rapeseed oil

The name for rapeseed comes from the Latin word {{lang|la|rapum}} meaning turnip. Turnip, rutabaga (swede), cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and mustard are related to rapeseed. Rapeseed belongs to the genus Brassica. Brassica oilseed varieties are some of the oldest plants cultivated, with documentation of its use tracing back to India from 4,000 years ago, and use in China and Japan 2,000 years ago.{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-34388-2_2 |chapter=Oilseed Rape |title=Oilseeds |series=Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in Plants |date=2007 |last1=Snowdon |first1=Rod |last2=Lühs |first2=Wilfried |last3=Friedt |first3=Wolfgang |volume=2 |pages=55–114 |isbn=978-3-540-34387-5 }}{{rp|55}} Its use in Northern Europe for oil lamps is documented to have started in the 13th century. Rapeseed oil extracts were first put on the market in 1956–1957 as food products, but these suffered from several unacceptable characteristics. That form of rapeseed oil had a distinctive taste and a greenish colour due to the presence of chlorophyll and still contained a higher concentration of erucic acid.{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-1-78242-089-7.00015-4 |chapter=The use of antioxidants in the preservation of edible oils |title=Handbook of Antioxidants for Food Preservation |date=2015 |last1=Fan |first1=Liuping |last2=Eskin |first2=N.A. Michael |pages=373–388 |isbn=978-1-78242-089-7 }}

Canola was bred from rapeseed cultivars of B. napus and B. rapa at the University of Manitoba in the early 1970s,{{cite web |year=2007 |title=Richard Keith Downey: Genetics |url=http://www.science.ca/scientists/scientistprofile.php?pID=348 |access-date=29 December 2008 |publisher=science.ca}}{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Pederson |first1=Anne-marie |last2=Storgaard |first2=A.K. |date=15 December 2015 |title=Baldur Rosmund Stefansson |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |url=https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/baldur-rosmund-stefansson |access-date=4 September 2019}} having then a different nutritional profile than present-day oil in addition to much less erucic acid.{{cite encyclopedia |last=Barthet |first=V. |title=Canola |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canola |access-date=29 December 2008 |url-status=live |archive-date=27 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227121228/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/canola/}} This work was performed at the National Research Council of Canada laboratories in Saskatoon using gas liquid chromatography.{{Cite book |last=Lawrence |first=Katherine |title=From Rapeseed to Canola: The Billion Dollar Success Story |publisher=National Research Council Plant Biotechnology Institute |year=1992 |location=Saskatoon, Saskatchewan |pages=41}} Canola was originally a trademark name of the Rapeseed Association of Canada; the name is a portmanteau of "can" from Canada and "ola" from "oil".{{cite book |last1=Wrigley |first1=Colin W. |last2=Corke |first2=Harold |last3=Seetharaman |first3=Koushik |last4=Faubion |first4=Jonathan |date=17 December 2015 |title=Encyclopedia of Food Grains |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-1785397622 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ce7tBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA238 |page=238}}{{cite web |last=Canola Council of Canada |date=2016 |title=What is Canola? |url=http://www.canolacouncil.org/oil-and-meal/what-is-canola/ |access-date=16 December 2013}} Canola is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed oil in North America and Australasia;{{cite web |date=21 April 2021 |title=Has canola become a generic trademark? |website=genericides.org |url=https://www.genericides.org/trademark/canola |access-date=13 May 2021 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020171658/https://www.genericides.org/trademark/canola |url-status=dead}} the change in name also serves to distinguish it from natural rapeseed oil, which has much higher erucic acid content.{{cite journal |last1=Kazaz |first1=Sami |last2=Miray |first2=Romane |last3=Lepiniec |first3=Loïc |last4=Baud |first4=Sébastien |title=Plant monounsaturated fatty acids: Diversity, biosynthesis, functions and uses |journal=Progress in Lipid Research |date=January 2022 |volume=85 |pages=101138 |doi=10.1016/j.plipres.2021.101138 |pmid=34774919 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03782169/file/PLR_BAUDetal.pdf }}

A genetically engineered rapeseed that is tolerant to the herbicide Roundup (glyphosate) was first introduced to Canada in 1995 (Roundup Ready). A genetically modified variety developed in 1998 is considered to be the most disease- and drought-resistant canola variety to date. In 2009, 90% of the Canadian crop was herbicide-tolerant.{{cite journal |last1=Beckie |first1=Hugh J |last2=Harker |first2=K Neil |last3=Légère |first3=Anne |last4=Morrison |first4=Malcolm J |last5=Séguin-Swartz |first5=Ginette |last6=Falk |first6=Kevin C |title=GM Canola: The Canadian Experience |journal=Farm Policy Journal |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=Autumn 2011 |pages=43–49 |url=https://www.canolacouncil.org/download/2042/canola-watch/14597/20110309_fpj_aut11_beckie-et_-al_-2 |s2cid=13980244 }} In 2005, 87% of the canola grown in the US was genetically modified.Johnson, Stanley R. et al [http://www.ncfap.org./documents/2007biotech_report/Quantification_of_the_Impacts_on_US_Agriculture_of_Biotechnology_Executive_Summary.pdf Quantification of the Impacts on US Agriculture of Biotechnology-Derived Crops Planted in 2006] National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy, Washington DC, February 2008. Retrieved 12 August 2010. In 2011, out of the 31 million hectares of canola grown worldwide, 8.2 million (26%) were genetically modified.{{cite web |title=Biotech Canola – Annual Update 2011 |publisher=International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications |url=http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/biotech_crop_annual_update/download/04%20Canola%202012.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530172912/http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/biotech_crop_annual_update/download/04%20Canola%202012.pdf |archive-date=30 May 2013 |access-date=26 May 2013 |url-status=dead}}

A 2010 study conducted in North Dakota found glyphosate- or glufosinate-resistance transgenes in 80% of wild natural rapeseed plants, and a few plants that were resistant to both herbicides. This may reduce the effectiveness of the herbicide tolerance trait for weed control over time, as the weed species could also become tolerant to the herbicide. However, one of the researchers agrees that "feral populations could have become established after trucks carrying cultivated GM seeds spilled some of their load during transportation". She also notes that the GM canola results they found may have been biased as they only sampled along roadsides.{{cite journal |last1=Gilbert |first1=Natasha |title=GM crop escapes into the American wild |journal=Nature |date=6 August 2010 |doi=10.1038/news.2010.393 |doi-access=free }}

Genetically modified canola attracts a price penalty compared to non-GM canola; in Western Australia, it is estimated to be 7.2% on average.{{cite journal |last=Paull |first=John |year=2019 |title=Genetically Modified (GM) Canola: Price Penalties and Contaminations |journal=Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=1–4 |doi=10.26717/BJSTR.2019.17.002965 |doi-access=free}}

File:Canola_field_in_Manitoba,_Canada.jpg, Canada]]

File:World Production Of Main Vegetable Oils By Main Producers (2020).svg

In 2021, world production of rapeseed oil was 26 million tonnes, led by Canada, Germany and China as the largest producers, accounting together for 43% of the world total. Canada was the world's largest exporter of rapeseed oil in 2021, shipping 3.1 million tonnes or approximately 74% of its total production.

The benchmark price for worldwide canola trade is the ICE Futures Canada (formerly Winnipeg Commodity Exchange) canola futures contract.{{cite web |date=2017 |title=ICE Futures: Canola |url=https://www.theice.com/products/251/Canola-Futures |access-date=4 September 2017 |publisher=Intercontinental Exchange, Inc.}}

In China, rapeseed meal is mostly used as a soil fertilizer rather than for animal feed,{{cite journal |last1=Bonjean |first1=Alain. P. |last2=Dequidt |first2=Céline |last3=Sang |first3=Tina |last4=Limagrain |first4=Groupe |date=18 November 2016 |title=Rapeseed in China |journal=OCL |volume=23 |issue=6 |page=D605 |doi=10.1051/ocl/2016045 |doi-access=free }} while canola is used mainly for frying food. In the words of one observer, "China has a vegetable oil supply shortage of 20 million tonnes per year. It covers a large percentage of that shortage with soybean imports from Brazil, the U.S. and Argentina."{{cite web |date=12 February 2018 |title=Why China needs canola imports |url=https://www.country-guide.ca/crops/canola/why-china-needs-canola-imports/ |website=Country Guide |publisher=Glacier FarmMedia Limited Partnership|author-first1=Jay|author-last1=Whetter}}{{clear left}}

{{See also|Regulation of the release of genetically modified organisms}}

There are several forms of genetic modification, such as herbicide (glyphosate and glufosinate, for example) tolerance and different qualities in canola oil. Regulation varies from country to country; for example, glyphosate-resistant canola has been approved in Australia, Canada, China, Korea, Mexico, Philippines, and the US, while Laurical, a product with a different oil composition, has been approved for growing only in Canada and the US.eurofins. Last updated 31 January 2014 [http://www.eurofins.de/food-analysis/information/gmo-information/gmo-canola.aspx Genetically Modified Canola] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620101908/https://www.eurofins.de/kits-en/information/gmo-information/gmo-canola/ |date=20 June 2018 }}

In 2003, Australia's gene technology regulator approved the release of canola genetically modified to make it resistant to glufosinate ammonium, a herbicide.{{Cite news |date=1 April 2003 |title=GM canola gets the green light |work=Sydney Morning Herald |url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/04/01/1048962750314.html |access-date=20 October 2007}} The introduction of the genetically modified crop to Australia generated considerable controversy.{{Cite news

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051203111948/http://www.abc.net.au/rural/vic/content/2005/s1454227.htm

| url = http://www.abc.net.au/rural/vic/content/2005/s1454227.htm

| url-status = unfit

| archive-date = 3 December 2005

| title= Network of concerned farmers demands tests from Bayer

| first = Libby | last= Price

| date = 6 September 2005

| website= ABC Rural Victoria

| publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation}}{{pb}}{{Cite news |date=13 March 2003 |title=Greenpeace has the last laugh on genetic grains talks |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |url=http://www.abc.net.au/rural/news/stories/s806013.htm

| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20040505013801/http://www.abc.net.au/rural/news/stories/s806013.htm

| archive-date= 5 May 2004

| url-status= unfit

}}{{pb}}{{Cite news |last=Cauchi |first=Stephen |date=25 October 2003 |title=GM: food for thought |work=The Age |url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/10/24/1066974310732.html |access-date=20 October 2007}}< Canola is Australia's third biggest crop, and is used often by wheat farmers as a break crop to improve soil quality. As of 2008, the only genetically modified crops in Australia were canola, cotton, and carnations.{{Cite web |title=GM Crops and Stockfeed |url=http://www.ogtr.gov.au/internet/ogtr/publishing.nsf/content/gmofactsheets-3/$FILE/gmstockfeed.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414054557/http://www.ogtr.gov.au/internet/ogtr/publishing.nsf/Content/gmofactsheets-3/$FILE/gmstockfeed.pdf |archive-date=14 April 2012 |access-date=9 October 2012}}[http://www.afaa.com.au/resource_guides/Resource_Carnations.pdf GM Carnations in Australia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508021951/http://www.afaa.com.au/resource_guides/Resource_Carnations.pdf|date=8 May 2012}}

Genetically modified canola has become a point of controversy and contentious legal battles. In one high-profile case (Monsanto Canada Inc v. Schmeiser) the Monsanto Company sued Percy Schmeiser for patent infringement after he replanted canola seed he had harvested from his field, which he discovered was contaminated with Monsanto's patented glyphosate-tolerant canola by spraying it with glyphosate, leaving only the resistant plants. The Canadian Supreme Court ruled that Percy was in violation of Monsanto's patent because he knowingly isolated and replanted the resistant seed that he had harvested.{{cite court

|litigants=Schmeiser v. Monsanto Canada Inc.

|reporter=2 F.C. 165

|court=Federal Court of Appeal Decisions, Canada.

|date=4 September 2002

|url=https://decisions.fca-caf.gc.ca/fca-caf/decisions/en/item/31360/index.do

}}{{Dubious|date=January 2019|reason=The statement cites Supreme Court, but the reference is from Court of Appeal. Also, the information is not matching that in the article Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser.}} On 19 March 2008, Schmeiser and Monsanto Canada Inc. came to an out-of-court settlement whereby Monsanto would pay for the clean-up costs of the contamination, which came to a total of C$660.{{cite news |last=Hartley |first=Matt |date=20 March 2008 |title=Grain Farmer Claims Moral Victory in Seed Battle Against Monsanto |work=Globe and Mail |url=http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2008/03/20/7784 |url-status=dead |access-date=14 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202124717/http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2008/03/20/7784 |archive-date=2 February 2014}} In Western Australia, in the Marsh v Baxter case, a GM canola farmer was sued by his organic neighbour because GM canola contamination led to the loss of organic certification. Although the facts of the case and the losses to the organic farmer were agreed between the parties, the judge did not find the GM farmer liable for the losses.{{cite journal |last1=Paull |first1=John |year=2015 |title=Gmos and Organic Agriculture: Six Lessons from Australia |url=https://www.academia.edu/11695152 |journal=Agriculture and Forestry |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.17707/AgricultForest.61.1.01 |doi-access=free}}

File:Canola_Oil_(4107885913).jpg

Canola oil is made at a processing facility by slightly heating and then crushing the seed.{{cite web |date=2016 |title=Steps in Oil and Meal Processing |url=http://www.canolacouncil.org/oil-and-meal/what-is-canola/how-canola-is-processed/steps-in-oil-and-meal-processing/ |access-date=30 April 2016 |publisher=Canola Council of Canada}} Almost all commercial canola oil is then extracted using hexane solvent,{{cite web |last=Crosby |first=Guy |date=2017 |title=Ask the Expert: Concerns about canola oil |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/2015/04/13/ask-the-expert-concerns-about-canola-oil/ |access-date=23 April 2017 |work=The Nutrition Source |publisher=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health}} which is recovered at the end of processing. Finally, the canola oil is refined using water precipitation and organic acid to remove gums and free fatty acids, filtering to remove color, and deodorizing using steam distillation. Sometimes the oil is also bleached for a lighter color.{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cfk2IXlZdbI | title=How It's Made - Canola Oil | website=YouTube | date=11 March 2012 }} The average density of canola oil is {{cvt|0.92|g/ml|lb/USgal lb/impgal}}.{{cite web |date=December 2001 |title=Section 3.1: Leaking Tank Experiments with Orimulsion and Canola Oil |url=http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/book_shelf/959_tank.pdf |work=NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OR&R 6 |publisher=National Ocean Service}}

Cold-pressed and expeller-pressed canola oil are also produced on a more limited basis. About 44% of a seed is oil, with the remainder as a canola meal used for animal feed. About {{Convert|23|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} of canola seed makes {{Convert|10|litre|USgal|2|abbr=on}} of canola oil. Canola oil is a key ingredient in many foods. Its reputation as a healthful oil has created high demand in markets around the world,{{cite web |date=2016 |title=What is canola oil? |url=http://www.canolacouncil.org/oil-and-meal/canola-oil/ |access-date=30 April 2016 |publisher=Canola Council of Canada}} and overall it is the third-most widely consumed vegetable oil, after soybean oil and palm oil.{{cite web |last=Ash |first=Mark |date=15 March 2016 |title=Soybeans & Oil Crops |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/soybeans-oil-crops/canola.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423085647/https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/soybeans-oil-crops/canola.aspx |archive-date=23 April 2016 |access-date=30 April 2016 |publisher=Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture}}

The oil has many non-food uses and, like soybean oil, is often used interchangeably with non-renewable petroleum-based oils in products, including industrial lubricants, biodiesel, candles, lipsticks, and newspaper inks.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

Canola vegetable oils certified as organic are required to be from non-GMO rapeseed.{{cite web |date=17 February 2015 |title=Canola Oil Myths and Truths |url=http://www.berkeleywellness.com/healthy-eating/food-safety/article/canola-oil-myths-and-truths |access-date=23 April 2017 |publisher=UC Berkeley School of Public Health}}

{{Nutritional value

| name = Canola oil

| caption = Canola oil

| serving_size = 100 g

| kJ = 3700

| carbs = 0 g

| fat = 100 g

| protein = 0 g

| sugars = 0 g

| satfat = 7.4 g

| transfat = 0.4 g

| monofat = 63.3 g

| polyfat = 28.1 g

| omega3fat = 9.1 g

| omega6fat = 18.6 g

| fiber = 0 g

| starch = 0 g

| water = 0 g

| calcium_mg = 0

| iron_mg = 0

| phosphorus_mg = 0

| magnesium_mg = 0

| manganese_mg = 0

| sodium_mg = 0

| potassium_mg = 0

| zinc_mg = 0

| vitA_ug = 0

| vitA_iu = 0

| betacarotene_ug = 0

| lutein_ug = 0

| thiamin_mg = 0

| riboflavin_mg = 0

| niacin_mg = 0

| pantothenic_mg = 0

| vitB6_mg = 0

| folate_ug = 0

| vitB12_ug = 0

| vitC_mg = 0

| vitE_mg = 17.5

| vitK_ug = 71.3

| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/172336/nutrients Full link to USDA FoodData Central entry]

}}

Canola oil is 100% fat, composed of 63% monounsaturated fat, 28% polyunsaturated fat, and 7% saturated fat (table). The ratio of linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) to alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) is 2:1 (table). A {{cvt|100|g}} reference amount of canola oil provides 880 calories of food energy and is a rich source of vitamin E (117% of the Daily Value, DV) and vitamin K (59% DV) (table).

Reviews indicate that consumption of canola oil can reduce blood levels of cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) – two risk factors for cardiovascular diseases – and may help reduce body weight.{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosqvist F, Niinistö S |title=Fats and oils - a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023 |journal=Food and Nutrition Research |volume=68 |issue= |pages= |date=2024 |pmid=38370114 |pmc=10870979 |doi=10.29219/fnr.v68.10487}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Voon PT, Ng CM, Ng YT, Wong YJ, Yap SY, Leong SL, Yong XS, Lee SW |title=Health Effects of Various Edible Vegetable Oil: An Umbrella Review |journal=Advances in Nutrition |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=100276 |date=September 2024 |pmid=39053603 |pmc=11374968 |doi=10.1016/j.advnut.2024.100276}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Ghobadi S, Hassanzadeh-Rostami Z, Mohammadian F, Zare M, Faghih S |year=2019 |title=Effects of Canola Oil Consumption on Lipid Profile: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Clinical Trials |journal=Journal of the American College of Nutrition |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=185–196 |pmid=30381009 |doi=10.1080/07315724.2018.1475270 |s2cid=53177789}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Raeisi-Dehkordi H, Amiri M, Humphries KH, Salehi-Abargouei A |year=2019 |title=The Effect of Canola Oil on Body Weight and Composition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Clinical Trials |url=https://academic.oup.com/advances/article/10/3/419/5365770 |journal=Advances in Nutrition |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=419–432 |doi=10.1093/advances/nmy108 |pmc=6520036 |pmid=30809634}}

In 2006, canola oil was given a qualified health claim by the United States Food and Drug Administration for lowering the risk of coronary heart disease, resulting from its significant content of unsaturated fats; the allowed claim for food labels states:{{cite web |author=Schneeman, B.O. |date=6 October 2006 |title=Qualified Health Claims, Letter of Enforcement Discretion U.S. Food and Drug Administration: Unsaturated Fatty Acids from Canola Oil and Reduced Risk of Coronary Heart Disease |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/labelingnutrition/ucm072958.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002010725/http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/LabelingNutrition/ucm072958.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 October 2013 |access-date=3 September 2008}}

"Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about 1 {{1/2}} tablespoons (19 grams) of canola oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease due to the unsaturated fat content in canola oil. To achieve this possible benefit, canola oil is to replace a similar amount of saturated fat and not increase the total number of calories you eat in a day. One serving of this product contains [x] grams of canola oil."

{{main|Erucic acid}}

Although wild rapeseed oil contains significant amounts of erucic acid,{{cite journal |last1=Sahasrabudhe |first1=M. R. |year=1977 |title=Crismer values and erucic acid contents of rapeseed oils |journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society |volume=54 |issue=8 |pages=323–324 |doi=10.1007/BF02672436 |s2cid=84400266}} the cultivars used to produce commercial, food-grade canola oil were bred to contain less than 2% erucic acid, an amount deemed not significant as a health risk. The low-erucic trait was due to two mutations changing the activity of LEA1 and KCS17.{{cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Jihong |last2=Chen |first2=Biyun |last3=Zhao |first3=Jing |last4=Zhang |first4=Fugui |last5=Xie |first5=Ting |last6=Xu |first6=Kun |last7=Gao |first7=Guizhen |last8=Yan |first8=Guixin |last9=Li |first9=Hongge |last10=Li |first10=Lixia |last11=Ji |first11=Gaoxiang |last12=An |first12=Hong |last13=Li |first13=Hao |last14=Huang |first14=Qian |last15=Zhang |first15=Meili |last16=Wu |first16=Jinfeng |last17=Song |first17=Weilin |last18=Zhang |first18=Xiaojun |last19=Luo |first19=Yujie |last20=Chris Pires |first20=J. |last21=Batley |first21=Jacqueline |last22=Tian |first22=Shilin |last23=Wu |first23=Xiaoming |title=Genomic selection and genetic architecture of agronomic traits during modern rapeseed breeding |journal=Nature Genetics |date=May 2022 |volume=54 |issue=5 |pages=694–704 |doi=10.1038/s41588-022-01055-6 |pmid=35484301 |s2cid=248430415 |quote=We found that FAE1 (BnaA08g11130D) and KCS17 (BnaA08g11140D) were the genes associated with fatty acid elongation for erucic acid (C22:1) (–log 10(P) = 10.997) ...}}

The erucic acid content in canola oil has been reduced over the years. In western Canada, a reduction occurred from the average content of 0.5% between 1987 and 1996{{cite press release |last1=DeClercq |first1=D.R. |last2=Daun |first2=J.K. |last3=Tipples |first3=K.H. |date=1997 |title=Quality of Western Canadian Canola 1997 |location=Canadian Grain Research Laboratory |publisher=Canadian Grain Commission |issn=0836-1657 |url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/A92-14-1997E.pdf |access-date=21 December 2016}} to a current content of 0.01% from 2008 to 2015. Other reports also show a content lower than 0.1% in Australia and Brazil.

To date, no health effects have been associated with dietary consumption of erucic acid by humans; but tests of erucic acid metabolism in other species imply that higher levels may be detrimental.Food Standards Australia New Zealand (June 2003) [http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/documents/Erucic%20acid%20monograph.pdf Erucic acid in food: A Toxicological Review and Risk Assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123112106/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/documents/Erucic%20acid%20monograph.pdf |date=23 November 2018 }} Technical report series No. 21; Page 4 paragraph 1; {{ISBN|0-642-34526-0}}, {{ISSN|1448-3017}}{{cite book |doi=10.1201/9781003390008-14 |chapter=Food Safety and Foodborne Toxicants |title=Hayes' Principles and Methods of Toxicology |date=2023 |last1=Wallace |first1=Hayes A |last2=Tetyana |first2=Kobets |volume=1 |pages=701–754 |isbn=978-1-003-39000-8 }} Canola oil produced using genetically modified plants has also not been shown to explicitly produce adverse effects.{{cite book |last1=Reddy |first1=Chada S. |title=Principles and methods of toxicology |last2=Hayes |first2=A. Wallace |publisher=Informa Healthcare |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8493-3778-9 |editor1-last=Hayes |editor1-first=A. Wallace |edition=5th |location=London, UK |page=640 |chapter=Foodborne Toxicants}}

Canola oil is generally recognized as safe.

{{main|Glucosinolates}}

Another chemical change in canola is the reduction of glucosinolates. As the oil is extracted, most of the glucosinolates are concentrated into the seed meal, an otherwise rich source of protein. Livestock have varying levels of tolerance to glucosinolates intake, with some being poisoned relatively easily.{{cite journal |title=Glucosinolates as undesirable substances in animal feed - Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain |journal=EFSA Journal |date=January 2008 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=590 |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2008.590 |doi-access=free }}{{Sfn|O'Brien|2008|p=37}} A small amount of glucosinolates also enters the oil, imparting a pungent odor.{{cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Qi |last2=Tang |first2=Hu |last3=Jia |first3=Xiao |last4=Zheng |first4=Chang |last5=Huang |first5=Fenghong |last6=Zhang |first6=Min |title=Distribution of glucosinolate and pungent odors in rapeseed oils from raw and microwaved seeds |journal=International Journal of Food Properties |date=2018 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=2296–2308 |doi=10.1080/10942912.2018.1514632 |doi-access=free }}

Further reduction of glucosinolate levels remains important for the use of rapeseed meal in animal feed.{{cite book|last1=Shahidi |first1=F. |last2=Naczk |first2=M. |title=Canola and Rapeseed |chapter=Removal of Glucosinolates and Other Antinutrients from Canola and Rapeseed by Methanol/Ammonia Processing |date=1990 |pages=291–306 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-3912-4_17 |isbn=978-1-4613-6744-4 }}{{cite journal |last1=Jhingan |first1=Srijan |last2=Harloff |first2=Hans-Joachim |last3=Abbadi |first3=Amine |last4=Welsch |first4=Claudia |last5=Blümel |first5=Martina |last6=Tasdemir |first6=Deniz |last7=Jung |first7=Christian |title=Reduced glucosinolate content in oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) by random mutagenesis of BnMYB28 and BnCYP79F1 genes |journal=Scientific Reports |date=2023-02-09 |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=2344 |doi=10.1038/s41598-023-28661-6|pmid=36759657 |pmc=9911628 |bibcode=2023NatSR..13.2344J }}

It is not completely clear which genetic changes from plant breeding resulted in the current reduction in this group of chemicals.

{{Vegetable oils, composition}}

Apart from its use for human consumption, rapeseed oil is extensively used as a lubricant for machinery. It was widely used in European domestic lighting before the advent of coal (city) gas or kerosene. It was the preferred oil for train pot lamps, and was used for lighting railway coaches in the United Kingdom before gas lighting, and later electric lighting, were adopted. Burned in a Carcel lamp, it was part of the definition of the French standard measure for illumination, the carcel, for most of the nineteenth century. In lighthouses, for example in early Canada, rapeseed oil was used before the introduction of mineral oil. Rapeseed oil was used with the Argand burner because it was cheaper than whale oil.{{cite web |date=2008-03-31 |title=USQUE AD MARE - Early Lights - Canadian Coast Guard |url=http://www.ccg-gcc.gc.ca/eng/CCG/USQUE_Early_Lights |access-date=2010-03-14 |publisher=Ccg-gcc.gc.ca}} Rapeseed oil was burned to a limited extent in the Confederacy during the American Civil War.{{cite journal |last=Mallett |first=John W. |title=How the South got chemicals during the war |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2001.05.0289%3Achapter%3D1.23 |journal=Southern Historical Society Papers |volume=31 |page=101}}

Rapeseed oil was used in Gombault's Caustic Balsam,{{cite web |title=Gombaults |url=http://www.racehorseherbal.com/Herbal_Therapies/Liniments/Gombaults/gombaults.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128162751/http://racehorseherbal.com/Herbal_Therapies/Liniments/Gombaults/gombaults.html |archive-date=2010-11-28 |access-date=2010-03-14 |publisher=Racehorseherbal.com |quote=Note that the ingredients listed in this link are similar to, but not the same as, the list on the actual bottle.}} a popular horse and human liniment at the turn of the 20th century.

Among the more unusual applications of rapeseed oil is the calming of choppy seas, where the oil modifies the surface tension of the water and rapidly smooths the surface. For this purpose, rapeseed oil was carried in ship's lifeboats.{{Cite news |date=1893-03-04 |title=Oil Tested in Storms at Sea |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1893/03/04/archives/oil-tested-in-storms-at-sea.html |access-date=2010-03-14 |quote=Attached to a canvas sea-anchor was another small punctured canvas bag that was filled with rapeseed oil. When the sea-anchor was streamed, especially in high seas, the wind and wave action would blow the boat downwind leaving the sea-anchor up to windward where the leaking oil would effectively smooth the approaching waves. oilnews}}{{Better source needed|date=January 2021}}

{{main|Biodiesel}}

Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either as biodiesel, straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock,{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lower gel point than most other vegetable oils.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

Some less-processed versions of rapeseed oil are used for flavor in some countries. Chinese rapeseed oil was originally extracted from the field mustard. In the 19th century, rapeseed (B. rapa) was introduced by European traders, and local farmers crossed the new plant with field mustard to produce semi-winter rapeseed.{{cite web |title=Southwest China's Foundational Rapeseed Oil |website=New Cookery Recipes |url=https://newcookeryrecipes.info/southwest-chinas-foundational-rapeseed-oil-%E8%8F%9C%E7%B1%BD%E6%B2%B9%E7%AE%80%E4%BB%8B/ |access-date=6 April 2021 |archive-date=17 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117173955/https://newcookeryrecipes.info/southwest-chinas-foundational-rapeseed-oil-%E8%8F%9C%E7%B1%BD%E6%B2%B9%E7%AE%80%E4%BB%8B/ |url-status=dead }} Their erucic acid content was reduced to modern "canola" levels by breeding with Canadian low-erucic acid cultivar "ORO".{{cite journal|display-authors=3 |last1=Wu |first1=Gang |last2=Wu |first2=Yuhua |last3=Xiao |first3=Ling |last4=Li |first4=Xiaodan |last5=Lu |first5=Changming |title=Zero erucic acid trait of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) results from a deletion of four base pairs in the fatty acid elongase 1 gene |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |date=February 2008 |volume=116 |issue=4 |pages=491–499 |doi=10.1007/s00122-007-0685-z |pmid=18075728 |quote=Since then almost all of the LEA rapeseed cultivars have been developed in China and other countries by traditional crossing method with the LEA gene source from the ORO (Harvey and Downey 1963).}}{{cite journal|display-authors=3 |last1=Hu |first1=Shengwu |last2=Yu |first2=Chengyu |last3=Zhao |first3=Huixian |last4=Sun |first4=Genlou |last5=Zhao |first5=Suolao |last6=Vyvadilova |first6=Miroslava |last7=Kucera |first7=Vratislav |title=Genetic diversity of Brassica napus L. Germplasm from China and Europe assessed by some agronomically important characters |journal=Euphytica |date=March 2007 |volume=154 |issue=1–2 |pages=9–16 |doi=10.1007/s10681-006-9263-8 |quote=Using these canola varieties as parents, Chinese breeders have successively developed a series of new varieties adapted to local condition.}} Chinese rapeseed oil has a distinctive taste and a greenish colour due to the different processing method: seeds are roasted and expeller-pressed to obtain the oil. A centrifuge is used to remove solids, followed by a heating step. The resultant oil is heat-stable and fundamental to Sichuan cuisine.

In India, mustard oil is used in cooking.{{cite news |last1=Sen |first1=Indrani |date=1 November 2011 |title=American Chefs Discover Mustard Oil |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/02/dining/american-chefs-discover-mustard-oil.html |newspaper=The New York Times }} In the United Kingdom and Ireland, some chefs use a "cabbagey"-tasting rapeseed oil processed by cold-pressing.{{cite news |last1=Thring |first1=Oliver |date=12 June 2012 |title=The rise of rapeseed oil |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2012/jun/12/rise-of-rapeseed-oil}} This cold process means that the oil has a low smoke point, and is therefore unsuitable for frying in Sichuan cuisine, for example.{{cite web |title=Which oil should I use for frying? |url=https://akercare.com/news/which-oil-should-i-use-for-frying/#:~:text=When%20choosing%20oil%20for%20frying%20food%20refined%20oils%20should%20be%20used.&text=Examples%20of%20such%20oils%20are,food%20in%20cold%2Dpressed%20oils. |access-date=6 April 2021 |website=AkerCare |publisher=Aker Solutions|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202190720/https://akercare.com/news/which-oil-should-i-use-for-frying/}}

{{main|Toxic oil syndrome}}

In 1981, there was an oil poisoning outbreak, later known as toxic oil syndrome that was attributed to people consuming what they thought was olive oil but turned out to be rapeseed oil that had been denatured with 2% aniline (phenylamine). The substance was intended for industrial use but had been illegally refined in an attempt to remove the aniline.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Gelpí E, de la Paz MP, Terracini B, Abaitua I, de la Cámara AG, Kilbourne EM, Lahoz C, Nemery B, Philen RM, Soldevilla L, Tarkowski S |date=May 2002 |title=The Spanish toxic oil syndrome 20 years after its onset: a multidisciplinary review of scientific knowledge. |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |publisher=US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health |volume=110 |issue=5 |pages=457–464 |doi=10.1289/ehp.110-1240833 |pmc=1240833 |pmid=12003748}} It was then fraudulently sold as olive oil, mainly in street markets, mostly in the Madrid area.{{Cite web |date=2021-10-19 |title=Factbox: Fake olive oil scandal that caused Spain's worst food poisoning epidemic in 1981 |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/fake-olive-oil-scandal-that-caused-spains-worst-food-poisoning-epidemic-1981-2021-10-19/ |publisher=Reuters}}{{Cite news |author=Westfall, Sammy |date=October 19, 2021 |title=Victims of a 1981 mass cooking-oil poisoning occupy Madrid museum |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/10/19/mass-oil-posioning-protest-suicide-spain/}}

{{Commons category|Rapeseed oil}}

• Botanol, a flooring material derived from canola oil
• List of canola diseases
• Triangle of U

{{notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite book |doi=10.1201/9781420061673 |title=Fats and Oils |date=2008 |last1=O'Brien |first1=Richard D. |isbn=978-0-429-14806-4 }}

{{fatsandoils}}{{Brassica}}

Category:Lubricants

Category:Brassica

Category:Cooking oils

Category:Vegetable oils