mobility transition

{{See also|Effects of the car on societies}}

An important goal is the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions such as CO₂. To achieve the goal set in the Paris Agreement, that is, to restrict global warming to clearly below 2 °C, the burning of fossil fuels is to be discontinued around 2040.{{citation|surname1=Johan Rockström|periodical=Science|title=A roadmap for rapid decarbonization|volume=355|issue=6331|at=pp. 1269–1271|date=2017|language=German|doi=10.1126/science.aah3443

|pmid=28336628|bibcode=2017Sci...355.1269R|s2cid=36453591|url=http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/14498/1/Rockstr%C3%B6mEtAl_2017_Science_A%20roadmap%20for%20rapid%20decarbonization.pdf}} Because the CO₂ emissions of traffic practically need to be reduced to zero,{{Cite web |author=Henrik Mortsiefer |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wirtschaft/7-emobility-summit-des-tagesspiegel-es-wird-ernst/19778848.html |title="Es wird ernst" |work=Der Tagesspiegel |date=2017-05-09 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} the measures taken so far in the transport sector are not sufficient in order to achieve the climate change mitigation goals that have been set.

A mobility transition also serves health purposes in the metropolitan regions and large cities and is intended in particular to counteract the massive air pollution.{{Cite web |author=Manfred Kriener |url=https://www.monde-diplomatique.de/!5373698 |title=China elektrisiert. Ein Blick in die Zukunft der Autoindustrie |work=Le Monde diplomatique |date=2017-02-09 |access-date=2017-04-13 |language=de}} For example, in Germany in 2015, traffic caused about 38% of human-related nitrogen oxide emissions.{{citation|surname1=Claudia Hornberg et al.|editor-surname1=Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen [SRU]|title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor: Sondergutachten November 2017|publication-place=Berlin|isbn=978-3-947370-11-5|date=2017|language=German|url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=26 |access-date=2020-09-20

}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 2326 accessible at {{Cite web |url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.html |title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor |date=2017-11-23 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} According to Lelieveld et al. (2015), air pollution from land traffic alone killed around 164,000 people in 2010; in Germany alone, it was over 6,900 people.{{citation|surname1=Johannes Lelieveld |periodical=Nature|title=The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale|volume=525|at=pp. 367–371|date=2015|issue=7569|language=German|doi=10.1038/nature15371

|pmid=26381985|bibcode=2015Natur.525..367L|s2cid=4460927|hdl=20.500.14279/9356|hdl-access=free}} A 2017 study by the same lead author concluded that air pollution from road traffic in Germany causes 11,000 deaths every year that could potentially be avoided. This figure is 3.5 times the number of fatalities from accidents.{{citation|surname1=Johannes Lelieveld|periodical=Faraday Discussions|title=Clean air in the Anthropocene|volume=200|at=pp. 693–703|date=2017|language=German|doi=10.1039/c7fd90032e|pmid=28702627|bibcode=2017FaDi..200..693L|doi-access=free}}

File:Karlsgraben Aachen Dezember 2014 (5).jpg: privately owned automobiles characterise the streetscape.]] To demonstrate how much road traffic contributes to air pollution in Germany, for every 100 inhabitants, 58 of them owned passenger cars, according to Federal Statistical Office of Germany.{{cite web |last1=Bundesamt |first1=Statistisches |title=Road Transport: Car Dominance Unbroken |url=https://www.destatis.de/Europa/EN/Topic/Transport/Car.html |website=destatis.de |publisher=Federal Statistical Office of Germany |access-date=October 21, 2022 |language=English |date=2022}}

Further motives for the mobility transition are the desire for less noise, streets with quality of life and lower accident risks (see also Vision Zero). According to estimates by the European Environment Agency, 113 million people in Europe are affected by road noise at unhealthy levels.{{Cite web |author=Harvey |first=Fiona |author-link=Fiona Harvey |date=2020-03-05 |title=One in five Europeans exposed to harmful noise pollution – study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/mar/05/one-in-five-europeans-exposed-to-harmful-noise-pollution-study |access-date=2020-09-22 |work=The Guardian |language=en}} With increasing traffic and commuter numbers, many citizens also wished for more attractive places to spend time in public spaces.{{Cite web |url=http://www.staedtetag.de/presse/mitteilungen/085685/index.html |title="Nachhaltigen Verkehr fördern – Verkehrssysteme der Zukunft entwickeln – Investitionsoffensive von Bund und Ländern notwendig" |publisher=Deutscher Städtetag |date=2018-06-22 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} (press release) A mobility transition therefore also serves to increase the quality of life.{{Cite web |url=https://difu.de/veranstaltungen/2017-06-01/verkehrswende-in-stadt-und-umland.html |title=Verkehrswende in Stadt und Umland |publisher=Deutsches Institut für Urbanistik (Difu) |date=June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007020948/https://difu.de/veranstaltungen/2017-06-01/verkehrswende-in-stadt-und-umland.html |archive-date=2017-10-07 |access-date=2017-05-09 |language=de}}

The mobility transition is also seen by some as a means of reducing aggressive behaviour in traffic (road rage) and in society.{{Cite news |url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2020-06/verkehrswende-pop-up-radwege-stau-regine-guenther-adac/komplettansicht |title=Verkehrswende: "Es geht nicht um Autofahrer gegen Radfahrer" |language=de |first1=Regine |last1=Günther |first2=Volker |last2=Krane |interviewer-first=Sören |interviewer-last=Götz |newspaper=Die Zeit |date=10 July 2020 |access-date=10 September 2023}} Studies indicate that people in large and expensive cars are more likely to behave recklessly.Higher social class predicts increased unethical behavior, Piff et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Mar 2012, 109 (11) 4086-4091; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1118373109 According to the German Verkehrsklima 2020 (Traffic Mood 2020) study, women feel more insecure in traffic than men, and they want more controls and stricter laws.{{Cite web |url=https://www.rnd.de/panorama/studie-aggressivitat-im-verkehr-steigt-leicht-XSZ7EOO3GS2NO3HYKYNPWPIV5E.html |title=Studie: Aggressivität im Verkehr steigt leicht |language=de |website=RedaktionsNetzwerk Deutschland |date=1 October 2020 |access-date=10 September 2023}} On the other hand, the "evil eye" design of vehicles is increasingly used by manufacturers to sell vehicles to drivers who want to feel strong and superior on the road.{{Cite news |url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/auto-design-wenn-autos-wie-eine-geladene-waffe-wirken-a-1225779.html |title=Aggressives Auto-Design: "Manche Autos wirken wie eine geladene Waffe" |language=de |last=Sorge|first=Nils-Viktor |website=Der Spiegel |date=13 September 2018 |access-date=10 September 2023 |issn=2195-1349}} Accident reporting by the press and the police sometimes paints a distorted picture.{{Cite web |url=https://www.rifs-potsdam.de/de/blog/2021/04/wir-brauchen-eine-neue-sprache-fuer-die-verkehrsberichterstattung |title=Wir brauchen eine neue Sprache für die Verkehrsberichterstattung |language=de |first=Dr. Dirk |last=von Schneidemesser |website=RIFS Potsdam |date=22 April 2021 |access-date=10 September 2023}}

Traffic congestion has been increasing in streets and roads. Traditional traffic policy usually relies on expanding the roads to solve the congestion problem. Worldwide, the main causes are urbanisation and the purchase of more automobiles as prosperity increases. A return to more public and non-motorised transport is likely in the future.{{citation|surname1=Jean-Paul Rodrigue|title=The Geography of Transport Systems|edition=5|publisher=Routledge|publication-place=New York|at=(456 pages)|contribution=Chapter 3 – Transportation, Economy and Society > Transportation and Society > Passengers Mobility Transition|isbn=978-0-367-36463-2|date=2020|language=German|url=https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=5463 |access-date=2020-09-20

}} {{Digitalisat|https://transportgeography.org/|LT=Gesamtes Buch als Digitalisat}}.

{{Further|Peak oil#Possible consequences}}

Petroleum production is approaching its peak, or by some estimates may already have been passed in the 2020s.{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|pp=2–4}} The Earth's oil reserves are finite, and oil extraction will become inadequate to power as many petroleum-fueled vehicles. Sooner or later in the 21st century, mobility must rely on other energy sources.{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|pp=2–4}}

File:Pressiegroep Stop de kindermoord brengt bezoek aan Tweede Kamer , kinderen buite, Bestanddeelnr 925-9454.jpg in 1972. The banners state "Stop child murder" and "Safe walking and cycling paths".]]

There has been criticism of automotive cities and car dependency since at least the 1960s. In the Netherlands, Provo Luud Schimmelpennink's 1965 White Bicycle Plan was an early attempt to stop the rising death toll due to car-related traffic accidents, and to stimulate cycling as a safer and healthier alternative for short-distance travel in the city of Amsterdam.{{Cite book |last1=Cox |first1=Peter |last2=Koglin |first2=Till |date=2020 |title=The Politics of Cycling Infrastructure: Spaces and (In)Equality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ_LDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT125 |location=Bristol |publisher=Policy Press |pages=122–126 |isbn=9781447345183 |access-date=28 February 2022}} Although the plan itself was a complete failure, it drew widespread publicity and influenced urban planning ideas around the world – with the white bicycle becoming 'an almost mythical worldwide symbol for a better world'. It inspired the emergence of both strongly anti-car movements such as Kabouter (Gnome), Amsterdam Autovrij ("Amsterdam Car-Free") and De Lastige Amsterdammer ("The Troubled/Troublesome Amsterdammer"), as well as pro-cycling movements in Amsterdam and elsewhere in the Netherlands in the early 1970s.

A prominent example was protest group Stop de Kindermoord ("Stop the Child Murder"), founded in 1972 (formalised in 1973) by a journalist from Eindhoven whose young daughter was killed in a traffic accident, and shortly thereafter another daughter of his was almost killed as well. The movement highlighted how lethally dangerous traffic had become for children in particular, and that the authorities had failed to acknowledge and address the problem. It mobilised parents, teachers, journalists, other citizens and politicians; even right-wing politicians, who had traditionally promoted automobile interests, were influenced by the campaign and became more willing to adopt preventive measures. In Autokind vs Mankind (1971) and On the Nature of Cities (1979), American author Kenneth R. Schneider vehemently criticised the excesses of automobile dependence and called for a struggle to halt and partially reverse negative developments in transportation, although he was largely ignored at the time.{{Cite book |last=Kenworthy |first=Jeffrey R. |date=2010 |title=An Introduction to Sustainable Transportation: Policy, Planning and Implementation |chapter=Box. 8.7 Kenneth R. Schneider: Fighting for change |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXRYG2BxzGAC&pg=PT254 |location=London / Washington, D.C. |publisher=Earthscan / Routledge |page=254 |isbn=9781136541940 |access-date=27 February 2022}}

An early theorist on mobility transitions was American cultural geographer Wilbur Zelinsky, whose 1971 paper "The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition" formed the basis of what has become known as the Zelinsky Model.{{Cite journal|last=Zelinsky|first=Wilbur|date=April 1971|title=The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition|journal=Geographical Review|volume=61|issue=2|pages=219–249|doi=10.2307/213996|jstor=213996|bibcode=1971GeoRv..61..219Z |s2cid=129240935 |url=http://rcin.org.pl/Content/38759}}{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|pp=16-19}} In 1975, Austrian civil engineer and transportation planner Hermann Knoflacher sought to promote cycling traffic in Vienna. He caricatured the enormous spatial demands of automobiles with his self-invented Gehzeug ("walking gear/vehicle").{{Cite web |url=https://www.wienerzeitung.at/meinung/blogs/freitritt/672654_Vom-Gehzeug-zum-Fahrzeug.html|title=Vom "Gehzeug" zum "Fahrzeug" |work=Wiener Zeitung |date=2014-10-15 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.mobilservice.ch/de/home/news/news-dossiers/buchtipp-bvirus-autol-von-hermann-knoflacher-272.html |title=Buchtipp: "Virus Auto" von Hermann Knoflacher |work=mobilservice.ch |date=2010-04-06 |access-date=2017-05-08}}

File:Cyclists at red 2.jpg also means organising commuter traffic by bike. 45 per cent of the population commutes by bicycle.]]

The German dictionary Duden defines 'mobility transition' (German: Verkehrswende) as "fundamental conversion of public transport [especially with ecological objectives]" (German: „grundlegende Umstellung des öffentlichen Verkehrs [besonders mit ökologischen Zielvorstellungen]").

{{Cite web

|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Verkehrswende

|title= Verkehrswende, die

|work=Duden

|access-date=2020-09-22

|language=de}}

Adey et al. (2021) defined 'mobility transition' as 'the necessary and inevitable transformation from a world in which mobility is dominated by the use of fossil fuels, the production of greenhouse gases and the dominance of automobility to one in which mobility entails reduced or eliminated fossil fuels and GHG emissions and is less dependent on the automobile.'{{sfn|Adey et al.|2021|p=4}}

According to a 2016 thesis paper by Agora Verkehrswende – a joint initiative of Stiftung MercatorStiftung Mercator ("Mercator Foundation", named after Gerardus Mercator) is a German non-profit organisation which promotes equal opportunities, social cohesion, respect, tolerance, cosmopolitanism and protection of nature and the environment. and the European Climate Foundation – the goal of a traffic transition (Verkehrswende) in Germany is ensuring climate neutrality in transport by 2050. It must be based on two pillars:

1. Mobility transition (Mobilitätswende): The goal is a significant reduction of energy consumption. The mobility transition is intended to bring about a qualitative change in traffic behaviour (Verkehrsverhalten), in particular avoiding and relocating traffic. An efficient design of the traffic systems without restricting mobility should be achieved.
2. Energy transition in traffic (Energiewende im Verkehr, see also phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles): In order to decarbonise traffic, the conversion of the energy supply of traffic towards renewable energy is considered a necessity.{{Cite news |author=Peter Ilg |url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2016-09/verkehr-autos-carsharing-elektromobilitaet-agora-verkehrswende |title=30 Prozent der Autos würden reichen |work=Die Zeit |date=2016-09-26 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}

{{Cite book

|author=Christian Hochfeld, Alexander Jung, Anne Klein-Hitpaß, Dr. Urs Maier, Kerstin Meyer, Dr. Fritz Vorholz

|title=Mit der Verkehrswende die Mobilität von morgen sichern. 12 Thesen zur Verkehrswende

|publisher=Agora Verkehrswende

|location=Berlin

|date=2017

|language=de

|url=https://www.agora-verkehrswende.de/fileadmin/Projekte/2017/12_Thesen/Agora-Verkehrswende-12-Thesen_WEB.pdf

|access-date=2020-09-20}}

A mobility transition also includes a cultural change, in particular a re-evaluation of "the street". Currently, the primary purpose of streets is to direct traffic through the city with as little disruption as possible. In the future, the dominance of the car should give way to equal rights for all modes of transport.{{Cite news |author=Mark Siemons |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/bald-eine-fahrradstadt-berlin-kamikaze-14280353.html?printPagedArticle=true#pageIndex_2 |title=Bald eine Fahrradstadt? Berlin Kamikaze |work=Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung |date=2016-06-12 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}

In an expanded definition, the mobility transition is distinguished from a pure propulsion transition on the one hand to a fundamental mobility transition on the other:{{citation|surname1=Katharina Manderscheid|editor-surname1= Achim Brunnengräber, Tobias Haas|periodical=Baustelle Elektromobilität – Sozialwissenschaftliche Perspektiven auf die Transformation der (Auto-)Mobilität|title=Antriebs-, Verkehrs- oder Mobilitätswende? Zur Elektrifizierung des Automobilitätsdispositivs|publisher=transcript|publication-place=Bielefeld|at=pp. 37-67|isbn=978-3-8376-5165-2|date=2020|language=German|url=https://www.transcript-verlag.de/media/pdf/34/07/26/oa9783839451656Y4hda57HXkydW.pdf |access-date=2020-08-11

}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 2940

1. Propulsion transition (Antriebswende): the gradual replacement of internal combustion engines by those powered by hydrogen, fuel cells or battery-electric power.{{Cite web |author=Gerald Traufetter, Florian Gathmann |url=https://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/andreas-scheuer-csu-verbote-sind-fuer-mich-kein-politikstil-a-1204886.html |title=Verkehrsminister Scheuer im Interview: "Verbote sind für mich kein Politikstil" |work=Der Spiegel |date=2018-04-26 |access-date=2020-08-10 |language=de}}
2. Traffic transition (Verkehrswende): private car traffic{{Cite interview |url=https://www.aufruhr-magazin.de/klimaschutz/verkehrswende-warum-wissen-wir-nicht-wie-viel-ein-auto-im-monat-kostet/ |title=Warum wissen wir nicht, wie viel ein Auto im Monat kostet? |language=de |last=Andor |first=Dr. Mark |interviewer-first=Maren |interviewer-last=Beck |website=AufRuhr Magazin |publisher=Stiftung Mercator |date=11 August 2020 |access-date=10 September 2023}} is reduced or replaced by other modes of transportation. In the large cities and metropolitan regions in particular, the focus is increasingly on establishing and spreading alternative means of transport - from the expansion of public transport to the promotion of so-called active transport (pedestrian and bicycle traffic), the approval of new electrified micro-vehicles such as e-scooters and the range of different mobility services (the so-called MaaS, "mobility as a service").
3. Mobility transition (Mobilitätswende): This perspective takes into account not only the distances travelled and the means of transport used for them, but also the socio-economic, cultural and spatial dynamics and constraints that cause the need to overcome distances. These include, for example, settlement and transport policies, housing and labour markets, social policy and migration. The need to quickly overcome distances is not understood as an invariant characteristic of people, but as part and prerequisite of the current, growth-oriented capitalist shape of society.

File:Charging stations in SF City Hall 02 2009 02.jpg as part of mixed-mode commuting (San Francisco City Hall 2009)]]

In some cases, a mobility transition is also presented as a paradigm shift of the 'understanding of ownership'. Collective use of means of transport makes it possible to use modes of transportation 'adapted to specific needs', such as carsharing, peer-to-peer carsharing, bicycle-sharing systems. It also enables connecting different modes of transportation to one another on a route to be travelled. Electromobiles could better exploit their advantages in networking with other means of transport. Electric vehicles adapted to the respective uses can be small or large depending on the application, and do not (always) have to be designed for long distances. A suitable charging infrastructure is required. Under certain circumstances, in such an environment it will no longer be necessary to own private transport for one's own use.{{Cite web |first1=Weert |last1=Canzler |first2=Andreas |last2=Knie |url=https://www.innoz.de/sites/default/files/sote_2_14_canzler_knie.pdf |title=Die Energie- und Verkehrswende in "Schlauen Netzen" |publisher=Innovationszentrum für Mobilität und gesellschaftlichen Wandel |date=February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423063907/https://www.innoz.de/sites/default/files/sote_2_14_canzler_knie.pdf |archive-date=2017-04-23 |access-date=2017-04-23 |language=de}}

In Germany, the mobility transition can be contrasted to the Bundesverkehrswegeplan 2030 ('Federal Transport Routes Plan 2030'). The mobility transition is based on avoiding traffic and shifting to rail, but the Bundesverkehrswegeplan is based on the construction and expansion of trunk roads in Germany (including but not limited to the Autobahn).{{citation|editor-surname1= Umweltbundesamt|title=Klimaschutzbeitrag des Verkehrs bis 2050|series=Texte 56/2016 Umweltbundesamt|publication-place=Dessau-Roßlau|issn=1862-4804|date=June 2016|language=German|url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/1410/publikationen/texte_56_2016_klimaschutzbeitrag_des_verkehrs_2050_getagged.pdf |access-date=2020-09-20

}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 3658 accessible at {{Cite book |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/klimaschutzbeitrag-des-verkehrs-bis-2050 |title=Klimaschutzbeitrag des Verkehrs bis 2050 |date=7 June 2016 |publisher=Umweltbundesamt |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/bundesverkehrswegeplan-es-ist-keine-verkehrswende.694.de.html?dram:article_id=362053 |title=Bundesverkehrswegeplan: "Es ist keine Verkehrswende" |publisher=Deutschlandfunk |date=2016-08-03 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} Transport scientist {{interlanguage link|Heiner Monheim|de|Heiner Monheim}} regards the transition as a "turning away from car subsidies through billions [of euros] in road network expansion". He sees a decisive change in the priorities of transport policy as a necessary condition to achieve this.{{Cite web |url=http://www.heute.de/makro-interview-verkehrsexperte-monheim-fordert-intelligente-verkehrskonzepte-46874306.html |title=Experte: "Verkehrspolitik auf dem Holzweg" |work=heute.de |date=2017-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404215604/http://www.heute.de/makro-interview-verkehrsexperte-monheim-fordert-intelligente-verkehrskonzepte-46874306.html |archive-date=2017-04-04 |access-date=2017-04-21 |language=de}} (Interview with Heiner Monheim)

The Umweltbundesamt announced that in 2018, the sum of all environmentally harmful subsidies in Germany was 65.4 billion euros, almost half of them in the areas of traffic and transport. In traffic, such subsidies with harmful effects even increased from 2012 to 2018.{{Cite web |author=Martin Stallmann |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/presse/pressemitteilungen/umweltschaedliche-subventionen-fast-die-haelfte |title=Umweltschädliche Subventionen: fast die Hälfte für Straßen- und Flugverkehr |publisher=Das Umweltbundesamt |date=2021-10-27 |language=de |access-date=2021-10-31}}

{{See also|Travel during the COVID-19 pandemic|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on public transport|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment#Cycling}}

File:Street dining on W51 jeh.jpg

The COVID-19 pandemic made it clear that work and transport can be organised differently, even in a comparatively short time. An increased focus on working from home could save millions of tonnes of greenhouse gases.{{Cite news |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/greenpeace-home-office-kann-millionen-tonnen-co2-einsparen-16913200.html |title=Greenpeace-Studie: Homeoffice kann Millionen Tonnen {{CO2}} einsparen |work=Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung |date=2020-08-20 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.bmbf.de/de/ist-die-coronakrise-gut-fuer-die-verkehrswende-11561.html |title=Ist die Coronakrise gut für die Verkehrswende? |publisher=Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung |date=2020-05-12 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} (Interview with Sophia Becker, sustainability researcher){{Cite web |author= |url=https://www1.wdr.de/nachrichten/themen/coronavirus/corona-chance-fuer-verkehrswende-100.html |title=Beschleunigt Corona die Verkehrswende? |publisher=WDR |date=2020-05-19 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}

File:Fietssnelweg F35 at Go Planet.jpg F35 in the Netherlands (Enschede)]]

File:Mobility pyramid.png

Various measures have been proposed by different people and groups to achieve a mobility transition.

In a 2017 position paper, German think tank Agora Verkehrswende described how a climate-neutral conversion of transport would be possible by 2050 without sacrificing mobility. In addition to technological innovations, there are new traffic concepts, regulatory measures and cultural change. Multi-link transport chains (Intermodal passenger transport) are considered.

{{Cite web

|url=https://www.dw.com/de/wie-schafft-deutschland-die-verkehrswende/a-38167553

|title=Wie schafft Deutschland die Verkehrswende?

|work=Deutsche Welle

|date=2017-03-28

|access-date=2020-09-23

|language=de}}

Amongst other things, there were also studies on this in November 2019 by the {{interlanguage link|Verkehrsclub Deutschland|de|Verkehrsclub Deutschland}} (VCD, "Traffic Club Germany") and the Heinrich Böll Foundation.{{Cite web |author=Christian Frahm, Emil Nefzger |url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/mobilitaetsatlas-2019-wie-sich-deutschland-bewegt-und-was-es-kostet-a-1294503.html |title=So viel kostet Autofahren - auch Menschen, die nicht Auto fahren |work=Spiegel Online |date=2019-11-05 |access-date=2019-11-07 |language=de}}

Various measures have been proposed to achieve the mobility transition – in particular a significant reduction in energy requirements and a change in traffic behaviour:

File: 8398 autobus-seestadt Janis-Joplin-Promenade.jpg.]]

Major changes can succeed with the help of traffic avoidance, and a shift towards sustainable transport in the form of pedestrian traffic, cycling, rail transport and local public transport.{{Cite web |last=Huber |first=Berthold |date=February 2022 |title=Die Bahn bleibt das Rückgrat der Verkehrswende |url=https://www.system-bahn.net/aktuell/die-bahn-bleibt-das-rueckgrat-der-verkehrswende/ |language=de |access-date=10 September 2023 |website=System Bahn}}

{{Cite web

|url=http://www.forschungsradar.de/metaanalysen/einzelansicht/news/metaanalyse-ueber-massnahmen-und-instrumente-fuer-die-energiewende-im-verkehr.html

|title=Metaanalyse über Maßnahmen und Instrumente für die Energiewende im Verkehr

|work=forschungsradar.de

|publisher=Agentur für erneuerbare Energien (AEE)

|date=July 2016

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116192135/http://www.forschungsradar.de/metaanalysen/einzelansicht/news/metaanalyse-ueber-massnahmen-und-instrumente-fuer-die-energiewende-im-verkehr.html

|archive-date=2019-11-16

|access-date=2017-04-13

|language=de}}

According to a 2010 report, each person in Germany in 2008 conducted an average of 3.4 trips a day, with an average length of 11.5 kilometres. On average, private cars were parked for around 22,5 hours a day, because they were used for only 1 hour and 19 to 28 minutes a day.

{{citation|editor-surname1= German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institut für angewandte Sozialwissenschaft (infas) |title=Mobilität in Deutschland 2008 (MiD2008): Ergebnisbericht. Struktur – Aufkommen – Emissionen – Trends|publication-place=Bonn/Berlin|date=February 2010|language=German|url=http://www.mobilitaet-in-deutschland.de/pdf/infas_MiD2008_Abschlussbericht_I.pdf |access-date=2020-09-22}} Commissioned by the Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport, Format: PDF, KBytes: 16634

accessible at {{Cite web

|url=http://www.mobilitaet-in-deutschland.de/mid2008-publikationen.html

|title=Publikationen zur Erhebungswelle 2008

|work=Mobilität in Deutschland

|access-date=2020-09-22

|language=de}} (see "Ergebnisbericht MiD 2008" (PDF, 16MB))

{{rp|1, 28}} Electric cars with a short range, bicycles, electric bicycles (e-bikes), pedelecs, cargo bikes, but also recently e-scooters, are usually well suited for a majority of these routes. The joint use of automobiles in carsharing could increase the utilisation of the vehicles and lead to fewer cars being needed overall. This could also reduce the land consumption of parking spaces and free up space for other uses. In 2002 and 2008, vehicles in Germany were occupied by an average of 1.5 people.{{rp|87}} One method of efficient use of passenger cars is the formation of carpools and the operation of ridesharing companies. Needs-based use of various sorts of low emission vehicles can also serve to reduce fuel consumption. The latter measures would lead to an increase in energy and vehicle efficiency. Another component in the future mobility mix could be Neighborhood Electric Vehicles.

Numerous regulatory control measures are possible, for example congestion charges, aviation taxation and subsidies (such as a jet fuel tax and a departure tax), a reform of company car taxation, parking space management (for example through pay and display), or an extension of emissions trading to road traffic. The introduction of speed limits, or lowering existing speed limits, would also have an impact on greenhouse gas emissions such as CO₂ (carbon dioxide) and NO_x (nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide). Passenger cars consume a disproportionately large amount of fuel at high speeds. A speed limit can also have secondary emissions-reducing effects, about which there is still considerable uncertainty: lower maximum speeds and longer travel times can contribute to a shift in traffic to rail and to the promotion of vehicles with lower engine power.{{Cite web |url=https://www.vcd.org/service/presse/pressemitteilungen/energiegipfel-im-kanzleramt/ |title=Energiegipfel im Kanzleramt |publisher=Verkehrsclub Deutschland |date=2006-10-09 |access-date=2017-05-17 |language=de}} (press release){{citation|surname1=Gunnar Gohlisch, Marion Marlow|editor-surname1= Umweltbundesamt|title=Umweltauswirkungen von Geschwindigkeitsbeschränkungen|series=Texte 40/1999 Umweltbundesamt|publication-place=Berlin|at=pp. 23-29|issn=1862-4804|date=June 1999|language=German|url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/publikation/long/3136.pdf |access-date=2020-09-20

}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 338 accessible at {{Cite book |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/umweltauswirkungen-von |title=Umweltauswirkungen von Geschwindigkeitsbeschränkungen |date=19 March 2009 |publisher=Umweltbundesamt |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}

The externalities of traffic, namely the impact that air pollution caused by motor vehicles has on society and the environment, must also be taken into account here.{{Cite news |url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2022-01/soziale-kosten-strassenverkehr-auto-studie/komplettansicht |title=Soziale Kosten des Straßenverkehrs: Was Autofahren wirklich kostet |language=de |first=Andrea |last=Reidl |website=Die Zeit |date=26 January 2022 |access-date=10 September 2016}}

The {{interlanguage link|2019 Dutch nitrogen emissions crisis|nl|stikstofcrisis}}, which indirectly caused the Dutch farmers' protests, convinced the government in November 2019 to lower the speed limits in the Netherlands on national roads to 100 kilometres per hour during the day, from 6 am to 7 pm. In the evening and at night the old speeds were maintained.{{Cite news|url=https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2019/11/13/stikstofaanpak-geld-voor-boeren-noodwet-voor-dijken-en-rotmaatregel-maximumsnelheid-a3980126 |title=Stikstofaanpak: landbouwinnovatie, noodwet voor de bouw en 'rotmaatregel' snelheid |author=Bastiaan Nagtegaal |work=NRC Handelsblad |date=13 November 2019 |access-date=2 March 2022 |language=nl}}{{Cite web |title=Tempolimit in den Niederlanden: Bremsen für den Fortschritt |trans-title=Speed limit in the Netherlands: braking for progress |last=Frommeyer |first=Lena |work=Der Spiegel |date=14 November 2019 |access-date=2 March 2022 |url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/tempolimit-in-den-niederlanden-endlich-belastbare-daten-a-1296540.html |language=de}} Meanwhile, the State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation court case was decided in favour of its plaintiff Urgenda (initially in June 2015, upheld on appeal in October 2018, and finally confirmed by the Supreme Court of the Netherlands on 20 December 2019), who successfully forced the government to implement the necessary measures to reduce the Netherlands' CO₂ emissions from 1990 levels by 25% by 2020. Although the government was free to choose which measures it would take to achieve this reduction, the plaintiff and other environmentalists had been suggesting throughout the legal process to lower the speed limit as one of several effective options to do so.{{Cite news|url=https://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/niederlande-klimaaktivisten-siegen-gegen-eigene-regierung-a-1302412.html|title=Niederlande: Klimaaktivisten siegen gegen eigene Regierung - Der Spiegel - Wissenschaft|last=SPIEGEL|first=Claus Hecking, DER|newspaper=Der Spiegel|date=20 December 2019 |language=de|access-date=2020-01-26}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/klimaklage-in-den-niederlande-ein-historisches-urteil.1773.de.html?dram:article_id=462389|title=Klimaklage in den Niederlande - Ein historisches Urteil|website=Deutschlandfunk|language=de-DE|access-date=2020-01-26}} Similar environmental arguments for speed limits have been proposed in Germany.{{Cite web|title=Was Stauforscher, Klimaschützer und Unfallforscher zum Tempolimit sagen|url=https://app.handelsblatt.com/technik/forschung-innovation/tempolimit-debatte-was-stauforscher-klimaschuetzer-und-unfallforscher-zum-tempolimit-sagen/23922718.html|access-date=2021-05-22|website=app.handelsblatt.com|language=de}}{{Cite web|date=2020-01-16|title=Das wissen wir über Tempolimits|url=https://www.quarks.de/technik/mobilitaet/faq-tempolimits/|access-date=2021-05-22|website=quarks.de|language=de-DE}}{{Cite news|last=Götz|first=Sören|title=Weniger {{CO2}} und weniger Unfälle|url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2020-07/tempolimit-gruene-autobahn-klimaschutz-verkehrssicherheit|access-date=2021-05-22|newspaper=Die Zeit|date=17 July 2020 }}

As one of several methods to mitigate the environmental impact of aviation, a shift to other modes of transport or a switch from short-haul air traffic to high-speed trains has been proposed. In several countries in Europe, increasingly in the 2010s and early 2020s, some governments have even imposed a short-haul flight ban on all airlines, while many governmental agencies, commercial companies, universities, and NGOs have imposed restrictions or prohibitions on their employees to not take short-haul flights that can also be properly accomplished by train.{{Cite news |url=https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/airline-bailouts-point-to-greener-travel-and-higher-fares-1.1447702 |title=Airline bailouts point to greener travel—and higher fares |author=Matthias Wabl and Christopher Jasper |work=BNN Bloomberg |date=9 June 2020 |access-date=13 June 2020}}{{Cite web |url=https://unter1000.scientists4future.org/best-practice-administration/ |title=Exemplary measures taken by universities and public administrations |work=Unter 1000 |publisher=Scientists 4 Future |access-date=26 October 2020}}

In the field of urban planning, there are concepts for walkability, the compact city (or 'city of short distances'), New Urbanism (or its variant {{interlanguage link|New Pedestrianism|de||es|Nuevo peatonalismo|fr|Nouveau piétonnisme|ja|新歩行者主義|zh|新徒步主义}}), and car-free living. In research policy, there are demands to give more consideration to the consequences of motorised private transport in the form of practice-oriented and solution-oriented research.{{Cite web |url=https://www.fona.de/de/mobil-bleiben-forschung-bereit-fuer-anwendung|title=Mobil bleiben: Forschung bereit für Anwendung |publisher=Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) |date=2017-06-22 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}

According to a 2015 study by the Verkehrsclub Deutschland, local public transport in Germany was not customer-friendly enough. Cryptic route networks, opaque fare systems, ticket machines that cannot be operated, draft bus stops, and a lack of announcements about transfer and connection options were criticised. The club also called for better linking of local public transport with other modes of transportation. This included bike racks at bus stops, information on taking bikes on buses and trains, and options for switching to carsharing providers. Furthermore, the synchronisation of timetables was criticised, because it led to unnecessarily long waiting times for connecting buses or trains.{{Cite web |url=https://www.evangelisch.de/inhalte/128043/04-11-2015/studie-oeffentlicher-nahverkehr-zu-wenig-kundenfreundlich |title=Studie: Öffentlicher Nahverkehr zu wenig kundenfreundlich |work=evangelisch.de |language=de |date=4 November 2015 |access-date=2 March 2022}} In 2012, several local public transport companies reportedly had been making efforts to improve the usability of ticket machines in Bavaria and Saxony.{{Cite web |url=https://www.quantic.de/news-blog/bedienbare-fahrkarten-automaten-fuer-nuernberg |title=Ein Klick für Nürnberg |language=de |date=August 2012 |access-date=2021-11-19}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.quantic.de/news-blog/bedienbare-ticketautomaten-muenchen |title=i-com: Nutzerzentrierte Entwicklung des Bediendialoges für die Münchner Fahrkartenautomaten |work=Nürnberger Nachrichten / Quantic.de |language=de |date=August 2012 |access-date=2 March 2022}} Against this background, Federal Transport Minister Alexander Dobrindt in 2017 called for electronic tickets and a uniform tariff system for all transport associations to be established by 2019.{{Cite web |url=https://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/oeffentlicher-nahverkehr-mehr-transparenz-und-digitale-100.html |title=Öffentlicher Nahverkehr Mehr Transparenz und digitale Tickets |work=Deutschlandfunk Kultur |language=de |date=6 January 2017 |access-date=2 March 2022}}

Since the 2010s, there have been frequent discussions on whether local public transport should be free of charge. The best-known example of free public transport is the Estonian capital Tallinn, where buses and trains have been free since 2013. By 2021, most counties in Estonia had also introduced free buses and trains.{{Cite web |url=https://www.tagesschau.de/inland/btw21/nahverkehr-kostenlos-101.html |title=Mobilität und Klimaschutz: Wenn der Nahverkehr kostenlos wäre? |author=Kristin Becker and Marcel Heberlein |work=Tagesschau |language=de |date=9 September 2021 |access-date=2 March 2022}} Public transport is also free throughout Luxembourg. In Germany, the cities of Monheim am Rhein and Langenfeld, Rhineland were testing free public transport as of September 2021.{{Cite web |url=https://www.swr.de/swr1/rp/programm/oepnv-102.html |title=In diesen Städten sind Bus und Bahn kostenlos |date=2 March 2020 |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}

Some cities have introduced mini electric buses, primarily in inner-city areas. The historic city centre of Aix-en-Provence, France is very narrow and closed to cars, taxis and normal bus traffic. In order to get people with restricted mobility to their destination, wheelchair-accessible electric minibuses are frequented there without a fixed timetable.{{Cite web |url=https://mobility-talk.com/diablines-die-innenstadt-busse-von-aix/ |title=Diablines: Die Innenstadt-Busse von Aix |date=31 October 2021 |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}} Likewise, in the medieval old town of Regensburg, only mini-ebuses are still driving around.{{Cite web |url=https://www.regensburg.de/leben/verkehr-u-mobilitaet/bus-und-bahn/e-bus-emil-fuer-die-regensburger-altstadt |title=E-Bus "emil" für die Regensburger Altstadt |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}} Furthermore, two self-propelled e-shuttles are in use in Regensburg's industrial park.{{Cite web |url=https://www.mittelbayerische.de/region/regensburg-stadt-nachrichten/das-ist-der-startplan-fuer-autonome-busse-21179-art1958655.html |title=Das ist der Startplan für autonome Busse |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}} Berlin and Göppingen also want to supplement their local public transport with electric, highly automated minibuses.{{Cite web |url=https://www.berlin.de/sen/uvk/presse/pressemitteilungen/2021/pressemitteilung.1100852.php |title=Die "kleinen Gelben" auf neuem Kurs in Alt-Tegel |date=29 June 2021 |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}{{Cite web |url=https://emobilitaet.online/tag/%C3%B6pnv |title="e-Bürgerbus": Bürgerschaftliches Engagement kombiniert mit Elektromobilität |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}}

{{see also|List of aerial tramways}}

In some cities, cableways are built as part of local public transit. Such cableways can be found in places such as Medellín (see Metrocable (Medellín)), La Paz (see Mi Teleférico), New York (see Roosevelt Island Tramway), Portland (see Portland Aerial Tram), Algiers (see {{interlanguage link|Cableways of Algiers|de|Seilbahnen von Algiers|fr|Téléphériques d'Alger}}), Lisbon (see {{interlanguage link|Funiculars in Lisbon|de|Standseilbahnen in Lissabon}}), Brest (see {{interlanguage link|Cableways of Brest|de|Seilbahn Brest|fr|Téléphériques de Brest}}), Bozen,{{Cite web |url=https://www.suedtirols-sueden.info/de/berge-aktiv/top-highlights/bozner-seilbahnen.html |title=Zwei Seilbahnen in der Landeshauptstadt |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}} London (see Emirates Air Line (cable car)) and Ankara.{{Cite web |url=https://www.ingenieur.de/technik/fachbereiche/verkehr/per-seilbahn-ankara/ |title=Per Seilbahn durch Ankara |date=26 March 2014 |language=de |access-date=2021-11-19}} Cable cars are electrically operated and they have very low CO₂ emissions compared to other modes of transport. At 50% capacity, a cable car causes 27 grams of CO₂ per person and kilometre, a train with an electric locomotive 30 grams, a bus with a diesel engine 38.5 grams, and a car with a combustion engine even 248 grams. Furthermore, cable cars cause practically no noise pollution on the route, since the individual gondolas do not have their own drive, but are moved by a central motor housed in the station. In Germany, on the occasion of the Bundesgartenschau ('Federal Horticultural Show'), cable cars have emerged in Berlin (see IGA Cable Car), Koblenz (see Koblenz cable car) and Cologne (see Cologne Cable Car). Compared to underground or suburban trains, cable cars are relatively cheap and can be built quickly. As of November 2021, there are projects to build more cable cars to supplement local public transit in Berlin, Bonn, Düsseldorf, Cologne, Munich, Stuttgart and Wuppertal.{{citation|editor-surname1= Magazin für Energieversorgung - Planung - Bau - Betrieb - Service|title=Netzpraxis November 2021 - Mit gutem Gewissen über den Stau hinweg schweben|at=pp. 74ff|language=German

}}

Continuous development is also affecting the rural areas as well. As a solution, what came into play was the integrated systems of public transport that is playing an important role in the development of rural areas, especially in post-communist countries.{{Cite journal |last1=Šťastná |first1=Milada |last2=Vaishar |first2=Antonín |date=2017-09-01 |title=The relationship between public transport and the progressive development of rural areas |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837716306573 |journal=Land Use Policy |language=en |volume=67 |pages=107–114 |doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.05.022 |bibcode=2017LUPol..67..107S |issn=0264-8377|url-access=subscription }}

{{Further|Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles}}

In order to achieve the energy transition in transport, it is considered necessary to refrain from burning petroleum-based fuel and to use more climate-friendly propulsion technologies or fuels. Electricity from renewable sources, or e-fuels or biofuels produced from green electricity, can serve as substitutes for petrol and diesel fuel.

Since the overall efficiency of e-fuels is far lower than direct electrification via electric cars, the German Advisory Council on the Environment has recommended restricting the use of electricity-based synthetic fuels to air and shipping traffic in particular, in order not to increase electricity consumption too much. For example, hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) require more than twice as much energy per kilometre as battery electric vehicles (BEVs), and vehicles with combustion engines powered by power-to-liquid fuels even need between four and six times as much.{{citation|surname1=Claudia Hornberg et al.|editor-surname1= Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen [SRU]|title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor: Sondergutachten November 2017|publication-place=Berlin|isbn=978-3-947370-11-5 |date=2017 |language=German |url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=26 |access-date=2020-09-20

}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 2326 accessible at {{Cite web |url=https://www.umweltrat.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/02_Sondergutachten/2016_2020/2017_11_SG_Klimaschutz_im_Verkehrssektor.html |title=Umsteuern erforderlich: Klimaschutz im Verkehrssektor |date=2017-11-23 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} Battery vehicles therefore have significantly better energy efficiency than vehicles that are operated with e-fuels.{{citation|surname1=Volker Quaschning|editor-surname1= Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin|title=Sektorkopplung durch die Energiewende. Anforderungen an den Ausbau erneuerbarer Energien zum Erreichen der Pariser Klimaschutzziele unter Berücksichtigung der Sektorkopplung|publication-place=Berlin|date=2016|language=German|url=https://pvspeicher.htw-berlin.de/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/HTW-2016-Sektorkopplungsstudie.pdf |access-date=2020-09-22

}}, Format: PDF, KBytes: 5347 accessible at {{Cite web |url=https://pvspeicher.htw-berlin.de/veroeffentlichungen/studien/ |title=Studien |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} (see „Sektorkopplungsstudie: Sektorkopplung durch die Energiewende") In general, electric cars consume around 12 to 15 kWh of electrical energy per 100 km, while conventionally powered cars use the equivalent of around 50 kWh per 100 km.{{citation|surname1=Günther Brauner|title=Energiesysteme: regenerativ und dezentral. Strategien für die Energiewende|publisher=Springer Vieweg|publication-place=Wiesbaden|at=p. 119|isbn=978-3-658-12754-1|date=2016|language=German

}} At the same time, the energy required for the production, transport and distribution of fuels such as petrol or diesel is also eliminated.{{Cite web |author=Andreas Burkert |url=https://www.springerprofessional.de/elektromobilitaet/dieselmotor/endenergiebezogene-analyse-diesel-versus-elektromobilitaet/16673694 |title=Endenergiebezogene Analyse Diesel versus Elektromobilität |work=Springer-Professionals |date=2019-05-02 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} In China in particular, the switch from internal combustion engines to electromobility is being promoted for health reasons (to avoid smog) in order to counteract the massive air pollution in the cities.

According to Canzler & Wittowsky (2016), the propulsion transition could also become the central building block of Germany's Energiewende,{{citation|surname1=Weert Canzler, Dirk Wittowsky|periodical=Utilities Policy|title=The impact of Germany's Energiewende on the transport sector – Unsolved problems and conflicts|volume=41|at=pp. 246–251|date=2016|language=German|doi=10.1016/j.jup.2016.02.011

|bibcode=2016UtPol..41..246C }} While the switch to renewable energies is already underway worldwide, the energy transition in transport is proving more difficult, especially with the switch from oil to sustainable energy sources. However, disruptive technologies (such as the development of more powerful and cheaper batteries or innovations in the field of autonomous driving) and new business models (especially in the field of digitalisation) can also lead to unpredictable, rapid and far-reaching changes in mobility.{{Cite web |url=https://www.3sat.de/gesellschaft/makro/vw-the-next-big-thing-100.html?mode=play&obj=61991 |title=VW: "The next big thing" |work=3sat |date=2016-10-07 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}

New methods of getting around in urban traffic have also emerged:

File:AA9I2385 ret.jpg|Quadricycles combining muscle power and an electric motor

File:Renault Twizy from the left.jpg|Light electric vehicles are small, light and drive electrically (Austria).

File:Electric scooter (Ekoskoter Elektro1).jpg|Swedish nostalgic E-roller with a modern Japanese engine

File:ZOOMLP-5467-Overvolt-HT-900-075.jpg|A pedelec with mid-engine from French company Lapierre Bikes

File:13-06-29-robocup-eindhoven-037.jpg|Cargo bike for transporting children in Eindhoven, Netherlands

File:Wien - Graben (1).JPGs, such as the Graben in Vienna (introduced in 1971), make a city attractive.]]

Vienna, the capital of Austria, has been consistently developing into a city that is restructuring public space and promoting local public transport. Viennese urban planner Hermann Knoflacher has stated: 'The money comes on foot or by bike.' The economic use of space as parking spaces is inefficient. A car-free street increases the turnover of restaurants, clothing stores and retailers. This would create new jobs.{{Cite news|title=Verkehrswende: Wie sich die Blechlawine stoppen lässt|language=de|work=FAZ.NET|url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wissen/physik-mehr/verkehrswende-wie-es-gelingt-die-blechlawine-zu-stoppen-und-staedte-fuer-menschen-zu-gestalten-16967470.html|access-date=2023-01-06|issn=0174-4909}}

The attractiveness of public transport can be stimulated by lowering the price of an annual pass: in Vienna one can use public transport with a subscription fee of 1 euro a day.{{Cite web |author=Peter Münch |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/auto/sz-serie-nahverkehr-weltweit-die-wiener-oeffis-kosten-nur-einen-euro-am-tag-1.3854634 |title=Die Wiener "Öffis" kosten nur einen Euro am Tag |work=Süddeutsche Zeitung |date=2018-02-11 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.wienerlinien.at/eportal3/ep/channelView.do/pageTypeId/66526/channelId/-46642 |title=Jahreskarte |publisher=Wiener Linien |access-date=2018-02-11 |language=de}} Between 2012 and 2018 the number of annual ticket holders increased from 373,000 to 780,000. At the same time as the changeover, the city began to invest more heavily in local transport. In July 2018, some German cities announced that they would follow the Viennese model and lower the prices for annual tickets.{{Cite web |author=Melanie Berger |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/oeffentlicher-nahverkehr-jahresticket-365-euro-deutsche-staedte-moegen-wiener-modell/22751878.html |title=Öffentlicher Nahverkehr – Jahresticket 365 Euro: Deutsche Städte mögen Wiener Modell |work=Der Tagesspiegel |date=2018-06-30 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}

File:Mariahilferstrasse1.jpg|The Mariahilfer Straße in Vienna in 2006, with frequent car congestion

File:Maria Vassilakou 334.jpg|During 2010–2015, the road was restructured and pedestrianised.

File:Wien 07 Mariahilfer Straße Shopping f.jpg|2015: redesigned street with spacious pedestrian and meeting zones

Since 1 March 2020, local public transport across Luxembourg has been free of charge for everyone. The Grand Duchy thus became the first country in the world to introduce free local public transit.{{Cite news|last=Kirsch|first=Matthias|date=2020-02-29|title=Gratis-ÖPNV in Luxemburg: Es hapert mit dem Vorzeigeprojekt|language=de|work=Der Spiegel|url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/luxemburg-und-der-gratis-oepnv-es-hapert-mit-dem-vorzeigeprojekt-a-2f8d9a0f-6b32-4493-82fe-2d5dad51e9bf|access-date=2023-01-06|issn=2195-1349}} An exception to this is first class travel on the railways.sda/mr: Öffentlicher Verkehr in Luxemburg wird kostenlos. In: Eisenbahn-Revue International 3/2019, S. 153. A major reason for the overhaul was the increasingly problematic traffic jams on Luxembourg's roads.{{Cite web|last=NACHRICHTEN|first=n-tv|title=Kostenloser ÖPNV allein bringt nichts|url=https://www.n-tv.de/politik/Kostenloser-OPNV-allein-bringt-nichts-article22074174.html|access-date=2023-01-06|website=n-tv.de|language=de}}

{{See also|Fare#Types of Fare Structure}}

File:Münster Mobilstation Weseler Straße 4682.jpg: a mobility station connects buses and bikes.]]

Several more significant examples of (potential) components and initiatives for mobility transition that have been proposed, studied, or put into practice include:

• As an alternative to the Viennese model of the annual ticket, a citizen ticket is being discussed in some German municipalities as a new way of financing and using local public transport. It is to be financed by a levy for all citizens of a municipality and function as a kind of flat rate for buses and trains.{{Cite web |author=René Rabenschlag |url=http://www1.wdr.de/nachrichten/rheinland/buergerticket-wuppertal-100.html |title=Bürgerticket: Flatrate für Bus und Bahn? |publisher=Westdeutscher Rundfunk |date=2016-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526213210/http://www1.wdr.de/nachrichten/rheinland/buergerticket-wuppertal-100.html |archive-date=2017-05-26 |access-date=2017-04-21 |language=de}}
• Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles: In Germany, a ban on the sale of combustion engines from 2030 has been adopted by the Bundesrat in October 2016.{{cite news|author=Sven Böll|date=8 October 2016|title=Bundesländer wollen Benzin- und Dieselautos verbieten|language=de|work=Der Spiegel|url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/bundeslaender-wollen-benzin-und-dieselautos-ab-2030-verbieten-a-1115671.html|access-date=19 September 2020|archive-date=26 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926035517/https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/bundeslaender-wollen-benzin-und-dieselautos-ab-2030-verbieten-a-1115671.html|url-status=live}} Norway, on the other hand, already wants no cars with petrol or diesel engines to be registered from 2025 and ships and ferries only to be registered without fossil fuels from 2030, and is therefore considered a leading nation in electromobility. The Netherlands are also planning a ban on the registration of conventional drives in cars from 2025.

{{Cite web

|url=https://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/norwegen-will-autos-mit-benzin-oder-dieselmotor-verbieten-a-1107885.html

|title=Norwegen will Benzin- und Dieselautos verbieten

|work=Spiegel Online

|date=2016-08-16

|access-date=2020-09-23

|language=de}}

In China, all automotive groups are obliged to meet a quota for the production and sale of purely electric or plug-in hybrid drives.{{Cite web |author=Steffen Wurze |url=https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/china-e-autos-101.html |title=Weicht China die Quote für E-Autos auf? |work=Tagesschau.de |date=2017-02-27 |access-date=2017-04-23 |language=de}}

• There are numerous electromobility projects in Germany, such as the Modellregionen Elektromobilität and BeMobility. The German Association of Towns and Municipalities (DStGB) sees towns and municipalities as drivers and designers of the mobility transition and also supports a number of projects.{{Cite web |url=https://www.dstgb.de/dstgb/Homepage/Aktuelles/Archiv/Archiv%202017/Neue%20Mobilität%20–%20Kommunen%20als%20Akteure%20der%20Verkehrswende/ |title=Neue Mobilität – Kommunen als Akteure der Verkehrswende |publisher=Deutscher Städte- und Gemeindebund |date=2017-02-17 |access-date=2017-05-04 |language=de}}

File:3a cm070922.jpg in Budapest (2007)]]

• Critical Mass is a form of direct action for promoting more and safer cycling in cities around the world. When riding together through inner cities, cyclists draw attention to cycling as a form of individual transport, advocate for mobility transition and, in particular, more rights for cyclists, better cycling traffic networks and infrastructure, and more room for non-motorised traffic. The first Critical Mass action took place in September 1992 in San Francisco.{{cite news

|last = Garofoli

|first = Joe

|title = Critical Mass turns 10

|work = San Francisco Chronicle

|date = September 28, 2002

|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2002/09/26/BA133774.DTL

|access-date = July 2, 2007

|url-status = live

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080120165148/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2002%2F09%2F26%2FBA133774.DTL

|archive-date = January 20, 2008

|df = mdy-all

}}

• To improve air quality, efforts across Europe are being stepped up to introduce low-emission zones. A progressive approach is the French Crit'air, which provides for different restrictions depending on air pollution. The applicable prohibitions can be viewed on the Internet or via phone app. Electric vehicles or hydrogen-powered vehicles receive category 0 (green vignette) and can always drive anywhere.{{Cite web |url=http://kfz-anzeiger.com/logistik-verkehr/durchblick-mit-der-green-zones-app |title=Umweltzonen: Durchblick mit der Green-Zones-App |work=KFZ-Anzeiger |date=2017-05-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216084527/http://kfz-anzeiger.com/logistik-verkehr/durchblick-mit-der-green-zones-app |archive-date=2018-02-16 |access-date=2017-05-09 |language=de}} {{interlanguage link|Diesel driving bans|de|Dieselfahrverbot}} were also issued in Germany.
• Instead of a company car, individual companies offer their employees a {{interlanguage link|mobility budget|de|Mobilitätsbudget}} that can be used to pay for different means of transport for business purposes.
• The island city-state of Singapore has not allowed additional private cars since 1 February 2018 under its Vehicular Quota System. This is intended to promote the switch to public transport and active mobility. It is also the only country in the world which requires all prospective vehicle owners to bid for a Certificate of Entitlement before they are allowed to own a vehicle for up to 10 years. The state only gives permission for a new car if another has been de-registered.{{Cite news |title=Govt adopts zero-growth stance for car, motorcycle populations |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/transport/government-adopts-zero-growth-stance-for-car-motorcycle-populations |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240525154315/https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/transport/government-adopts-zero-growth-stance-for-car-motorcycle-populations |archive-date=2024-05-25 |access-date=2025-01-13 |work=The Straits Times |language=en}} Singapore was also the first country in the world to implement congestion pricing in 1975.{{Cite web |date=2023-11-12 |title=Distance-based pricing: Best solution to traffic congestion? |url=https://www.asiaone.com/lifestyle/distance-based-pricing-best-solution-traffic-congestion |access-date=2025-01-13 |website=AsiaOne |language=en |quote=Singapore was actually the first country in the world to implement congestion charges, back in 1975.}}
• Since 2003, there has been a London congestion charge which drivers have to pay in Central London. From October 2017 on, an additional, new fee for older and more polluting cars and vans is due with a toxicity charge.{{Cite web |author=Björn Finke |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/auto/sz-serie-nahverkehr-weltweit-die-giftmaut-soll-londons-verkehrsprobleme-loesen-1.3838089 |title=Die Giftmaut soll Londons Verkehrsprobleme lösen |work=Süddeutsche Zeitung |date=2018-01-28 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}{{Cite web |author=Kimiko de Freytas-Tamura |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/17/world/europe/london-smog-air-pollution.html |title=A Push for Diesel Leaves London Gasping Amid Record Pollution |work=New York Times |date=2017-02-17 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=en}}
• In many cities in Germany there are citizens' initiatives which, following the example of the Initiative Volksentscheid Fahrrad ("Cycling Referendum Initiative") in Berlin, advocate for mobility transition and "bicycle laws".{{Cite news |author=Stefan Tomik |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/verkehrswende-initiative-mehr-fahrrad-wagen-15644614.html |title=Verkehrswende-Initiative: Mehr Fahrrad wagen |work=Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung |date=2018-06-17 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}} In June 2018, the Berlin Mobility Act to promote cycling was passed in Berlin, also due to a successful application for a referendum.{{Cite web |author=Jörn Hasselmann, Klaus Kurpjuweit |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/mobilitaetsgesetz-berlin-regelt-den-verkehr-neu/22743314.html |title=Mobilitätsgesetz: Berlin regelt den Verkehr neu |work=Der Tagesspiegel |date=2018-06-27 |access-date=2018-08-19 |language=de}}
• Traffic lights are being tested in Karlsruhe as part of a pilot project which, in contrast to conventional pedestrian traffic lights, display a permanent green light for pedestrians and cyclists, not for vehicles, and only interrupt this when a vehicle approaches.{{Cite web |url=https://www.heise.de/news/Schritt-zur-Verkehrswende-Immer-gruen-fuer-Fussgaenger-Pilotprojekt-in-Karlsruhe-6315619.html |title= Schritt zur Verkehrswende: Immer grün für Fußgänger – Pilotprojekt in Karlsruhe |work=heise.de |date=2022-01-01 |access-date=2022-01-07}}
• In Japan, it is generally illegal to park a car on the street; a car buyer must provide evidence of owning private parking space or renting a public parking space for the car. As of 2019, renting fees for public parking spaces in the more central districts of Tokyo cost about {{euro|300-500}} a month, while in residential areas on the outskirts of Tokyo they cost around {{euro|100}} a month. Only after the police have verified that the parking lot exists and is large enough for the car the owner wants to buy, the car dealer approves the purchase, and gives the owner a parking sticker to put on the new car's front or rear window. The Japanese state has been using regulations to discourage the sale of luxury cars and to stimulate consumers to buy small light-weight cars with small engines (see also: kei car) or to motivate them to switch to local public transport.{{Cite web |author=Martin Kölling |url=https://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/international/weltgeschichten/koelling/japan-autos-die-wie-toastbrote-aussehen-japans-autopolitik-regt-trump-auf/24067414.html |title=Autos, die wie Toastbrote aussehen – Japans Autopolitik regt Trump auf |work=Handelsblatt |date=2019-03-06 |access-date=28 March 2022 |language=de}} Singapore has a similar policy where (prospective) owners of large goods vehicles in Singapore must first provide proof of a space to park the vehicle in question under the Vehicle Parking Certificate Scheme.{{Cite web |title=LTA {{!}} Parking |url=https://onemotoring.lta.gov.sg/content/onemotoring/home/owning/ongoing-car-costs/parking.html |access-date=2022-06-13 |website=onemotoring.lta.gov.sg |quote=Under the Vehicle Parking Certificate (VPC) scheme, heavy vehicles in Singapore must have a parking space licensed by LTA. During the registration of a new heavy vehicle, road tax renewal, transfer of ownership or conversion, the heavy vehicle owner must show proof that they have a designated parking space.}}
• In Spain, a general speed limit of {{convert|30|km/h|abbr=on}} in built-up areas was introduced in 2021. On narrow streets with only one lane (often found in historic city centres), the permitted speed was limited to a maximum of {{convert|20|km/h|abbr=on}}; for streets with more than one lane in both directions, the previously set speed limit was maintained at 50 km/h. A total of 509 people died in urban traffic accidents in Spain in 2019. The 2021 reduction of urban speed limits was intended to reduce the risk of pedestrians dying after being hit by a car by 80%.{{Cite news |url=https://www.heise.de/news/Spanien-fuehrt-30-km-h-Tempolimit-innerorts-ein-6043809.html |title=Spanien führt 30-km/h-Tempolimit innerorts ein |author=dpa |work=heise.de |publisher=Heinz Heise |date=11 May 2021 |access-date=28 March 2022 |language=de |quote=Mit den neuen Höchstgeschwindigkeiten sinke das Risiko, dass ein von einem Auto erfasster Fußgänger sterbe, um 80 Prozent.}}
• With the educational motto Weniger Wagen wagen ("risk fewer cars"), the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cologne has sought to raise awareness, and has calculated: 'Due to mobility (journeys to work, committees, church services, etc.), around 16,370 tons of {{CO2}} (as of 2012) are emitted annually in the Archdiocese of Cologne. This corresponds to a share of approx. 13 per cent of the archdiocese's total emissions.' In response, the Archdiocese stated it sought 'strategic and practical reorientation of mobility', including stimulating cycling through the Pharr-Rad initiative (a pun on Pfarrer "priest" and Fahrrad "bycicle") and the BistumsTicket ("diocesan ticket") which offers reduced fees for public transport travels by groups of 50 people or more to Catholic events organised within the archdiocese.{{Cite web |url=https://www.erzbistum-koeln.de/erzbistum/schoepfungsverantwortung/emissionsarm-mobil-sein/ |title=Emissionsarm mobil sein |author= |work=erzbistum-koeln.de |publisher=Archdiocese of Cologne |date=September 2017 |access-date=28 March 2022 |language=de}}

{{Excerpt|Short-haul flight ban}}

By July 2019, most political parties in Germany, including the Left Party, the Social Democrats, the Green Party and the Christian Democrats, started to agree to move all governmental institutions remaining in Bonn (the former capital of West Germany) to Berlin (the official capital since German Reunification in 1990), because ministers and civil servants were flying between the two cities about 230,000 times a year, which was considered too impractical, expensive and environmentally damaging. The distance of 500 kilometres between Bonn and Berlin could only be travelled by train in 5.5 hours, so either the train connections required upgrading, or Bonn had to be abolished as the secondary capital.{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/07/23/calls-end-bonns-status-germanys-second-city-greens-seek-ban/ |title=Calls to end Bonn's status as Germany's second city as Greens seek to ban all domestic flights |author=Jorg Luyken |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=23 July 2019 |access-date=23 October 2020}}{{Cite news |url=https://www.dw.com/en/german-government-employees-increased-air-travel-in-2019/a-54406097 |title=German government employees increased air travel in 2019 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=2 August 2020 |access-date=23 October 2020}}

{{Further|MARPOL 73/78|Environmental effects of shipping}}

{{See also|Regulation of ship pollution in the United States|Cruise ship pollution in the United States|Cruise ship pollution in Europe}}

File:Freight goods according to mode of transportation 2010.pngs in 2010]]

By far the largest part of the world's freight traffic is sea freight. In 2010, about 60,000 trillion kilometre-tonnes were transported by sea, which was 85% of the world's total freight traffic. According to a 2015 forecast by Statista, by 2050 the volume of freight will have increased to four times the levels of 2010, while the share of sea freight will remain about the same.{{Cite web |url=https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/482955/umfrage/frachtvolumen-weltweit-nach-verkehrstraegern/ |title=Frachtgut nach Verkehrsträger weltweit |language=de |access-date=2021-09-11}}

Transporting goods by container ship is very efficient. Relatively few carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions are caused per transported tonne and kilometre compared to transport by truck (lorry). According to the Naturschutzbund Deutschland (NABU), the latter emit 50 grams of carbon dioxide per tonne and kilometre, while container ships only emit 15 grams.{{Cite web |url=https://www.nabu.de/umwelt-und-ressourcen/verkehr/schifffahrt/containerschifffahrt/16646.html |title=Mythos klimafreundliche Containerschiffe |publisher=Naturschutzbund Deutschland |language=de |access-date=2021-09-11}} However, the mineral oil-based ship fuel used by container ships is particularly polluting; 90 per cent of all large ships run on heavy fuel oil (bunker fuel). Among other things, this means that emissions of toxic sulfur oxide are many times higher.{{Cite web |url=https://reset.org/nachhaltige-konzepte-fuer-containerschiffe-03052019/ |title=Nachhaltige Konzepte für Containerschiffe |author=Thorge Jans |language=de |date=6 March 2019 |access-date=2021-09-11}} To counteract this problem, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) lowered the limit value for sulfur in fuel from 3.5% to 0.5% in 2020.{{Cite web |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/neuer-schwefelgrenzwert-fuer-seeschiffskraftstoffe |title=Neuer Grenzwerkt für Seeschiffkraftstoffe |publisher=Umweltbundesamt |date=2020-01-15 |language=de |access-date=2021-09-11}}

Efficiency can be further increased and fuel consumption reduced by building the ships even larger.

There are innovations to harness wind power for sea transportation. These include cylindrical sails that can be retrofitted to cargo ships (making them "rotor ships" or "Flettner ships") and can reduce fuel consumption. Another option is a towing kite construction, which was originally developed in 2001 by the Hamburg-based company SkySails and is now being sold by AirSeas. The sail has an area of 1,000 square metres and was developed to reduce fuel consumption on cargo ships by up to 20%. As of 2019, the aviation group Airbus was testing this idea on four of its own freighters with the aim of saving up to 8,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions.

File:Zeitraffer - Schifffahrt auf dem Rhein in Köln (2) Time lapse - ships on the Rhine at Cologne (2).webm at Cologne (2015)]]

As inland navigation (also known as 'inland waterway transport' (IWT) or 'inland shipping') is a relatively environmentally friendly option for freight transport (similar to rail freight transport), researchers and policy makers have been aiming to shift the volume of cargo transported by more pollutive means towards inland navigation (for example, as part of the 2019 European Green Deal).{{Cite journal |last1=Hofbauer |first1=Florian |last2=Putz |first2=Lisa-Maria |date=2020 |title=External Costs in Inland Waterway Transport: An Analysis of External Cost Categories and Calculation Methods |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/14/5874/pdf |journal=Sustainability |publisher=MDPI |volume=12 |issue=5874 |pages=9 (Table 11) |doi= 10.3390/su12145874|access-date=29 March 2022|doi-access=free }} According to the Research Information System for Mobility and Traffic (FIS; an agency of the German Transport Ministry), deficits in the competitiveness of German inland navigation, especially in an international comparison, are responsible for the stagnating transport volume of German inland navigation. A water infrastructure that is not optimally developed with insufficient water channel depths and bridge clearance heights lead to low loading capacities and thus to high costs. A certain exception are the waterways of the Rhine area, which also have by far the highest transport volume.{{Cite web |url=https://www.forschungsinformationssystem.de/servlet/is/123359/ |title=Gebietsstruktur der Binnenschifffahrt und deutsche Binnenhäfen |language=de |access-date=2021-09-12}} Furthermore, the German inland waterway fleet is quite old by international comparison (45 years in 2013).{{Cite web |url=https://www.forschungsinformationssystem.de/servlet/is/123506/ |title=Gründe für die Ertüchtigung der Binnenschifffahrt |language=de |access-date=2021-09-12}}

Inland navigation is closely related to seaport hinterland traffic. For example, in the modal split in hinterland traffic at the Dutch and Belgian seaports (Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Antwerp and Zeebrugge), inland shipping has a share of around 55%, while in Germany it usually remains below 10% of hinterland traffic. The reason for this is the better expansion of the Rhine waterways. Furthermore, the majority of the 250 important inland ports in Germany are owned by large companies that only handle transport goods from third-party companies to a small extent.{{Cite web |url=https://www.forschungsinformationssystem.de/servlet/is/114702/ |title=Gründe für die Instandhaltung und den Ausbau der deutschen Binnenwasserstraßen |language=de |access-date=2021-09-12}} Against this background, the FIS has called for the expansion and maintenance of German waterways. The number and carrying capacity of the German inland waterway vessels has remained constant in the early 21st century and was around 2.61 million tonnes in 2015.

Various approaches to energy efficiency and air pollution reduction are being tested and researched in inland shipping. This includes propulsion configurations such as the father–son concept,{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/rolf-bach-erhaelt-innovationspreis-der-allianz-esa.html |title=Rolf Bach erhält Innovationspreis der Allianz Esa |work=bonapart |date=2015-09-29 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}} diesel-electric hybrid drives,{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/dieselelektrisches-guetermotorschiff-goblin-in-fahrt.html |title=Dieselelektrisches Gütermotorschiff "Goblin" in Fahrt |work=bonapart |date=2013-09-13 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}} hydrodynamic optimisations,{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/rhenus-duisburg-faehrt-mit-flex-tunnel-und-vier-motoren.html |title="Rhenus Duisburg" fährt mit Flex-Tunnel und vier Motoren |work=bonapart |date=2015-08-15 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}} fuel water emulsion injection,{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/kraftstoff-wasser-emulsionstechnik-macht-rudolf-deymann-zum-schwimmenden-exponat.html |title=Kraftstoff-Wasser-Emulsionstechnik macht "Rudolf Deymann" zum schwimmenden Exponat |work=bonapart |date=2016-02-24 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}} SCR-catalysts, diesel particulate filters,{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/laborschiff-max-pruess-erhaelt-abgasreinigungsanlage.html |title=Laborschiff "Max Prüss" erhält Abgasreinigungsanlage |work=bonapart |date=2015-11-06 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}} gas-to-liquid fuels (GTL){{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/emissionsarm-ohne-umbau-jenny-bunkert-synthetischen-gtl-kraftstoff.html |title=Emissionsarm ohne Umbau: "Jenny" bunkert synthetischen GTL-Kraftstoff |work=bonapart |date=2016-04-26 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}} or Liquified Natural Gas (LNG),{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/erste-lng-bunkerung-in-deutschland-im-hafen-mannheim-durchgefuehrt.html |title=Erste LNG-Bunkerung in Deutschland im Hafen Mannheim durchgeführt |work=bonapart |date=2013-11-15 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}} some of which can also be used in combination and are suitable for retrofitting existing systems.{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/deutz-545-faehrt-schadstoffarm-mit-kraftstoff-wasser-emulsion.html |title=Deutz 545 fährt schadstoffarm mit Kraftstoff-Wasser-Emulsion |work=bonapart |date=2016-05-20 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}} With an engine funding program, the German Transport Ministry supports inland navigation companies in the installation and retrofitting of low-emission engines or other emission-reducing technologies. The funding rate is up to 70%.{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/motorenfoerderprogramm-jetzt-bis-zu-70-prozent-vom-staat.html |title=Motorenförderprogramm: Jetzt bis zu 70 Prozent vom Staat |publisher=bonapart |date=2015-08-04 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-23}}

File:Freight Shipping in the United States.svgs (2010 FRA report){{Cite web |title=National Rail Plan Progress Report {{!}} FRA |author= |work=railroads.dot.gov |date=September 2010 |access-date=31 March 2022 |url=https://railroads.dot.gov/elibrary/national-rail-plan-progress-report}}]]

{{Pie chart

|caption =Freight in Germany (2019) (total: 700 tonne-kilometres){{Cite web |url=https://www.allianz-pro-schiene.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/210226_marktanteile_gueterverkehr_2019.pdf |title=Anteile der Verkehrsträger am Güterverkehr; 2019 in Deutschland |publisher=Allianz pro Schiene |date=November 2020 |access-date=2021-09-12 |language=de}}

|value1=71.2

|label1=Truck

|color1=red

|value2=19

|label2=Rail

|color2=green

|value3=7.3

|label3=Inland ship

|color3=blue

|value4=2.5

|label4=Oil pipeline

|color4=yellow}}

In road freight transport, some transport companies are proposing partly new technologies such as trolleytrucks, electric trucks or electric cargo bikes. Package delivery services are experimenting with new concepts of smart logistics.{{Cite web |url=https://www.verkehrsrundschau.de/nachrichten/hamburg-sucht-nach-intelligenteren-wegen-fuer-paketzustellung-1854982.html |title=Hamburg sucht nach intelligenteren Wegen für Paketzustellung |work=VerkehrsRundschau |date=2016-11-25 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}} Trolleytrucks with an auxiliary battery offer the possibility of lower-emission long-distance truck transport that is also more energy-efficient than battery-powered trucks.{{Cite web |author=Jens Tartler |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wirtschaft/verkehrswende-hendricks-faehrt-auf-strom-lkw-ab/19660324.html |title=Hendricks fährt auf Strom-LKW ab |work=Der Tagesspiegel |date=2017-04-11 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}} Equipping motorways with overhead lines for heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) has the advantage that HGVs would only have to carry small batteries, as only comparatively short distances would be covered in battery-only mode. At the same time, trolleytrucks would be a cost-effective way to make freight transport climate-friendly, as the electrification of motorways, at a cost of 3 million euros/km, does not represent too much of a financial outlay.{{Cite web |author=Sonja Fröhlich |url=https://www.haz.de/Nachrichten/Wissen/Uebersicht/E-Highways-Erste-Elektro-Autobahn-fuer-Lastwagen-eine-oekologische-Alternative |title=Erste Elektro-Autobahn für Lastwagen – eine ökologische Alternative? |work=Hannoversche Allgemeine Zeitung |date=2019-05-07 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}}

Another option to reduce CO₂ emissions and environmental problems is to shift truck traffic to freight rail and inland waterway transport. This process is also known as modal shift. The German Environment Agency gives the climate impact of transport by truck in the reference year 2020 as 126 grams of CO₂ equivalents per tonne-kilometre on average (g/tkm). According to the Environment Agency, transport by freight train has a climate impact of 33 g/tkm and transport by inland waterway vessel has a climate impact of 43 g/tkm, making rail and ship significantly more climate-friendly.{{Cite web |url=https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/5750/publikationen/2021_fb_umweltfreundlich_mobil_bf.pdf |title=Umweltfreudlich mobil! Ein ökologischer Verkehrsartenvergleich für den Personen- und Güterverkehr in Deutschland |publisher=Umweltbundesamt |date=March 2020 |language=de |access-date=2021-09-11}} (see table 9)

Although the European Union and its member states strongly promote the use of inland waterways and rail in combination with truck transport, in some cases financially,{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/kv-foerderrichtlinie-2017-2021-in-kraft-getreten.html |title=KV-Förderrichtlinie 2017–2021 in Kraft getreten |work=bonapart |date=2017-01-09 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}} only HGVs have been developing positively in the 2010s, while shipping and rail have been stagnating or recording declines.{{Cite web |url=https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Branchen-Unternehmen/Transport-Verkehr/Gueterverkehr/Tabellen/gueterbefoerderung-lr.html |title=Beförderungsmenge und Beförderungsleistung nach Verkehrsträgern |publisher=Statistisches Bundesamt (Destatis) |date=2020-05-19 |language=de |access-date=2020-09-22}} For 2016, the Federal Statistical Office of Germany reported a decline in transport performance of 3.7% for inland waterways, a decline of 0.5% for rail and growth of 2.8% for trucks.{{Cite web |url=https://www.destatis.de/DE/PresseService/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2017/02/PD17_057_463.html |title=Güterverkehr 2016: Neuer Höchststand beim Transportaufkommen |publisher=Statistisches Bundesamt (Destatis) |date=2017-02-17 |language=de |access-date=2017-05-19}} In 2015, with a growing transport volume of 1.1%, there was a plus of 1.9% for road, a minus of 1% for rail and a minus of 3.2% for inland waterways.{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/gueterverkehr-2015-waechst-binnenschiff-und-bahn-verlieren.html |title=Güterverkehr 2015 wächst – Binnenschiff und Bahn verlieren |work=bonapart |date=2016-02-19 |language=de |access-date=2017-05-19}} Overall, 71% of the transport performance is accounted for by the truck.

With growing containerization however, a combination of different modes of transport (intermodal freight transport) becomes more efficient. In so-called multimodal transport or combined transport, the truck only has to cover the last mile between the port or rail terminal and the customer. Measures to promote combined transport are, for example:

• The Port of Rotterdam has set a quota for the modal share of hinterland transport modes: the truck share is to drop from 47% to 35%, while rail is to provide 20% instead of 13% in the future, and the transport performance of inland waterways is to increase from 40% to 45%.{{Cite web |author= |url=

https://www.dvz.de/rubriken/region/laender/niederlande/detail/news/schiene-spielt-schluesselrolle-fuer-rotterdam.html |title=Schiene spielt Schlüsselrolle für Rotterdam |work=Deutsche Verkehrs-Zeitung (DVZ) |date=2015-03-02 |access-date=2017-05-19}} (requires subscription)

• Instead of burdening trunk roads with the transport of heavy goods such as industrial plants or components for wind turbines, German transport companies have been required since 2010 to use the electronic portal Procedural Management of Large and Heavy Goods Transport (VEMAGS) to check whether alternative transport routes such as ship and rail are available, and if not, to explain that in their application for a permit to transport goods via road trucks.{{Cite web |author=Christian Grohmann |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/schwergut-und-projektladungen-leichtes-wachstum-in-2017-moeglich.html |title=Schwergut und Projektladungen: Leichtes Wachstum in 2017 möglich |work=bonapart |date=2017-02-13 |access-date=2020-09-23 |language=de}}
• With the promotion of handling facilities for combined transport, the German federal government supports the shift in traffic to inland waterways and freight trains.
• The Lower-Rhine Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Schifferbörse and the Development Centre for Naval Technology and Transport Systems (DST) in Duisburg jointly offer an additional course. Apprentice forwarding and logistics clerks should thus learn about the advantages of alternative modes of transport, rail and inland waterway, and thus integrate them more easily into their everyday work. Frequently, the curriculum only includes road freight transport and additional sea freight or air transport.{{Cite web |author=Axel Götze-Rohen |url=https://www.bonapart.de/nachrichten/beitrag/schifferboerse-startet-qualifikationsinitiative.html |title=Schifferbörse startet Qualifikationsinitiative |work=bonapart |date=2015-02-25 |access-date=2020-09-23 |language=de}}

• Energy transition
• Jet fuel tax
• Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles
• Urban sprawl

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• {{Cite news |author=Stephan Rammler |author-link=:de:Stephan Rammler |url=https://www.zeit.de/mobilitaet/2018-02/verkehrswende-bundesregierung-fahrverbote-luftverschmutzung/komplettansicht |title=Verkehrswende: Bürgermeister, fangt einfach an! |work=Die Zeit |date=2018-02-20 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}
• {{Cite web|author=Stefan Hajek |url=https://www.wiwo.de/my/unternehmen/auto/falsche-zahlen-steile-thesen-die-mythen-der-e-auto-kritiker/23906014-all.html |title=Falsche Zahlen, steile Thesen: Die Mythen der E-Auto-Kritiker |work=Wirtschaftswoche |date=2019-01-24 |access-date=2020-09-22 |language=de}}
• {{cite news |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wissen/physik-mehr/verkehrswende-wie-es-gelingt-die-blechlawine-zu-stoppen-und-staedte-fuer-menschen-zu-gestalten-16967470.html |title=So geht sich das nicht aus |language=de |first=Andreas |last=Frey |newspaper=Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung |date=27 September 2020 |access-date=10 September 2023}}, long article on the mobility transition in Germany
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|url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/verkehrswende-das-ende-des-verbrennungsmotors/13819824.html

|title=Das Ende des Verbrennungsmotors

|work=Der Tagesspiegel

|date=2016-07-02

|access-date=2020-09-23

|language=de}}

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