia
• Collywobbles, the
• Comfort
• Compassion
• Compersion
• Confidence
• Contempt
• Contentment
• Courage
• Curiosity
• Cyberchondria
• D
• Delight
• Dépaysement
• Desire
• Despair
• Disappear, the desire to
• Disappointment
• Disgruntlement
• Disgust
• Dismay
• Dolce far niente
• Dread
• E
• Ecstasy
• Embarrassment
• Empathy
• Envy
• Euphoria
• Exasperation
• Excitement
• F
• Fago
• Fear
• Feeling good (about yourself)
• Formal feeling, a
• Fraud, feeling like a
• Frustration
• G
• Gezelligheid
• Gladsomeness
• Glee
• Gratitude
• Greng jai
• Grief
• Guilt
• H
• Han
• Happiness
• Hatred
• Heebie-Jeebies, the
• Hiraeth
• Hoard, the urge to
• Homefulness
• Homesickness
• Hopefulness
• Huff, in a
• Humble, feeling
• Humiliation
• Hunger
• Hwyl
• I
• Ijirashi
• Ikstuarpok
• Ilinx
• Impatience
• Indignation
• Inhabitiveness
• Insulted, feeling
• Irritation
• J
• Jealousy
• Joy
• K
• Kaukokaipuu
• L
• Liget{{cite news |url= https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2017/06/01/529876861/an-anthropologist-discovers-the-terrible-emotion-locked-in-a-word|title= Invisibilia: A Man Finds An Explosive Emotion Locked In A Word|newspaper= NPR.org|access-date=2017-12-29}}
• Litost
• Loneliness
• Love
• M
• Malu
• Man
• Matutolypea
• Mehameha
• Melancholy
• Miffed, a bit
• Mono no aware
• Morbid curiosity
• Mudita
• N
• Nakhes
• Nginyiwarrarringu
• Nostalgia
• O
• Oime
• Overwhelmed, feeling
• P
• Panic
• Paranoia
• Perversity
• Peur des espaces
• Philoprogenitiveness
• Pique, a fit of
• Pity
• Postal, going
• Pride
• Pronoia
• R
• Rage
• Regret
• Relief
• Reluctance
• Remorse
• Reproachfulness
• Resentment
• Ringxiety
• Rivalry
• Road rage
• Ruinenlust
• S
• Sadness
• Satisfaction
• Saudade
• Schadenfreude
• Self-pity
• Shame
• Shock
• Smugness
• Song
• Surprise
• Suspicion
• T
• Technostress
• Terror
• Torschlusspanik
• Toska
• Triumph
• U
• Umpty
• Uncertainty
• V
• Vengefulness
• Vergüenza ajena
• Viraha
• Vulnerability
• W
• Wanderlust
• Warm glow
• Wonder
• Worry
• Z
• Żal

{{div col end}}

Scientists map twenty-one different facial emotions{{cite news |date=31 March 2014 |title=Happily disgusted? Scientists map facial expressions for 21 emotions |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/mar/31/happily-disgusted-scientists-map-facial-expressions}}{{cite web |author=Jacque Wilson |date=2014-04-04 |title=Happily disgusted? 15 new emotions ID'd |url=http://www.ksl.com/?sid=29340839&nid= |access-date=2017-07-16 |website=KSL.com}} expanded from Paul Ekman's six basic emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise:

• Aesthetic emotions
• Affect measures
• Affective neuroscience
• Alexithymia
• Emotion and memory
• Emotional granularity
• List of virtues
• Mood (psychology)
• Moral emotions
• Social emotions
• Unipolar emotions

• Ekman, P. (1972). Universals and cultural differences in facial expression of emotion. In J. Cole (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press: pp. 207–283.
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• Ekman, P. (1999). Basic Emotions. In T. Dalgleish and T. Power (Eds.) The Handbook of Cognition and Emotion Pp. 45–60. Sussex, U.K.: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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• Prinz, J. (2004). Gut Reactions: A Perceptual Theory of Emotions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|9780195309362}}
• {{cite journal | last1 = Sugu | first1 = Dana | last2 = Chaterjee | first2 = Amita | year = 2010 | title = Flashback: Reshuffling Emotions | url = https://sites.google.com/site/sugudana/articles-1 | journal = International Journal on Humanistic Ideology | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | access-date = 2010-11-11 | archive-date = 2011-04-30 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110430041037/https://sites.google.com/site/sugudana/articles-1 | url-status = dead }}
• {{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.37.3.345 | last1 = Russell | first1 = J.A. | s2cid = 17557962 | year = 1979 | title = Affective space is bipolar | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 37 | issue = 3| pages = 345–356 }}
• {{cite journal | last1 = Russell | first1 = J.A. | title = Culture and the categorization of emotions | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 110 | issue = 3 | pages = 426–50 | year = 1991 | pmid = 1758918 | url = https://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/psyc-bull1991.pdf | access-date = 15 December 2015 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.110.3.426 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304190605/https://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/psyc-bull1991.pdf | archive-date = 2016-03-04 | url-status = dead }}

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Category:Emotion