lithium carbonate

Lithium carbonate is an important industrial chemical. Its main use is as a precursor to compounds used in lithium-ion batteries.

Glasses derived from lithium carbonate are useful in ovenware. Lithium carbonate is a common ingredient in both low-fire and high-fire ceramic glaze. It forms low-melting fluxes with silica and other materials. Its alkaline properties are conducive to changing the state of metal oxide colorants in glaze, particularly red iron oxide ({{chem|Fe|2|O|3}}). Cement sets more rapidly when prepared with lithium carbonate, and is useful for tile adhesives. When added to aluminium trifluoride, it forms LiF which yields a superior electrolyte for the processing of aluminium.{{cite encyclopedia|author=Ulrich Wietelmann |author2=Richard J. Bauer |title=Lithium and Lithium Compounds|encyclopedia=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|year=2005|publisher=Wiley-VCH|location=Weinheim|doi=10.1002/14356007.a15_393|isbn=3-527-30673-0}}

Lithium carbonate-derived compounds are crucial to lithium-ion batteries. Lithium carbonate may be converted into lithium hydroxide as an intermediate. In practice, two components of the battery are made with lithium compounds: the cathode and the electrolyte. The electrolyte is a solution of lithium hexafluorophosphate, while the cathode uses one of several lithiated structures, the most popular of which are lithium cobalt oxide and lithium iron phosphate.

File:Lithium prices.webp

{{main|Lithium (medication)}}

In 1843, lithium carbonate was used to treat stones in the bladder. In 1859, some doctors recommended a therapy with lithium salts for a number of ailments, including gout, urinary calculi, rheumatism, mania, depression, and headache.

In 1948, John Cade discovered the anti-manic effects of lithium ions.{{Cite journal |last=Cade|first=J. F. |date=2000 |title=Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement. 1949. |journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=518–520 |issn=0042-9686 |pmc=2560740 |pmid=10885180 }} This finding led to lithium carbonate's use as a psychiatric medication to treat mania, the elevated phase of bipolar disorder. Prescription lithium carbonate from a pharmacy is suitable for use as medicine in humans but industrial lithium carbonate is not since it may contain unsafe levels of toxic heavy metals or other toxicants. After ingestion, lithium carbonate is dissociated into pharmacologically active lithium ions (Li⁺) and (non-therapeutic) carbonate, with 300 mg of lithium carbonate containing approximately 8 mEq (8 mmol) of lithium ion.{{Cite web|title=Lithium Carbonate Medication Guide|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2018/017812s031,018421s031,018558s026lbl.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220127181022/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2020/017812s034,018421s033,018558s028lbl.pdf|archive-date=27 January 2022|access-date=27 January 2022|website=U.S. FDA}} According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 300–600 mg of lithium carbonate taken two to three times daily is typical for maintenance of bipolar I disorder in adults, where the exact dose given varies depending on factors such as the patient's serum lithium concentrations, which must be closely monitored by a physician to avoid lithium toxicity and potential kidney damage (or even kidney failure) from lithium-induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.{{cite journal|author=Amdisen A.|title=Clinical and serum level monitoring in lithium therapy and lithium intoxication|journal=J. Anal. Toxicol.|volume=2|issue=5|pages=193–202|year=1978|doi=10.1093/jat/2.5.193}} Dehydration and certain drugs, including NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, can increase serum lithium concentrations to unsafe levels whereas other drugs, such as caffeine, may decrease concentrations. In contrast to the elemental ions sodium, potassium, and calcium, there is no known cellular mechanism specifically dedicated to regulating intracellular lithium.

Lithium can enter cells through epithelial sodium channels. Lithium ions interfere with ion transport processes {{crossreference|(see "Sodium pump")}} that relay and amplify messages carried to the cells of the brain.{{cite web |url=http://www.medicinenet.com/lithium/article.htm |title=lithium, Lithobid: Drug Facts, Side Effects and Dosing |website=Medicinenet.com |date=2016-06-17 |access-date=2017-01-02 |archive-date=2016-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231153214/http://www.medicinenet.com/lithium/article.htm |url-status=live }} Mania is associated with irregular increases in protein kinase C (PKC) activity within the brain. Lithium carbonate and sodium valproate, another drug traditionally used to treat the disorder, act in the brain by inhibiting PKC's activity and help to produce other compounds that also inhibit the PKC.{{cite journal |last1=Yildiz |first1=A |last2=Guleryuz |first2=S |last3=Ankerst |first3=DP |last4=Ongür |first4=D |last5=Renshaw |first5=PF |title=Protein kinase C inhibition in the treatment of mania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of tamoxifen |journal=Archives of General Psychiatry |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=255–63 |year=2008 |pmid=18316672 |doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.43 |url=http://mediatum.ub.tum.de/doc/1185490/document.pdf |doi-access=free }}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Lithium carbonate's mood-controlling properties are not fully understood.[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/lithium_carbonate Lithium Carbonate] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219001229/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/lithium_carbonate |date=2018-12-19 }} at PubChem

Taking lithium salts has risks and side effects. Extended use of lithium to treat mental disorders has been known to lead to acquired nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.{{cite journal |author1=Richard T. Timmer |author2=Jeff M. Sands |url=http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/10/3/666.short |title=Lithium Intoxication |journal=Journal of the American Society of Nephrology |date=1999-03-01 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=666–674 |doi=10.1681/ASN.V103666 |pmid=10073618 |access-date=2017-01-02 |doi-access=free |archive-date=2017-01-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108195724/http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/10/3/666.short |url-status=live }} Lithium intoxication can affect the central nervous system and renal system and can be lethal.{{cite journal|doi=10.1001/archinte.149.1.36|last1=Simard|pmid=2492186|first1=M|year=1989|pages=36–46|issue=1|last2=Gumbiner|volume=149|journal=Archives of Internal Medicine|first2=B|last3=Lee|first3=A|last4=Lewis|first4=H|last5=Norman|first5=D|title=Lithium carbonate intoxication. A case report and review of the literature|url=http://archinte.highwire.org/cgi/reprint/149/1/36.pdf|access-date=2010-09-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726151128/http://archinte.highwire.org/cgi/reprint/149/1/36.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-26}} Over a prolonged period, lithium can accumulate in the principal cells of the collecting duct and interfere with antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which regulates the water permeability of principal cells in the collecting tubule.{{cite web|last=Lerma|first=Edgar V.|title=Renal toxicity of lithium|work=UpToDate|access-date=8 March 2022|url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/renal-toxicity-of-lithium|archive-date=8 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308205106/https://www.uptodate.com/contents/renal-toxicity-of-lithium|url-status=live}} The medullary interstitium of the collecting duct system naturally has a high sodium concentration and attempts to maintain it. There is no known mechanism for cells to distinguish lithium ions from sodium ions, so damage to the kidney's nephrons may occur if lithium concentrations become too high as a result of dehydration, hyponatremia, an unusually low sodium diet, or certain drugs.

Lithium carbonate is used to impart a red color to fireworks.{{cite web | title=Chemistry of Fireworks | url=https://fireworks.com/education-and-safety/chemistry-compounds | access-date=2020-07-05 | archive-date=2020-07-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200705173238/https://fireworks.com/education-and-safety/chemistry-compounds | url-status=live }}

Unlike sodium carbonate, which forms at least three hydrates, lithium carbonate exists only in the anhydrous form. Its solubility in water is low relative to other lithium salts. The isolation of lithium from aqueous extracts of lithium ores capitalizes on this poor solubility. Its apparent solubility increases 10-fold under a mild pressure of carbon dioxide; this effect is due to the formation of the metastable lithium bicarbonate, which is more soluble:Spellman, F. R. (2023). The Science of Lithium. CRC Press.

:{{chem|Li|2|CO|3}} + {{chem|CO|2}} + {{chem|H|2|O}} {{eqm}} 2 {{chem|LiHCO|3}}

The extraction of lithium carbonate at high pressures of {{chem|CO|2}} and its precipitation upon depressurizing is the basis of the Quebec process.

Lithium carbonate can also be purified by exploiting its diminished solubility in hot water. Thus, heating a saturated aqueous solution causes crystallization of {{chem|Li|2|CO|3}}.{{cite book | last1 = Caley | first1 = E. R. | last2 = Elving | first2 = P. J. | title = Inorganic Syntheses | year = 1939 | chapter = Purification of Lithium Carbonate | volume = 1 | pages = 1–2 | doi = 10.1002/9780470132326.ch1 | isbn = 978-0-470-13232-6 }}

Lithium carbonate, and other carbonates of group 1, do not decarboxylate readily. {{chem|Li|2|CO|3}} decomposes at temperatures around 1300 °C.

Lithium is extracted from primarily two sources: spodumene in pegmatite deposits, and lithium salts in underground brine pools. About 82,000 tons were produced in 2020, showing significant and consistent growth.{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/606684/world-production-of-lithium/|title=Global lithium production 2020|access-date=2021-06-03|archive-date=2021-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603140725/https://www.statista.com/statistics/606684/world-production-of-lithium/|url-status=live}}

In the Salar de Atacama in the Atacama Desert of Northern Chile, lithium carbonate and hydroxide are produced from brine.{{cite web |title=Sustainability of lithium production in Chile |url=https://www.sqm.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/SQM_-_Sustainable_Lithium_-_English.pdf |website=SQM |access-date=1 December 2020 |archive-date=5 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105191714/https://www.sqm.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/SQM_-_Sustainable_Lithium_-_English.pdf |url-status=live }}{{cite conference |last1=Telsnig |first1=Thomas |last2=Potz |first2=Christian |last3=Haas |first3=Jannik |last4=Eltrop |first4=Ludger |last5=Palma-Behnke |first5=Rodrigo |title=Opportunities to integrate solar technologies into the Chilean lithium mining industry – reducing process related GHG emissions of a strategic storage resource |conference=Solarpaces 2016: International Conference on Concentrating Solar Power and Chemical Energy Systems |series=AIP Conference Proceedings |date=2017 |volume=1850 |issue=1 |page=110017 |doi=10.1063/1.4984491|bibcode=2017AIPC.1850k0017T |doi-access=free }}

The process pumps lithium rich brine from below ground into shallow pans for evaporation. The brine contains many different dissolved ions, and as their concentration increases, salts precipitate out of solution and sink. The remaining supernatant liquid is used for the next step. The sequence of pans may vary depending on the concentration of ions in a particular source of brine.

In the first pan, halite (sodium chloride or common salt) crystallises. This has little economic value and is discarded. The supernatant, with ever increasing concentration of dissolved solids, is transferred successively to the sylvinite (sodium potassium chloride) pan, the carnalite (potassium magnesium chloride) pan and finally a pan designed to maximise the concentration of lithium chloride. The process takes about 15 months. The concentrate (30-35% lithium chloride solution) is trucked to Salar del Carmen. There, boron and magnesium are removed (typically residual boron is removed by solvent extraction and/or ion exchange and magnesium by raising the pH above 10 with sodium hydroxide){{cite web

|last1=Dry

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|title=Extraction of Lithium from Brine – Old and New Chemistry

|url=http://downloads.aqsim.com/Extraction%20of%20Lithium%20from%20Brine%20%2013%20Old%20and%20New%20Chemistry.pdf

|website=Critical Materials Symposium, EXTRACTION 2018, Ottawa, August 26–29

|access-date=1 December 2020

|archive-date=6 October 2021

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006135312/http://downloads.aqsim.com/Extraction%20of%20Lithium%20from%20Brine%20%2013%20Old%20and%20New%20Chemistry.pdf

|url-status=dead

}} then in the final step, by addition of sodium carbonate, the desired lithium carbonate is precipitated out, separated, and processed.

Some of the by-products from the evaporation process may also have economic value.

There is considerable attention to the use of water in this water poor region. SQM commissioned a life-cycle analysis (LCA) which concluded that water consumption for SQM's lithium hydroxide and carbonate is significantly lower than the average consumption by production from the main ore-based process, using spodumene. A more general LCA suggests the opposite for extraction from reservoirs.{{cite web |last1=Early |first1=Catherine |title=The new 'gold rush' for green lithium |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201124-how-geothermal-lithium-could-revolutionise-green-energy |website=Future Planet |publisher=BBC |access-date=2 December 2020 |date=25 Nov 2020 |archive-date=13 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213053623/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201124-how-geothermal-lithium-could-revolutionise-green-energy |url-status=live }}

The majority of brine based production is in the "lithium triangle" in South America.

A potential source of lithium is the leachates of geothermal wells, carried to the surface.Parker, Ann. [https://www.llnl.gov/str/JanFeb05/Bourcier.html Mining Geothermal Resources] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917035952/https://www.llnl.gov/str/JanFeb05/Bourcier.html |date=17 September 2012 }}. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Recovery of lithium has been demonstrated in the field; the lithium is separated by simple precipitation and filtration.Patel, P. (16 November 2011) [http://www.technologyreview.com/news/426131/startup-to-capture-lithium-from-geothermal-plants/ Startup to Capture Lithium from Geothermal Plants] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130203195827/http://www.technologyreview.com/news/426131/startup-to-capture-lithium-from-geothermal-plants/ |date=2013-02-03 }}. technologyreview.com The process and environmental costs are primarily those of the already-operating well; net environmental impacts may thus be positive.Wald, M. (28 September 2011) [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/28/business/energy-environment/simbol-materials-plans-to-extract-lithium-from-geothermal-plants.html Start-Up in California Plans to Capture Lithium, and Market Share] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408033249/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/28/business/energy-environment/simbol-materials-plans-to-extract-lithium-from-geothermal-plants.html |date=8 April 2017 }}. The New York Times

The brine of United Downs Deep Geothermal Power project near Redruth is claimed by Cornish Lithium to be valuable due to its high lithium concentration (220 mg/L) with low magnesium (<5 mg/L) and total dissolved solids content of <29g/L,{{cite web |title=Cornish Lithium Releases Globally Significant Lithium Grades |url=https://cornishlithium.com/company-announcements/cornish-lithium-releases-globally-significant-lithium-grades/ |website=Cornish Lithium |date=17 September 2020 |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-date=17 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717144259/https://cornishlithium.com/company-announcements/cornish-lithium-releases-globally-significant-lithium-grades/ |url-status=live }} and a flow rate of 40-60l/s.

α-spodumene is roasted at 1100 °C for 1h to make β-spodumene, then roasted at 250 °C for 10 minutes with sulphuric acid.{{cite journal |last1=Meshram |first1=Pratima |last2=Pandey |first2=B. D. |last3=Mankhand |first3=T. R. |title=Extraction of lithium from primary and secondary sources by pre-treatment, leaching and separation: A comprehensive review |journal=Hydrometallurgy |date=1 December 2014 |volume=150 |pages=192–208 |doi=10.1016/j.hydromet.2014.10.012 |bibcode=2014HydMe.150..192M |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304386X14002278 |access-date=2 Dec 2020 |archive-date=13 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613182331/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304386X14002278 |url-status=live }}

As of 2020, Australia was the world's largest producer of lithium intermediates,{{Cite web|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-lithium.pdf|title=Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020|last=Jaskula|first=Brian W.|date=January 2020|website=U.S. Geological Survey|access-date=29 June 2020|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101085310/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-lithium.pdf|url-status=live}} all based on spodumene.

In recent years mining companies have begun exploration of lithium projects throughout North America, South America and Australia to identify economic deposits that can potentially bring new supplies of lithium carbonate online to meet the growing demand for the product.{{cite web

| url= https://www.juniorminingnetwork.com/news-topics/topic/lithium.html

| title= Junior mining companies exploring for lithium

| agency= www.juniorminingnetwork.com

| access-date= 2017-03-30

| archive-date= 2017-03-31

| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170331034435/https://www.juniorminingnetwork.com/news-topics/topic/lithium.html

}}

In 2020 Tesla Motors announced a revolutionary process to extract lithium from clay in Nevada using only salt and no acid. This was met with scepticism.{{cite news |last1=Scheyder |first1=Ernest |title=Tesla's Nevada lithium plan faces stark obstacles on path to production |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/tesla-batteryday-lithium/teslas-nevada-lithium-plan-faces-stark-obstacles-on-path-to-production-idINL2N2GK2E1 |access-date=2 December 2020 |work=Reuters |date=24 Sep 2020 |archive-date=18 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118124848/https://www.reuters.com/article/tesla-batteryday-lithium/teslas-nevada-lithium-plan-faces-stark-obstacles-on-path-to-production-idINL2N2GK2E1 |url-status=live }}

A few small companies are recycling spent batteries, focusing on recovering copper and cobalt. Some recover lithium carbonate alongside the compound Li₂Al₄(CO₃)(OH)₁₂⋅3H₂O

also.{{cite journal |last1=Serna-Guerrero |first1=Rodrigo |title=A Critical Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Processes from a Circular Economy Perspective |journal=Batteries |page=68 |doi=10.3390/batteries5040068 |date=5 November 2019 |volume=5 |issue=4 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal | last1=Dolotko | first1=Oleksandr | last2=Gehrke | first2=Niclas | last3=Malliaridou | first3=Triantafillia | last4=Sieweck | first4=Raphael | last5=Herrmann | first5=Laura | last6=Hunzinger | first6=Bettina | last7=Knapp | first7=Michael | last8=Ehrenberg | first8=Helmut | title=Universal and efficient extraction of lithium for lithium-ion battery recycling using mechanochemistry | journal=Communications Chemistry | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=6 | issue=1 | date=March 28, 2023 | page=49 | issn=2399-3669 | doi=10.1038/s42004-023-00844-2 | pmid=36977798 | pmc=10049983 }}{{cite journal | last1=Kropachev | first1=Andrey | last2=Kalabskiy | first2=Igor | title=Hydrometallurgical preparation of lithium aluminum carbonate hydroxide hydrate, Li2Al4(CO3)(OH)12·3H2O from aluminate solution | journal=Minerals Engineering | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=155 | year=2020 | issn=0892-6875 | doi=10.1016/j.mineng.2020.106470 | page=106470}}{{cite AV media|title=Battery recycling just got a whole lot better.|type=YouTube video|publisher=Just Have a Think|location=London|date=15 May 2023|people=Dave Borlace|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XFmBX0Uq0wY|access-date=15 May 2023|archive-date=14 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230514212801/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XFmBX0Uq0wY|url-status=live}}

In April 2017 MGX Minerals reported it had received independent confirmation of its rapid lithium extraction process to recover lithium and other valuable minerals from oil and gas wastewater brine.

{{cite web

|url = https://www.juniorminingnetwork.com/junior-miner-news/press-releases/28-cse/xmg/31459-mgx-minerals-receives-independent-confirmation-of-rapid-lithium-extraction-process.html

|title = MGX Minerals Receives Independent Confirmation of Rapid Lithium Extraction Process

|date = 20 April 2017

|agency = www.juniorminingnetwork.com

|access-date = 2017-04-20

|archive-date = 2017-04-20

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170420132515/https://www.juniorminingnetwork.com/junior-miner-news/press-releases/28-cse/xmg/31459-mgx-minerals-receives-independent-confirmation-of-rapid-lithium-extraction-process.html

|url-status = live

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Electrodialysis has been proposed to extract lithium from seawater, but it is not commercially viable.{{Cite web|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/538036/quest-to-mine-seawater-for-lithium-advances/|title=Quest to Mine Seawater for Lithium Advances|last=Martin|first=Richard|date=2015-06-08|website=MIT Technology Review|access-date=2016-02-10|archive-date=2020-03-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308210028/https://www.technologyreview.com/s/538036/quest-to-mine-seawater-for-lithium-advances/|url-status=live}}

Natural lithium carbonate is known as zabuyelite.{{cite web

| url=http://webmineral.com/data/Zabuyelite.shtml

| title=Zabuyelite Mineral Data

| author=David Barthelmy

| work=Mineralogy Database

| access-date=2010-02-07

| archive-date=2023-05-30

| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530011138/http://webmineral.com/data/Zabuyelite.shtml

| url-status=live

}} This mineral is connected with deposits of some salt lakes and some pegmatites.{{Cite web |url=https://www.mindat.org/min-4380.html |title=mindat.org |access-date=2018-05-24 |archive-date=2018-06-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627005924/https://www.mindat.org/min-4380.html |url-status=live }}

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{{Commons category|Lithium carbonate}}

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{{Lithium compounds}}

{{Carbonates}}

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Category:Carbonates

Category:Lithium salts

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Category:Orphan drugs

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