freediving

{{See also|Sponge diving|Pearl hunting}}

File:Bern Cod.318, f.020v-de lapide acato(agate).jpg]]

In ancient times freediving without the aid of mechanical devices was the only possibility, with the exception of the occasional use of reeds and leather breathing bladders. The divers faced the same problems as divers today, such as blacking out during a breath hold. Freediving was practiced in ancient cultures to gather food, harvest resources such as sponge and pearl, reclaim sunken valuables, and to help aid military campaigns.

In Ancient Greece, both Plato and Homer mention the sponge as being used for bathing. The island of Kalymnos was a main centre of diving for sponges. By using weights (skandalopetra) of as much as {{convert|15|kg|lb}} to speed the descent, breath-holding divers would descend to depths up to {{convert|30|m|ft}} to collect sponges. Harvesting of red coral was also done by divers.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}

The Mediterranean had large amounts of maritime trade. As a result of shipwrecks, particularly in the fierce winter storms, divers were often hired to salvage whatever they could from the seabed. Divers would swim down to the wreck and choose the most valuable pieces to salvage.

Divers were also used in warfare. Defenses against sea vessels were often created, such as underwater barricades, and hence divers were often used to scout out the seabed when ships were approaching an enemy harbor. If barricades were found, it was divers who were used to disassemble them, if possible. During the Peloponnesian War, divers were used to get past enemy blockades to relay messages as well as supplies to allies or troops that were cut off, and in 332 BC, during the Siege of Tyre, the city used divers to cut the anchor cables of Alexander's attacking ships.

In Japan, ama divers began to collect pearls about 2,000 years ago.

For thousands of years, most seawater pearls were retrieved by divers working in the Indian Ocean, in areas such as the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and in the Gulf of Mannar (between Sri Lanka and India). A fragment of Isidore of Charax's Parthian itinerary was preserved in Athenaeus's 3rd-century Sophists at Dinner, recording freediving for pearls around an island in the Persian Gulf.

Pearl divers near the Philippines were also successful at harvesting large pearls, especially in the Sulu Archipelago. At times, the largest pearls belonged by law to the sultan, and selling them could result in the death penalty for the seller. Nonetheless, many pearls made it out of the archipelago by stealth, ending up in the possession of the wealthiest families in Europe. Pearling was popular in Qatar, Bahrain, Japan, and India. The Gulf of Mexico was also known for pearling.

Native Americans harvested freshwater pearls from lakes and rivers like the Ohio, Tennessee, and Mississippi, while others dived for marine pearls from the Caribbean and waters along the coasts of Central and South America.

In 1940, Dottie Frazier pioneered freediving for women in the United States and also began teaching classes. It was also during this time that she began to design and sell rubber suits for Navy UDT divers.

Spearfishing is an ancient method of fishing that has been used throughout the world for millennia. Early civilizations were familiar with the custom of spearing fish from rivers and streams using sharpened sticks.

Today modern spearfishing makes use of elastic powered spearguns and slings, or compressed gas pneumatic powered spearguns, to strike the hunted fish. Specialised techniques and equipment have been developed for various types of aquatic environments and target fish. Spearfishing may be done using free-diving, snorkelling, or scuba diving techniques. Spearfishing while using scuba equipment is illegal in some countries. The use of mechanically powered spearguns{{clarify|What is a mechanically powered speargun?|date=September 2022}} is also outlawed in some countries and jurisdictions.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} Spearfishing is highly selective, normally uses no bait and has limited by-catch.

Various cultures have collected shellfish by freediving for "possibly thousands" of years. One example is the historical recreational collection of abalone in South Africa, before illegal harvesting reduced stocks to levels which resulted in recreational collection being banned indefinitely. This did not completely stop illegal harvesting, because selling illegally harvested abalone remained lucrative.

Aquathlon (also known as underwater wrestling) is an underwater sport where two competitors wearing masks and fins wrestle underwater in an attempt to remove a ribbon from each other's ankle band in order to win the bout. The "combat" takes place in a 5-metre (16 ft) square ring within a swimming pool, and is made up of three 30-second rounds, with a fourth round played in the event of a tie. The sport originated during the 1980s in the former USSR (now Russia) and was first played at international level in 1993. It was recognised by the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) in 2008.

Competitive spearfishing is defined by the world governing body CMAS as "the hunting and capture of fish underwater without the aid of artificial breathing devices, using gear that depends entirely on the physical strength of the competitor." They publish a set of competition rules that are used by affiliated organisations.

File:Open Make Up For Ever 2013 - Team - Japan - 10.jpg

Synchronized swimming is a hybrid form of swimming, dance, and gymnastics, consisting of swimmers (either solos, duets, trios, combos, or teams) performing a synchronized routine of elaborate moves in the water, accompanied by music. Synchronized swimming demands advanced water skills, and requires great strength, endurance, flexibility, grace, artistry and precise timing, as well as exceptional breath control when upside down underwater. During lifts swimmers are not allowed to touch the bottom.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}

Traditionally it was a women's sport, but following the addition of a new mixed-pair event, FINA World Aquatics competitions are open to men since the 16th 2015 championships in Kazan, and the other international and national competitions allow male competitors in every event. However, men are currently still barred from competing in the Olympics. Both USA Synchro and Synchro Canada allow men to compete with women. Most European countries also allow men to compete, and France even allows male only podiums, according to the number of participants. In the past decade, more men are becoming involved in the sport and a global biannual competition called Men's Cup has been steadily growing.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}

Swimmers perform two routines for the judges, one technical and one free, as well as age group routines and figures. Synchronized swimming is both an individual and team sport. Swimmers compete individually during figures, and then as a team during the routine. Figures are made up of a combination of skills and positions that often require control, strength, and flexibility. Swimmers are ranked individually for this part of the competition. The routine involves teamwork and synchronization. It is choreographed to music and often has a theme. Synchronized swimming is governed internationally by FINA (Fédération Internationale de Natation).

File:OctopushTwoPlayers28092009.JPG

Underwater hockey (also called octopush, mainly in the United Kingdom) is a globally played limited-contact sport in which two teams compete to manoeuvre a hockey puck across the bottom of a swimming pool into the opposing team's goal by propelling it with a hockey stick. The sport originated in England in 1954 when Alan Blake, the founder of the newly formed Southsea Sub-Aqua Club, invented the game he called octopush to keep the club's members interested and active during the cold winter months, when open-water diving lost its appeal. Underwater hockey is now played worldwide, governed by the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS). The first Underwater Hockey World Championship was held in Canada in 1980, after a planned championship in 1979 was scuttled by international politics and apartheid.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}

File:US Navy 110603-N-AD372-308 Students at the Naval Diving and Salvage Training Center play underwater football to cool down after physical training.jpg

Underwater football is a two-team underwater sport that shares common elements with underwater hockey and underwater rugby. As with both of those games, it is played in a swimming pool with snorkeling equipment (mask, snorkel, and fins). The goal of the game is to manoeuvre (by carrying and passing) a slightly negatively buoyant ball from one side of a pool to the other by players who are completely submerged underwater. Scoring is achieved by placing the ball (under control) in the gutter on the side of the pool. Variations include using a toy rubber torpedo as the ball, and weighing down buckets to rest on the bottom and serve as goals.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}

It is played in the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Saskatchewan.

Underwater rugby is an underwater team sport. During a match, two teams try to score a negatively buoyant ball (filled with saltwater) into the opponents’ goal at the bottom of a swimming pool. It originated from within the physical fitness training regime existing in German diving clubs during the early 1960s and has little in common with rugby football except for the name. It was recognised by the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) in 1978 and was first played as a world championship in 1980.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}

Underwater target shooting is an underwater sport that tests a competitors’ ability to accurately use a speargun via a set of individual and team events conducted in a swimming pool using free diving or apnea technique. The sport was developed in France during the early 1980s and is currently practised mainly in Europe. It is known as Tir sur cible subaquatique in French and as Tiro al Blanco Subacuático in Spanish.

File:Freediver-monofin-start-london-competition-2009.jpg

Competitive freediving is currently governed by two world associations: AIDA International and Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS). Historically, there were two more organisations that regulated freediving records and activities — International Association of Freedivers (IAFD) and Freediving Regulations and Education Entity (FREE). Each organization has its own rules on recognizing a record attempt which can be found on the organization's website. Alongside competitive disciplines, there are record disciplines — disciplines that are not held in competitions, that are just for setting world records. There is a third organization, Guinness, which in addition to AIDA and CMAS presides over record disciplines.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Almost all types of competitive freediving are individual sports based on the best individual achievement. Exceptions to this rule are the bi-annual AIDA Team World Championship, where the combined score of the team members makes up the team's total points, and Skandalopetra diving competitions held by CMAS, the only truly ‘team’ event in freediving for which teams are formed by two athletes: one acting as the diver ({{Langx|el|βουτηχτής|translit=voutichtis|label=none}}) and the other acting as an assistant ({{Langx|el|κολαουζέρης|translit=kolaouzeris|label=none}}).

There are currently eleven recognized disciplines defined by AIDA and CMAS, and a dozen more that are only practiced locally.{{clarify|reason=what are the dozen more?|date=December 2017}}{{citation needed|date=December 2017}} All disciplines can be practiced by both men and women, and only CMAS currently separates records in fresh water from those at sea. The disciplines of AIDA can be done both in competition and as a record attempt, with the exception of variable weight and no limits, which are both solely for record attempts. For all AIDA depth disciplines, the depth the athlete will attempt is announced before the dive; this is accepted practice for both competition and record attempts. Most divers choose monofin (MF) over bifins (BF) where there is a choice.

File:Herbert Nitsch.jpg

;Overview of the above disciplines

Following the deaths of two freedivers in competitions, AIDA has a system set up for monitoring and if necessary, recovering competitors who lose consciousness underwater.

As of 2022 the incidence of adverse events in depth competitions varies between 3 and 4%. This rate is considered relatively low and is expected during competitions where divers push their breath-hold limits. Almost all of these divers are successfully assisted and recover completely. There is a much lower incidence of more serious injuries.

File:DeepFreedivingSafety.png

The safety team is usually made up of volunteers, or paid staff in some major events, and is supervised by the {{visible anchor|Chief of Safety}}. Each competitor is monitored by a team of breath-hold safety divers who will descend in time to meet the competitor during their ascent, and monitor them for the rest of the ascent. They will intervene if necessary, typically by securing the competitor's airway and swimming them up to the surface. The first safety diver will meet the competitor at somewhere around 1/3 to 1/4 of the target depth, usually with a maximum of 30m. The second will meet them about 10m shallower, and a third will be on standby in case of an emergency. The work can be challenging as many dives are done in a day, so the team of safety divers is usually rotated to ensure that they are not overtasked.

In case of a deeper incident, the competitor is clipped to the downline for the duration of the dive, which can be rapidly raised by the surface support team, which includes a medical support group.

The best official result in static apnea is the Guinness WR of 11:54 by Branko Petrović in 2014, a freediver who has results over 10 minutes under both AIDA and CMAS.

The best no limits result is 253.2m by Herbert Nitsch in 2012; his intention of having the dive sanctioned by AIDA fell through due to a sponsoring conflict.

After 2001, AIDA International no longer separated the records achieved in fresh water from those in the sea.

{{As of|2024|01|01}}, the CMAS recognized world records are:

{{As of|2023|07|26}}, the AIDA recognized world records are:

The following table only includes those disciplines that are modifications of existing AIDA or CMAS disciplines and Guinness-exclusive (as it recognizes and inherits some AIDA/CMAS records) or Guinness-conceived (CMAS and AIDA do/did sanction at some time) disciplines.

{{As of|2018|02|25}}:

File:Free divers at the Blue Hole 2.jpg in the Red Sea]]

Freediving as a recreational activity is widely practiced and differs significantly from scuba diving. Although there are potential risks to all freediving, it can be safely practiced using a wide range of skill levels from the average snorkeler to the professional freediver. Compared to scuba diving, freediving offers:{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}

• Freedom from cumbersome equipment and short preparation times.
• Low cost.
• It is quiet and does not disturb fish, the noise of breathing and bubbles can be quite loud on open circuit scuba though rebreathers are much quieter.
• Mobility and speed, but for a much more limited period.
• No decompression time for deep dives, although it is possible to get decompression sickness, or taravana, from repetitive deep free-diving with short surface intervals.
• The lack of exhaled air bubbles on ascent gives greater visibility on ascent.
• Accessibility, if the site can be walked to it can, potentially, be dived.
• Appropriately skilled and fit freedivers can go as deep, or deeper than, recreational scuba divers, the depth being limited only by the willingness to accept the risks; scuba diving is restricted by the level of certification.

Freshwater springs, often with excellent visibility, provide good freediving opportunities but with greater risks.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}} Diving into spring caverns with restricted access to the surface is very different from diving in open water. The time available to a freediver to solve problems underwater before hypoxia sets in is severely restricted in comparison with scuba. Freediving into confined cave systems such as Eagle's Nest Cave, Florida and Blue Springs State Park, Florida has resulted in several deaths. Cave freediving is commonly discouraged in basic freediver safety training.

{{see also|Human physiology of underwater diving}}

{{expand section|date=July 2017}}

The human body has several oxygen-conserving adaptations that manifest under diving conditions as part of the mammalian diving reflex. The adaptations include:

• Reflex bradycardia: Significant drop in heart rate.
• Blood-shift: Blood flow and volume is redistributed towards vital organs by means of a reflex vasoconstriction. Blood vessels distend and become engorged, which in the case of the pulmonary capillaries assists with pressure compensation that comes with increasing diving depth, and without which a largely air-filled chest cavity would simply collapse for lack of compliance.{{citation needed|date=September 2014}}
• Body-cooling: peripheral vasoconstriction results in cooling of peripheral tissue beds, which lower their oxygen demand in a thermodynamic manner. In addition, Murat et al. (2013) recently discovered that breath-holding results in prompt and substantial brain cooling, just like in diving birds and seals. (Dry) breath-holds result in cooling on the order of about 1 °C/minute, but this is likely to be greater with cold water submersion, in proportion to the magnitude and promptness of the dive response.{{citation needed|date=September 2014}}
• Splenic contraction: Releasing red blood cells carrying oxygen.

In addition to general adaptations within the human species, freediving is an example of an activity that has been directly affected by recent human evolution. The Bajau, or “Sea Nomads,” have engaged in freediving for thousands of years, and natural selection has led to larger spleen sizes. This serves as an oxygen reservoir when diving. It is hypothesized that other isolated diving populations globally may have experienced the same selection.

{{see also|Skandalopetra diving}}

Breath-holding ability, and hence dive performance, is a function of on-board oxygen stores, scope for metabolic rate reduction, efficient oxygen utilization, and hypoxia tolerance. Athletes attempt to accomplish this in various ways. Some divers use "packing", which increases lung volume beyond normal total lung capacity. In addition, training is allocated to enhance blood and muscle oxygen stores, to a limited extent.{{clarify|date=May 2017}}

Most divers rely on increasing fitness by increasing {{CO2}} tolerance and lung capacity. Simple breath-holding practice is highly effective for the build-up of tolerance to CO₂ and to some degree increased lung capacity. In an interview on the radio talk show Fresh Air, journalist James Nestor, author of the book Breath: The New Science of a Lost Art, stated: "Some divers have a lung capacity of 14 liters, which is about double the size for a typical adult male. They weren't born this way. ... They trained themselves to breathe in ways to profoundly affect their physical bodies."

{{expand section|date=October 2019}}

{{see also|Skandalopetra diving}}

{{Empty section|date=October 2019}}

There is no requirement by law that free-divers are required to do formal freediving training or be certified, but due to the risks inherent to the sport, freediving without training poses a significant risk to life. The free-diving courses contain three components: theory studies, confined water sessions generally conducted in a swimming pool, and open water sessions in the ocean or other large body of fresh or salt water.

{{expand section|What is the characteristic course content? (minimum content? Is there a minimum international standard?)|date=January 2025}}

{{see also|Diver training#Freediving}}

Training for freediving can take many forms, some of which can be performed on land. One training exercise is the apnea walk. This consists of a preparation "breathe-up", followed by a short (typically 1 minute) breath hold taken at rest. Without breaking the hold, participants then begin walking as far as possible until it becomes necessary to breathe again. Some athletes can do close to 400 meters in training this way.{{citation needed|date=September 2014}}

This form of training is good for accustoming muscles to work under anaerobic conditions, and for tolerance to carbon dioxide build-up in the circulation. It is also easy to gauge progress, as increasing distance can be measured.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}}

Before competition attempts, freedivers perform a preparation sequence, which usually consists of physical stretching, mental exercise and breath exercise. It may include a succession of variable length static apnea and special purging deep breaths. Results of the preparation sequence are slower metabolism, lower heart and breathing rates, lower levels of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream, and overall mental equilibrium.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}}{{clarify|why is this in the training section?|date=January 2025}}

The University of Miami presents a scientific freediving class that was developed by Claire Paris, a marine scientist and freediver, the class is the first of its kind at the university.{{Cite web|last=Tannen|first=Janette Neuwahl|date=October 23, 2020|title=Oceanographer finds solace under the surface|url=https://news.miami.edu/stories/2020/10/oceanographer-finds-solace-under-the-surface.html|access-date=2021-10-16|website=news.miami.edu|language=en}}

{{expand section|What is typical content of training program?|date=January 2025}}

{{see also|Diving hazards#The diving environment|Diving hazards#Hazards inherent in the diver}}

The most obvious hazard is lack of access to air for breathing – a necessity for human life. This can result in asphyxia from drowning if the diver does not reach the surface while still capable of holding their breath and resuming breathing. The risk depends on several factors, including the depth, duration and shape of the dive profile.{{cn|date=January 2025}}{{clarify|shape of the dive profile|date=January 2025}}

Latent hypoxia is a specific hazard of deeper freedives. This effect can cause hypoxic blackout during surfacing.

There is also a wide range of environmental hazards possible specific to the site and water and weather conditions at the time of diving, and there may be other hazards specific to the freediving activity.{{clarify|hazards specific to the freediving activity|date=January 2025}}

{{expand section|date=October 2018}}

{{see also|Freediving blackout}}

Failing to respond to physiological warning signals, or crossing the mental barrier by strong will, may lead to blackout underwater or on reaching the surface. Trained freedivers are well aware of this and competitions must be held under strict supervision and with competent first-aiders on standby. However, this does not eliminate the risk of blackout. Freedivers are encouraged by certification and sporting organisations to dive only with a 'buddy' who accompanies them, observing from in the water at the surface, and ready to dive to the rescue if the diver loses consciousness during the ascent. This is only reasonably practicable if the water clarity allows observation, and the buddy is capable of safely reaching the diver.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}} Due to the nature of the sport, the risks of freediving can be reduced by strict adherence to safety measures as an integral part of the activity, but cannot be eliminated. Competition rules may require all participants to be adept in rescue and resuscitation.{{citation needed|date=December 2017}}

Nicholas Mevoli, a diver from New York died on 17 November 2013 after losing consciousness on surfacing from a 3-minute 38 second dive to a depth of {{convert|72|metres}} during an official record attempt in the "constant weight without fins" event. He had previously reached greater depths and longer times in other disciplines.

{{expand section|other cases, statistics|date=January 2025}}

• Ocean Men (2001) is a documentary film about the art and science of freediving, featuring two of its most outstanding exponents: Francisco "Pipín" Ferreras and Umberto Pelizzari.
• My Pilot, Whale (2014) is a short documentary film directed by Alexander and Nicole Gratovsky, demonstrating direct communication between a human and free pilot whales in the open ocean. The entire underwater part was shot without underwater breathing equipment; both the operator and the person appearing in the frame are freediving.
• My Octopus Teacher (2020) is a nature documentary. Filmmaker Craig Foster captured most of the footage used in the film while freediving.
• The Deepest Breath (2023) is a feature-length documentary written and directed by Laura McGann about Italian freediver Alessia Zecchini and Irish safety diver Stephen Keenan.

• In the film Mission: Impossible – Rogue Nation, Tom Cruise plays super spy Ethan Hunt fighting the forces of evil, and goes freediving in a scene to expose the villains.
• The Pearl by John Steinbeck (1947) is a novel about a poor pearl diver, Kino, who finds the 'Pearl of Heaven', which is exceptionally valuable, changing his life forever. The novel explores themes of man's nature as well as greed and evil.
• In South Sea Adventure (1952) by Willard Price the Hunt brothers, marooned on a coral island, use free diving to collect both pearls and fresh water.{{clarify|How does one collect fresh water by diving?|date=March 2021}}
• In Ian Fleming's (1964) James Bond novel You Only Live Twice, the character Kissy Suzuki is an ama diver. This connection was also mentioned in the film version.
• Man from Atlantis was a 1970s TV series which featured a superhero with the ability to breathe underwater and freedive in his own special way.
• The Big Blue (1988) is a romantic film about two world-class freedivers, a heavily fictionalized depiction of the rivalry of freedivers Jacques Mayol and Enzo Maiorca.
• In the movie Phoenix Blue (2001), protagonist Rick is a musician who freedives competitively.
• The children's novel The Dolphins of Laurentum by Caroline Lawrence (2003), which takes place in ancient Rome, describes the applications of freediving (sponge and pearl diving) and its hazards, as one of the principal characters, as well as the main antagonist, try to beat each other to a sunken treasure.
• The Freediver (2004) is a film about a talented female freediver who is discovered and brought to an island, where she is trained by an ambitious scientist to break a freediving world record currently held by an American woman.
• In the film Into the Blue (2005) starring Jessica Alba, a group of divers find themselves in deep trouble with a drug lord after they come upon the illicit cargo of a sunken airplane in the Caribbean. Jessica Alba is an accomplished freediver, and did much of the underwater work; some other stunts were performed by Mehgan Heaney-Grier.
• In Greg Iles' novel Blood Memory (2005), the main character Cat Ferry is an odontologist and a freediver.
• H₂O: Just Add Water Series 3 added a freediver (Will Benjamin played by Luke Mitchell) as a regular. Freediving is featured in some episodes.
• The Greater Meaning of Water (2010) is an independent film about competitive constant weight freediving, focusing on the 'zen' of freediving.
• In the Canadian television series Corner Gas, the character Karen Pelly (Tara Spencer-Nairn) competed in static apnea, ranking fifth in Canada with a personal best of over six minutes.
• In the American television series Baywatch episode "The Chamber" (Session 2, Episode 17), the character Mitch Buchannon rescues a diver trapped 90 feet below the ocean surface, but almost dies while suffering the effects of decompression sickness; decompression sickness is highly improbable following freediving exposure to this depth.
• In the book Hornblower and the Atropos, CS Forester's character Horatio Hornblower is tasked by the Royal Navy to retrieve sunken treasure with the help of freediving Sinhalese pearl divers
• In the film Avatar: The Way of Water the Metkayina Clan of the Na'vi have adapted to freediving and have built their entire culture around it, which they teach to the Sully family.
• In Black Panther: Wakanda Forever a Mayan priest freedives and discovers a mutated plant that is used to mutate his tribe into merpeople.

• {{annotated link|British Freediving Association}}
• {{annotated link|Nordic Deep}}
• {{annotated link|Vertical Blue}}
• {{annotated link|Skandalopetra diving}}
• {{annotated link|Audrey Mestre}}
• {{annotated link|Snorkeling}}

{{Reflist

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{{cite web |url = http://www.cmas.org/apnoea/about-2012032621 |title = About Free Diving |website = www.cmas.org |access-date = 9 August 2020 |archive-date = 19 November 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171119054132/http://www.cmas.org/apnoea/about-2012032621 |url-status = dead }}

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{{cite web |author=Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques |author-link=Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques |title=CMAS-disciplines |url=http://www.cmas.org/apnoea/about-2012032621 |access-date=5 August 2015 |archive-date=19 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119054132/http://www.cmas.org/apnoea/about-2012032621 |url-status=dead }}

{{cite web |title=CMAS Underwater Hockey Commission |url = http://www.cmas.org/hockey | website=www.cmas.org |access-date=5 August 2014 }}

{{cite web |title = The History of Underwater Hockey |url = http://history.cmas.org/hockey |website=www.cmas.org |access-date=5 August 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170405182240/http://history.cmas.org/hockey |archive-date=5 April 2017 |url-status=dead }}

{{cite web |url=http://www.cmas.org/spearfishing/about-120327201610 |title=About Spearfishing |website=www.cmas.org |publisher=World Underwater Federation (CMAS) |access-date=25 August 2017 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323115649/https://www.cmas.org/spearfishing/about-120327201610 |url-status=dead }}

{{cite web |author=Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques |author-link=Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques |title=Apnoea Records |url = https://www.cmas.org/media/pdf/CMAS%20OUTDOOR%20WR%20DEPTH%20SEA_01JAN2024.pdf |website=www.cmas.org |access-date=28 January 2024}}

{{cite book |title = Breath-hold diving. Proceedings of the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society/Divers Alert Network 2006 June 20–21 Workshop. |last1=Lindholm |first1=P. |last2=Pollock |first2=N. W. |last3=Lundgren |first3=C. E. |year=2006 |publisher=Divers Alert Network |location=Durham, NC |isbn=978-1-930536-36-4 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/5612 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007193626/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/5612 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=October 7, 2008 |access-date=30 April 2008 }}

{{cite web |url = https://www.deeperblue.com/freediving-disciplines-explained/ |title = Freediving Disciplines Explained |website=www.deeperblue.com |access-date=9 August 2020 }}

{{Cite news|last=de Greef|first=Kimon|date=18 August 2018|title=The poachers and the treasures of the deep: diving for abalone in South Africa|newspaper=The Observer |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/aug/19/poachers-abalone-south-africa-seafood-divers|access-date=28 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819112202/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/aug/19/poachers-abalone-south-africa-seafood-divers|archive-date=19 August 2018}}

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{{cite web |url = http://free-diving.de/freediving-rekorde-disziplinen/ |title = Rekorde & Disziplinen |language=de |website=free-diving.de |access-date=9 August 2020 }}

{{cite journal |last=Frost |first = F. J. |year=1968 |title=Scyllias: Diving in Antiquity |journal=Greece & Rome |series=Second Series |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=180–5 |doi = 10.1017/S0017383500017435 |doi-access=free }}

{{cite journal |last1=Galili |first1=Ehud |last2=Rosen |first2=Baruch |year=2008 |title = Ancient Remotely-Operated Instruments Recovered Under Water off the Israeli Coast |journal = International Journal of Nautical Archaeology |publisher=Nautical Archaeology Society |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=283–94 |doi = 10.1111/j.1095-9270.2008.00187.x |bibcode=2008IJNAr..37..283G |s2cid=110312998 }}

{{cite web |last1=Gross |first1=Terri |title=How The 'Lost Art' Of Breathing Can Impact Sleep And Resilience |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/05/27/862963172/how-the-lost-art-of-breathing-can-impact-sleep-and-resilience |website=npr.org |access-date=29 May 2020}}

{{cite web |url=http://www.divingheritage.com/greecekern2.htm |title=Diving the Skafandro suit |author1=Sandra Hendrikse |author2=André Merks |date=12 May 2009 |publisher=Diving Heritage |access-date=16 October 2009}}

{{cite journal|last1=Ilardo|first1=M. A.|last2=Moltke|first2=I.|last3=Korneliussen|first3=T. S.|last4=Cheng|first4=J.|last5=Stern|first5=A. J.|last6=Racimo|first6=F.|last7=de Barros Damgaard|first7=P.|last8=Sikora|first8=M.|last9=Seguin-Orlando|first9=A.|last10=Rasmussen|first10=S.|last11=van den Munckhof|first11=I. C. L.|date=April 18, 2018|title=Physiological and Genetic Adaptations to Diving in Sea Nomads|journal=Cell|volume=173|issue=3|pages=569–580.e15|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.054|pmid=29677510|doi-access=free|first17=E.|last12=ter Horst|first12=R.|first16=R.|last16=Nielsen|first15=S.|last15=Salingkat|first14=M. G.|last14=Netea|first13=L. A. B.|last13=Joosten|last17=Willerslev|url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt1h41g9r9/qt1h41g9r9.pdf?t=r7yq3p}}

{{lang|grc|Ἰσίδωρος Χαρακηνός}} [Isidore of Charax]. {{lang|grc|Τὸ τῆς Παρθίας Περιηγητικόν}} [Tò tēs Parthías Periēgētikón, A Journey around Parthia]. {{circa|lk=no|1st}} century AD {{in lang|grc}} in {{lang|grc|Ἀθήναιος}} [Athenaeus]. {{lang|grc|Δειπνοσοφισταί}} [Deipnosophistaí, Sophists at Dinner], {{nowrap|Book III}}, 93E. {{circa|lk=no|3rd}} century {{in lang|grc}} Trans. Charles Burton Gulick as [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Athenaeus/3B*.html#p403 Athenaeus, {{nowrap|Vol. I,}} {{nowrap|p. 403.}}] Harvard University Press (Cambridge), 1927. Accessed 13 Aug 2014.

{{cite web |url = https://www.freitauchen-lernen.com/apnoetauchen-rekorde-disziplinen/n |title = Apnoetauchen Rekorde: Alle Rekorde (2020) inkl. Video |last=Klugstedt |first=Sebastian |date=2019-12-16 |website=freitauchen-lernen.com |language=de-DE |access-date=2020-04-04 }}

{{Cite web|last=Krüger|first=Louise|date=20 June 2023|website=The Guardian|title='There is no mercy!': the young women swapping South Korea's work culture for freediving|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jun/20/there-is-no-mercy-the-young-women-swapping-south-koreas-work-culture-for-freediving|access-date=28 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230620062322/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jun/20/there-is-no-mercy-the-young-women-swapping-south-koreas-work-culture-for-freediving|archive-date=20 June 2023}}

{{cite web |url=https://www.dansa.org/blog/2022/07/06/ensuring-safety-in-freediving-competitions |title=Ensuring Safety in Freediving Competitions |first=Oleg G. |last=Melikhov |date=6 July 2022 |website=DAN Southern Africa |access-date=19 August 2024 }}

{{Cite web|title=RSMAS General (RSM) < University of Miami|url=https://bulletin.miami.edu/courses-az/rsm/|access-date=2021-10-16|website=bulletin.miami.edu}}

{{cite journal |title = Go ahead, vent your spleen! |first = Sarah |last = Milton |year=2004 |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=207 |issue=3 |pages=390 |doi=10.1242/jeb.00794 |doi-access= |bibcode = 2004JExpB.207..390M }}

{{cite book |last=Nestor |first=James |title = Breath: The New Science of a Lost Art |date=26 May 2020 |publisher=Penguin Publishing Company |isbn=9780735213616 }}

{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/18/sports/deep-water-diver-from-brooklyn-dies-after-trying-for-a-record.html?pagewanted=1&_r=0&ref=international-home |title = A Deep-Water Diver From Brooklyn Dies After Trying for a Record |newspaper = The New York Times |first=Adam |last=Skolnick |date = 17 November 2013 |access-date = 30 November 2013 }}

{{cite web |title = Ocean Men: Extreme Dive (2001) |url = https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0330713/ |website=IMDb |publisher=IMDb.com, Inc. |access-date=15 June 2018 |date=31 August 2001b}}

{{cite book |first = David M. |last = Owen |year=1955 |title = A Manual for Free-Divers Using Compressed Air |publisher=Pergamon }}

{{Cite web |title=Becoming a Certified PADI Freediver™ FAQs |url=https://www.padi.com/help/freediving-faq |access-date=2023-12-27 |website=PADI |language=en}}

{{Cite web|last1=Paris|first1=Claire|last2=Paris|first2=Ricardo|date=August 1, 2020|title=Freediving for Science|url=https://dan.org/alert-diver/article/freediving-for-science/|access-date=2021-10-16|website=Divers Alert Network|language=en-US}}

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{{cite journal |author=Schagatay E |title=Predicting performance in competitive apnoea diving. Part I: static apnoea. |journal=Diving Hyperb Med |year=2009 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=88–99 |pmid=22753202 |url = http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/9803 |archive-url = https://archive.today/20131008005248/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/9803 |url-status = usurped |archive-date = October 8, 2013 |access-date=6 October 2013 }}

{{cite book |first=Dimitri |last=Rebikoff |year=1955 |title = Free Diving |publisher=Sidgwick & Jackson }}

{{Cite web|last=Rincon|first=Paul|date=20 April 2018|website=BBC|title=Bajau people 'evolved bigger spleens' for free-diving|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43823885|access-date=28 September 2024}}

{{cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=G. |last2=Ferns |first2=J. |last3=Murat |first3=S. |title=Pulmonary effects of 'lung packing' by buccal pumping in an elite breath-hold diver. |journal=Journal of the South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society |year=2003 |volume=33 |pages=122–126 |url = http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/10026 |archive-url = https://archive.today/20131008005255/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/10026 |url-status = usurped |archive-date = October 8, 2013 |access-date=14 October 2016 }}

{{cite journal |last=McKie |first=N. |title = Freediving in cyberspace. |journal=Journal of the South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society. |year=2004 |volume=34 |pages=101–03 |url = http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/8947 |archive-url = https://archive.today/20131005155859/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/8947 |url-status = usurped |archive-date = October 5, 2013 |access-date = 5 October 2013 }}

{{cite web |url = http://skindivinghistory.com/pioneers_fathers/women/dottie_frazier/Images/Dottie_The_Instructor/index.html |title = Dottie Frazier Pioneer/Women |last=Russ |website=skindivinghistory.com |access-date=2018-03-09 }}

{{cite web |url = https://seanomad-freediving.com/en/content/history-freediving |title=History of freediving |website=seanomad-freediving.com |first=Christian |last=Engelbrecht |date=January 2009 |access-date=9 August 2020 }}

[http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/streeter_pearls_and_pearling/page_137 Streeter's Pearls and pearling life] dedicates a chapter to the Sooloo islands. Streeter was one of the leading and most influential English jewelers in the 19th century and outfitted his own schooner the Shree-Pas-Sair which he sailed as well and on which he himself went pearl fishing in 1880. (For an illustration of divers on a schooner, see [http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/streeter_pearls_and_pearling/page_001 Pearl fishers obtaining the world's best pearls]. Streeter furthermore led a consortium to compete with Baron Rothschild to lease Ruby mines in Burma.

{{cite web |url = http://www.cmas.org/document?sessionId=&fileId=3749&language=1 |title = Underwater Fishing (Spear fishing) International Rules - English version |date= 23 January 2015 |website=www.cmas.org |publisher=World Underwater Federation (CMAS) |access-date=25 August 2017 }}

{{Cite web|last=Stratton|first=Mark|date=5 May 2019|website=Wanderlust Magazine|title=Dispatches: Freediving with Japan's ama women|url=https://www.wanderlustmagazine.com/inspiration/diving-japan-ama-women/|access-date=28 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240928115123/https://www.wanderlustmagazine.com/web/20240928115123/https://www.wanderlustmagazine.com/inspiration/diving-japan-ama-women/|archive-date=28 September 2024}}

{{cite book |author1-link = Philippe Tailliez |last1=Tailliez |first1=Philippe |author2-link = Frederic Dumas |last2=Dumas |first2=Frederic |author3-link = Jacques-Yves Cousteau |last3=Cousteau |first3=Jacques-Yves |display-authors=etal |year=1957 |title = The Complete Manual of Free Diving |publisher= G. P. Putnam's sons |location = New York }}

{{cite book |author = Thucydides |author-link=Thucydides |translator-last=Crawley |translator-first=Richard |title=History of the Peloponnesian War |url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/7142/7142-h/7142-h.htm |orig-year=431 BCE |year=2009 }}

{{cite web |url = https://www.trademe.co.nz/sports/sports-memorabilia/other/auction-1487421899.htm |title = Willian Trubridge"World Freediving Record Holder" signed photograph |website=www.trademe.co.nz|access-date=9 August 2020 }}

{{cite web |editor1-last=Lundgren |editor1-first=Claus E. G. |editor2-last=Ferrigno |editor2-first=Massimo |title=Physiology of Breath-hold Diving. 31st Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society Workshop |volume=UHMS Publication Number 72(WS-BH)4-15-87. |publisher=Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society |year=1985 |url = http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7992 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090602002747/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7992 |url-status = usurped |archive-date = June 2, 2009 |access-date=16 April 2009 }}

{{cite web|url= https://divemagazine.com/scuba-diving-news/valentina-cafolla-smashes-under-ice-freediving-record |title=New CMAS World Record For Freediving Under Ice | date=23 February 2024|website= divemagazine |access-date=2 March 2024}}

{{Cite web |last1=depthdev.com |last2=Development |first2=Depth |title=News {{!}} VERTICAL BLUE |url=http://events.verticalblue.net/ |access-date=2023-07-26 |website=News {{!}} VERTICAL BLUE |language=en}}

{{cite web |title = Where is it Played |url = http://www.underwaterfootball.com/where_is_it_played.html |website = underwaterfootball.com |access-date = 7 November 2014 }}

{{cite journal |last=Wong |first = R. M. |title = Taravana revisited: Decompression illness after breath-hold diving |journal=South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal |volume=29 |issue=3 |year=1999 |issn=0813-1988 |oclc=16986801 |url = http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6010 |access-date=8 April 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090821162235/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6010 |archive-date = 21 August 2009 |url-status=usurped }}

{{cite web |url = https://apnoetauchen-lernen.de/kurse/ausbildung/weltrekorde/ |title = Apnoetauchen Rekorde: Alle Weltrekorde (2020) |date=2020-01-24 |website=apnoetauchen-lernen.de |language=de-DE |access-date=2020-05-28 }}

{{YouTube |id = NPAXrak9i7Q |title = My Pilot, Whale }} Dolphin_Embassy, 24 July 2015

}}

• DeeperBlue.com (2016) The Beginners Guide to Freediving, published by [https://www.deeperblue.com/beginners-guide-freediving/ DeeperBlue.com]
• Callagy, Feargus (2012) A Beginners Guide to Freediving, e-book published by [http://exclusives.deeperblue.com/products/a-beginners-guide-to-freediving DeeperBlue.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904010431/http://exclusives.deeperblue.com/products/a-beginners-guide-to-freediving |date=2012-09-04 }}
• Donald, Ian (2013) Underwater foraging – Freediving for food, Createspace publishing, USA. {{ISBN|978-1484904596}}
• Farrell, Emma (2006) One Breath: A Reflection on Freediving, photographs by Frederic Buyle, Pynto Ltd., Hatherley, UK: {{ISBN|0-9542315-2-X}}
• Pelizzari, Umberto & Tovaglieri, Stefano (2001) Manual of Freediving: Underwater on a single breath, English translation 2004 by Idelson-Gnocchi Ltd., Reddick, FL: {{ISBN|1928649270}}
• Severinsen, Stig A. (2010) Breathology: The Art of Conscious Breathing, Idelson-Gnocchi Ltd., Reddick, FL: {{ISBN|978-1928649342}}
• James Nestor (2015) "Deep: Freediving, Renegade Science, and What the Ocean Tells Us About Ourselves", Eamon Dolan/Mariner Books New York, NY: {{ISBN|978-0544484078}}

{{Wiktionary}}

{{Commons category|Freediving}}

• [http://www.aidainternational.org/ AIDA International]
• [https://archive.today/20130116061751/http://g.co/maps/4eb9a Collaborative cartography of freediving spots/Cartographie collaborative des spots apnée] {{in lang|fr}}
• [http://www.deeperblue.com/ DeeperBlue website]
• [https://www.deeperblue.com/beginners-guide-freediving/ The Beginners Guide to Freediving] - published by DeeperBlue.com
• [http://www.FreedivingCourses.com FreedivingCourses.com] - a way to find Freediving instructors and dive centers around the world
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20190130230752/http://divewise.org/ DiveWise.Org] - non profit organization dedicated to freediving education and safety
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20141120074435/http://www.explorefreediving.com/ Explore Freediving] - Freediving and Snorkeling events and instructor directory
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20140810100809/http://travelbyfins.com/ Freediving Spots]
• [https://freedivecentral.com Freedive Central] - The ultimate platform for freediving professionals
• [http://www.borgosub.fr/ Borgosub.fr ] French association to promote Wreck freediving
• [https://www.freitauchen-lernen.com/ Freitauchen-lernen.com] - deutschsprachiger Freediving Blog
• [https://www.apnoetauchen-lernen.de/ www.apnoetauchen-lernen.de] - German Center for education and development of freediving.

{{UnderwaterDiving|frediv}}

{{Extreme Sports}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Free Diving}}

Category:Individual sports

Category:Underwater sports

Category:Underwater diving modes