:Cunard Line

File:RMS Britannia 1840 paddlewheel.jpg of 1840 (1150 GRT), the first Cunard liner built for the transatlantic service]]

The British Government started operating monthly mail brigs from Falmouth, Cornwall, to New York in 1756. These ships carried few non-governmental passengers and no cargo. In 1818, the Black Ball Line opened a regularly scheduled New York–Liverpool service with clipper ships, beginning an era when American sailing packets dominated the North Atlantic saloon-passenger trade that lasted until the introduction of steamships. A Committee of Parliament decided in 1836 that to become more competitive, the mail packets operated by the Post Office should be replaced by private shipping companies. The Admiralty assumed responsibility for managing the contracts.{{cite book | last = Parry | first = Ann | title = Parry of the Arctic | publisher = London | year = 1963 }} The famed Arctic explorer Admiral Sir William Edward Parry was appointed as Comptroller of Steam Machinery and Packet Service in April 1837.{{cite book | last = Grant | first = Kay | title = Samuel Cunard | publisher = London | year = 1967}} Nova Scotians led by their young Assembly Speaker, Joseph Howe, lobbied for steam service to Halifax. On his arrival in London in May 1838, Howe discussed the enterprise with his fellow Nova Scotian Samuel Cunard (1787–1865), a shipowner who was also visiting London on business.{{cite book | last = Langley | first = John G. | title = Steam Lion | publisher = Nimbus | year = 2006 }} Cunard and Howe were associates and Howe also owed Cunard £300{{cite book | last = Beck | first = J. Murray | title = Joseph Howe, Conservative Reformer | publisher = McGill-Queens | year = 1984 }} ({{Inflation|UK|300|1838|fmt=eq|cursign=£}}).{{Inflation-fn|UK|df=y}} Cunard returned to Halifax to raise capital, and Howe continued to lobby the British government. The Rebellions of 1837–1838 were ongoing and London realised that the proposed Halifax service was also important for the military.{{cite book | last = Arnell | first = J.C | title = Steam and the North Atlantic Mails | publisher = Toronto | year = 1986 }}

That November, Parry released a tender for North Atlantic monthly mail service to Halifax beginning in April 1839 using steamships with 300 horsepower. The Great Western Steamship Company, which had opened its pioneer Bristol–New York service earlier that year, bid £45,000 for a monthly Bristol–Halifax–New York service using three ships of 450 horsepower. While British American, the other pioneer transatlantic steamship company, did not submit a tender,{{cite book | last = Fox | first = Stephen | title = Transatlantic: Samuel Cunard, Isambard Brunel and the Great Atlantic Steamships | year = 2003 | isbn = 9780060195953 | url = https://archive.org/details/transatlanticsam00foxs | url-access = registration }} the St George Steam Packet Company, owner of Sirius, bid £45,000 for a monthly Cork–Halifax service{{cite book | last = Body | first = Geoffey | title = British Paddle Steamers | publisher = Newton Abbot | year = 1971 }} and £65,000 for a monthly Cork–Halifax–New York service. The Admiralty rejected both tenders because neither bid offered to begin services early enough.{{cite book | last = Bacon | first = Edwin M. | title = Manual of Ship Subsidies | url = https://archive.org/details/manualshipsubsi00bacogoog | year = 1911 | publisher = Chicago, A. C. McClurg }}

Cunard, who was back in Halifax, did not know of the tender until after the deadline. He returned to London and started negotiations with Admiral Parry, who was Cunard's good friend from when Parry was a young officer stationed in Halifax 20 years earlier. Cunard offered Parry a fortnightly service beginning in May 1840. While Cunard did not then own a steamship, he had been an investor in an earlier steamship venture, Royal William, and owned coal mines in Nova Scotia. Cunard's major backer was Robert Napier whose Robert Napier and Sons was the Royal Navy's supplier of steam engines. He also had the strong backing of Nova Scotian political leaders at the time when London needed to rebuild support in British North America after the rebellion.

File:RMS Europa.jpg of 1848 (1850 GRT). This is one of the earliest known photos of an Atlantic steamship.]]

Over Great Western's protests,{{cite book | last = Corlett | first = Ewan | title = The Iron Ship: the Story of Brunel's ss Great Britain | publisher = Conway | year = 1975 }} in May 1839 Parry accepted Cunard's tender of £55,000 for a three-ship Liverpool–Halifax service with an extension to Boston and a supplementary service to Montreal. The annual subsidy was later raised £81,000 to add a fourth ship{{cite book | last = Fry | first = Henry | title = The History of North Atlantic Steam Navigation with Some Account of Early Ships and Shipowners| location = London | publisher = Sampson, Low & Marston | year = 1896 | oclc = 271397492 }} and departures from Liverpool were to be monthly during the winter and fortnightly for the rest of the year. Parliament investigated Great Western's complaints, and upheld the Admiralty's decision. Napier and Cunard recruited other investors including businessmen James Donaldson, Sir George Burns, and David MacIver. In May 1840, just before the first ship was ready, they formed the British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company with initial capital of £270,000, later increased to £300,000 (£{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|300000|1840|r=0}}}} in {{Inflation-year|UK}}).{{Inflation-fn|UK|df=y}} Cunard supplied £55,000. Burns supervised ship construction, MacIver was responsible for day-to-day operations, and Cunard was the "first among equals" in the management structure. When MacIver died in 1845, his younger brother Charles assumed his responsibilities for the next 35 years. (For more detail of the first investors in the Cunard Line and also the early life of Charles MacIver, see Liverpool Nautical Research Society's Second Merseyside Maritime History, pp. 33–37 1991.)

In May 1840 the coastal paddle steamer Unicorn made the company's first voyage to HalifaxShips of the Cunard Line; Dorman, Frank E.; Adlard Coles Limited; 1955 to begin the supplementary service to Montreal. Two months later the first of the four ocean-going steamers of the Britannia Class, departed Liverpool. By coincidence, the steamer's departure had patriotic significance on both sides of the Atlantic: she was named Britannia, and sailed on 4 July.{{cite book|author=Miles, Vincent|title=The Lost Hero of Cape Cod: Captain Asa Eldridge and the Maritime Trade That Shaped America|url=http://vjmiles.com/lost-hero|year=2015|publisher=Yarmouth Port, Massachusetts: The Historical Society of Old Yarmouth.}} Even on her maiden voyage, however, her performance indicated that the new era she heralded would be much more beneficial for Britain than the US. At a time when the typical packet ship might take several weeks to cross the Atlantic, Britannia reached Halifax in 12 days and 10 hours, averaging 8.5 knots (15.7 km/h), before proceeding to Boston. Such relatively brisk crossings quickly became the norm for the Cunard Line: during 1840–41, mean Liverpool–Halifax times for the quartet were 13 days 6 hours to Halifax and 11 days 4 hours homeward. Two larger ships were quickly ordered, one to replace the Columbia, which sank at Seal Island, Nova Scotia, in 1843 without loss of life. By 1845, steamship lines led by Cunard carried more saloon passengers than the sailing packets. Three years later, the British Government increased the annual subsidy to £156,000 so that Cunard could double its frequency. Four additional wooden paddlers were ordered and alternate sailings were direct to New York instead of the Halifax–Boston route. The sailing packet lines were now reduced to the immigrant trade.

From the beginning Cunard's ships used the line's distinctive red funnel with two or three narrow black bands and black top. It appears that Robert Napier was responsible for this feature. His shipyard in Glasgow used this combination previously in 1830 on Thomas Assheton Smith's private steam yacht "Menai". The renovation of her model by Glasgow Museum of Transport revealed that she had vermilion funnels with black bands and black top.The National Archives, BT107/202, Beaumaris 1830 No. 24, 132'2" x 20'6" x 12'8", 138 tons. The line also adopted a naming convention that utilised words ending in "IA".{{cite web |url= https://chrisframe.com.au/post/628311901907173376/naming-cruise-ships |title= Naming Cruise Ships |access-date= 4 September 2020}}

Cunard's reputation for safety was one of the significant factors in the firm's early success. Both of the first transatlantic lines failed after major accidents: the British and American line collapsed after the President foundered in a gale, and the Great Western Steamship Company failed after Great Britain stranded because of a navigation error. Cunard's orders to his masters were, "Your ship is loaded, take her; speed is nothing, follow your own road, deliver her safe, bring her back safe – safety is all that is required." In particular, Charles MacIver's constant inspections were responsible for the firm's safety discipline.

File:Cunard Line New York Liverpool 1875.jpg In 1850 the American Collins Line and the British Inman Line started new Atlantic steamship services. The American Government supplied Collins with a large annual subsidy to operate four wooden paddlers that were superior to Cunard's best, as they demonstrated with three Blue Riband-winning voyages between 1850 and 1854. Meanwhile, Inman showed that iron-hulled, screw propelled steamers of modest speed could be profitable without subsidy. Inman also became the first steamship line to carry steerage passengers. Both of the newcomers suffered major disasters in 1854. The next year, Cunard put pressure on Collins by commissioning its first iron-hulled paddler, Persia. That pressure may well have been a factor in a second major disaster suffered by the Collins Line, the loss of its steamer Pacific. Pacific sailed out of Liverpool just a few days before Persia was due to depart on her maiden voyage, and was never seen again; it was widely assumed at the time that the captain had pushed his ship to the limit to stay ahead of the new Cunarder, and had likely collided with an iceberg during what was a particularly severe winter in the North Atlantic. A few months later Persia inflicted a further blow to the Collins Line, regaining the Blue Riband with a Liverpool–New York voyage of 9 days 16 hours, averaging {{convert|13.11|kn|km/h}}.{{cite book | last = Kludas | first = Arnold | title = Record breakers of the North Atlantic, Blue Riband Liners 1838–1953 | location = London | publisher = Chatham | year =1999 }}

File:Rms persia.jpg of 1856 (3,300 GRT)]]

During the Crimean War Cunard supplied 11 ships for war service. Every British North Atlantic route was suspended until 1856 except Cunard's Liverpool–Halifax–Boston service. While Collins' fortunes improved because of the lack of competition during the war, it collapsed in 1858 after its subsidy for carrying mail across the Atlantic was reduced by the US Congress. Cunard emerged as the leading carrier of saloon passengers and in 1862 commissioned Scotia, the last paddle steamer to win the Blue Riband. Inman carried more passengers because of its success in the immigrant trade. To compete, in May 1863 Cunard started a secondary Liverpool–New York service with iron-hulled screw steamers that catered for steerage passengers. Beginning with China, the line also replaced the last three wooden paddlers on the New York mail service with iron screw steamers that only carried saloon passengers.

When Cunard died in 1865, the equally conservative Charles MacIver assumed Cunard's role. The firm retained its reluctance about change and was overtaken by competitors that more quickly adopted new technology. In 1866 Inman started to build screw propelled express liners that matched Cunard's premier unit, Scotia. Cunard responded with its first high speed screw propellered steamer, Russia which was followed by two larger editions. In 1871 both companies faced a new rival when the White Star Line commissioned the Oceanic and her five sisters. The new White Star record-breakers were especially economical because of their use of compound engines. White Star also set new standards for comfort by placing the dining saloon midships and doubling the size of cabins. Inman rebuilt its express fleet to the new standard, but Cunard lagged behind both of its rivals. Throughout the 1870s Cunard passage times were longer than either White Star or Inman.

File:Cunard Line (538135059).jpg

In 1867 responsibility for mail contracts was transferred back to the Post Office and opened for bid. Cunard, Inman and the German Norddeutscher Lloyd were each awarded one of the three weekly New York mail services. The fortnightly route to Halifax formerly held by Cunard went to Inman. Cunard continued to receive an £80,000 subsidy (equivalent to £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|80000|1867|r=0}}}} in {{Inflation-year|UK}}),{{Inflation-fn|UK|df=y}} while NDL and Inman were paid sea postage. Two years later the service was rebid and Cunard was awarded a seven-year contract for two weekly New York mail services at £70,000 per annum. Inman was awarded a seven-year contract for the third weekly New York service at £35,000 per year.

The Panic of 1873 started a five-year shipping depression that strained the finances of all of the Atlantic competitors. In 1876 the mail contracts expired and the Post Office ended both Cunard's and Inman's subsidies. The new contracts were paid on the basis of weight, at a rate substantially higher than paid by the United States Post Office. Cunard's weekly New York mail sailings were reduced to one and White Star was awarded the third mail sailing. Every Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday a liner from one of the three firms departed Liverpool with the mail for New York.{{cite book | last = Preble | first = George Henry |author2=John Lipton Lochhead | title = A Chronological History of the Origin and Development of Steam Navigation | url = https://archive.org/details/achronologicalh00lochgoog | location = Philadelphia | publisher = L.R. Hamersley | year = 1883 | oclc = 2933332 }}

File:House flag of the Cunard Line.svg used by Cunard Line]]

File:MandK Captain on Cunard 1901.jpg waves aboard a Cunard Line vessel in 1901]]

To raise additional capital, in 1879 the privately held British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company was reorganised as a public stock corporation, the Cunard Steamship Company, Ltd. Under Cunard's new chairman, John Burns (1839–1900), son of one of the firm's original founders, Cunard commissioned four steel-hulled express liners beginning with {{SS|Servia||2}} of 1881, the first passenger liner with electric lighting throughout. In 1884, Cunard purchased the almost new Blue Riband winner {{SS|Oregon|1883|2}} from the Guion Line when that firm defaulted on payments to the shipyard. That year, Cunard also commissioned the record-breakers {{RMS|Umbria|3=2}} and {{RMS|Etruria|3=2}} capable of {{convert|19.5|kn|km/h}}. Starting in 1887, Cunard's newly won leadership on the North Atlantic was threatened when Inman and then White Star responded with twin screw record-breakers. In 1893 Cunard countered with two even faster Blue Riband winners, {{RMS|Campania|3=2}} and {{RMS|Lucania|3=2}}, capable of {{convert|21.8|kn|km/h}}.

File:Rms etruria.jpg)]]

File:Every boy's book of railways and steamships (1911) (14755838841).jpg

No sooner had Cunard re-established its supremacy than new rivals emerged. Beginning in the late 1860s several German firms commissioned liners that were almost as fast as the British mail steamers from Liverpool. In 1897 {{SS|Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse||2}} of Norddeutscher Lloyd raised the Blue Riband to {{convert|22.3|kn|km/h}}, and was followed by a succession of German record-breakers. Rather than match the new German speedsters, White Star – a rival which Cunard line would merge with – commissioned four very profitable Big Four ocean liners of more moderate speed for its secondary Liverpool–New York service. In 1902 White Star joined the well-capitalized American combine, the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM), which owned the American Line, including the old Inman Line, and other lines. IMM also had trade agreements with Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd. Negotiators approached Cunard's management in late 1901 and early 1902, but did not succeed in drawing the Cunard Line into IMM, then being formed with support of financier J. P. Morgan.{{Cite book|title=Cunard and the North Atlantic 1840–1973: A History of Shipping and Financial Management|url=https://archive.org/details/cunardnorthatlan0000hyde|url-access=registration| last1=Hyde| first1=Francis E|year = 1975|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cunardnorthatlan0000hyde/page/139 139]–141|publisher=Macmillan |isbn=9780333173138}}

British prestige was at stake. The British Government provided Cunard with an annual subsidy of £150,000 plus a low interest loan of £2.5 million (equivalent to £{{Formatprice|{{Inflation|UK|2500000|1906|r=0}}}} in {{Inflation-year|UK}}),{{Inflation-fn|UK|df=y}} to pay for the construction of the two superliners, the Blue Riband winners {{RMS|Lusitania|3=2}} and {{RMS|Mauretania|1906|2}}, capable of {{convert|26.0|kn|km/h}}. In 1903 the firm started a Fiume–New York service with calls at Italian ports and Gibraltar. The next year Cunard commissioned two ships to compete directly with the Celtic-class liners on the secondary Liverpool–New York route. In 1911 Cunard entered the St Lawrence trade by purchasing the Thompson line, and absorbed the Royal line five years later.

File:RMS-Carpathia.jpg]]

Not to be outdone, both White Star and Hamburg–America each ordered a trio of superliners. The White Star {{Sclass|Olympic|ocean liner|0}} liners at {{convert|21.5|kn|km/h}} and the Hapag {{Sclass|Imperator|ocean liner|0}} liners at {{convert|22.5|kn|km/h}} were larger and more luxurious than the Cunarders, but not as fast. Cunard also ordered a new ship, {{RMS|Aquitania|3=2}}, capable of {{convert|24.0|kn|km/h}}, to complete the Liverpool mail fleet. Events prevented the expected competition between the three sets of superliners. White Star's Titanic sank on its maiden voyage, both White Star's {{HMHS|Britannic|3=2}} and Cunard's Lusitania were war losses, and the three Hapag super-liners were handed over to the Allied powers as war reparations.

In 1916 Cunard Line completed its European headquarters in Liverpool, moving in on 12 June of that year.Liverpool Daily Post 12 June 1916 The grand neo-Classical Cunard Building was the third of Liverpool's Three Graces. The headquarters were used by Cunard until the 1960s.{{cite web|url=http://www.cunard.com/images/Content/History.pdf |title=Cunard History at a Glance |access-date=13 March 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326230808/http://www.cunard.com/images/Content/History.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009 }} In 1917, Cunard's facilities were co-opted by the War Office to build aircraft for the expanding Royal Flying Corps, later the RAF.{{cite book |last1=Learmonth |first1=Bob |last2=Nash |first2=Joanna |editor1-last=Cluett |editor1-first=Douglas |title=The First Croyon Airport 1915-1928 |date=1977 |publisher=Sutton Libraries and Arts Services |location=Sutton |isbn=0-950-3224-3-1 |page=19}}

File:'Aquitania' (1914) RMG G10918.tiff of 1914 (45,650 GRT) served in both World Wars]]

Due to First World War losses, Cunard began a post-war rebuilding programme including eleven intermediate liners. It acquired the former Hapag {{SS|Imperator|3=2}} (renamed Berengaria) to replace the lost Lusitania as the running mate for Mauretania and Aquitania, and Southampton replaced Liverpool as the British destination for the three-ship express service. By 1926 Cunard's fleet was larger than before the war, and White Star was in decline, having been sold by IMM.

Despite the dramatic reduction in North Atlantic passengers caused by the shipping depression beginning in 1929, the Germans, Italians and the French commissioned new "ships of state" prestige liners. The German {{SS|Bremen|1928|2}} took the Blue Riband at {{convert|27.8|kn|km/h}} in 1933, the Italian {{SS|Rex|3=2}} recorded {{convert|28.9|kn|km/h}} on a westbound voyage the same year, and the French {{SS|Normandie|3=2}} crossed the Atlantic in just under four days at {{convert|30.58|kn|km/h}} in 1937. In 1930 Cunard ordered an 80,000-ton liner that was to be the first of two record-breakers fast enough to fit into a two-ship weekly Southampton–New York service. Work on "Hull Number 534" was halted in 1931 because of the economic conditions.

{{main|Cunard-White Star Line}}

File:Cunard White Star Line Logo.JPG

File:Queen Mary New York.jpg of 1936 (80,700 GRT) in New York (c. 1960)]]

In 1934, both the Cunard Line and the White Star Line were experiencing financial difficulties. David Kirkwood, MP for Clydebank where the unfinished Hull Number 534 had been sitting idle for two and a half years, made a passionate plea in the House of Commons for funding to finish the ship and restart the dormant British economy.{{cite web |title=The Red Baron of Bearsden |url=http://www.milngavieherald.co.uk/milngavie-yesterday/The-Red-Baron-of-Bearsden.1778877.jp |website=Milngavie Herald |date=14 December 2006 |access-date=17 February 2010 |archive-date=12 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212203103/http://www.milngavieherald.co.uk/milngavie-yesterday/The-Red-Baron-of-Bearsden.1778877.jp |url-status=dead }} The government offered Cunard a loan of £3 million to complete Hull Number 534 and an additional £5 million to build a second ship, if Cunard merged with White Star.

The merger took place on 10 May 1934, creating Cunard-White Star Limited. The merger was accomplished with Cunard owning about two-thirds of the capital. Due to the surplus tonnage of the new combined Cunard White Star fleet many of the older liners were sent to the scrapyard; these included the ex-Cunard liner Mauretania and the ex-White Star liners {{RMS|Olympic|3=2}} and {{RMS|Homeric|1913|2}}. In 1936 the ex-White Star {{RMS|Majestic|1914|2}} was sold when Hull Number 534, now named {{RMS|Queen Mary|3=2}}, replaced her in the express mail service. Queen Mary reached {{convert|30.99|kn|km/h}} on her 1938 Blue Riband voyage. Cunard-White Star started construction on {{RMS|Queen Elizabeth|3=2}}, and a smaller ship, the second {{RMS|Mauretania|1938|2}}, joined the fleet and could also be used on the Atlantic run when one of the Queens was in drydock. The ex-Cunard liner Berengaria was sold for scrap in 1938 after a series of fires.

File:RMS Queen Elizabeth at Southampton 1960 (1).jpg of 1939 (83,650 GRT)]]

During the Second World War the Queens carried over two million servicemen and were credited by Churchill as helping to shorten the war by a year. All four of the large Cunard-White Star express liners, the two Queens, Aquitania and Mauretania survived, but many of the secondary ships were lost. Both {{RMS|Lancastria|3=2}} and {{RMS|Laconia|1921|2}} were sunk with heavy loss of life.

In 1947 Cunard purchased White Star's interest, and by 1949 the company had dropped the White Star name and was renamed "Cunard Line".{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i7yvCwAAQBAJ&q=cunard+white+star+1949&pg=PA292 | title=Cunard and the North Atlantic 1840–1973: A History of Shipping and Financial Management| isbn=9781349023905| last1=Hyde| first1=Francis E| date=18 June 1975| publisher=Springer}} Also in 1947 the company commissioned five freighters and two cargo liners. {{RMS|Caronia|1947|2}}, was completed in 1949 as a permanent cruise liner and Aquitania was retired the next year.

Cunard was in an especially good position to take advantage of the increase in North Atlantic travel during the 1950s and the Queens were a major generator of US currency for Great Britain. Cunard's slogan, "Getting there is half the fun", was specifically aimed at the tourist trade. Beginning in 1954, Cunard took delivery of four new 22,000-GRT intermediate liners for the Canadian route and the Liverpool–New York route. The last White Star motor ship, {{MV|Britannic|1929|2}} of 1930, remained in service until 1960.

The introduction of jet airliners in 1958 heralded major change for the ocean liner industry. In 1960 a government-appointed committee recommended the construction of project Q3, a conventional 75,000 GRT liner to replace Queen Mary. Under the plan, the government would lend Cunard the majority of the liner's cost.{{cite news |title= 75,000-Ton Vessel to Replace Queen Mary Is Urged in Britain|work=The New York Times |date=2 June 1960 |url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40B1EFA3D5C1A728DDDAB0894DE405B808AF1D3&scp=1&sq=75%2C000-ton+vessel+to+replace+Queen+Mary+is+urged+in+Britain&st=p }} However, some Cunard stockholders questioned the plan at the June 1961 board meeting because transatlantic flights were gaining in popularity.{{cite news |title= Queen Mary Plan Draws Protests|work=The New York Times |date=15 June 1961 |url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0D16FC395D1B728DDDAC0994DE405B818AF1D3&scp=1&sq=queen%20mary%20plan%20draws%20protests&st=cse }} By 1963 the plan had been changed to a dual-purpose 55,000 GRT ship designed to cruise in the off-season.{{cite news |first=George |last=Horne |title= Cunard's Decision on New Liner Is Due by Board Meeting in June|work=The New York Times |date=9 April 1963|url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0710FA3858137A93CBA9178FD85F478685F9&scp=1&sq=Cunard%27s%20decision%20on%20new%20liner&st=cse }} The new vessel design was known as Q4.{{cite news |title= Cunard Unveils Scale Model of Its Q4|work=The New York Times |date=5 April 1967 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1967/04/05/archives/cunard-unveils-scale-model-of-its-q4.html }} Ultimately, this ship came into service in 1969 as the 70,300 GRT {{Ship|2=Queen Elizabeth 2|4=2}}.

Cunard attempted to address the challenge presented by jet airliners by diversifying its business into air travel. In March 1960, Cunard bought a 60% shareholding in British Eagle, an independent (non-government owned) airline, for £30 million, and changed its name to Cunard Eagle Airways. The support from this new shareholder enabled Cunard Eagle to become the first British independent airline to operate pure jet airliners, as a result of a £6 million order for two new Boeing 707–420 passenger aircraft. The order had been placed (including an option on a third aircraft) in expectation of being granted traffic rights for transatlantic scheduled services.{{cite web |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1961/1961%20-%200673.html |title=Air Commerce |work=Flight International |date=18 May 1961 |page=683 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025053602/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1961/1961%20-%200673.html |archive-date=25 October 2012 }}{{citation |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1960/1960%20-%200425.html |title=Cunard and "British Eagle |work=Flight International |date=25 March 1960 |page=425}}Aeroplane – Air Transport ...: "Cunard Eagle Buys Boeings, Vol. 100, No. 2587, p. 545, Temple Press, London, 18 May 1961Fly me, I'm Freddie!, p. 99 The airline took delivery of its first Bristol Britannia aircraft on 5 April 1960 (on lease from Cubana).{{cite journal|title=British Eagle's Whispering Giants|journal=Airliner World|date=February 2015|pages=42–48}} Cunard hoped to capture a significant share of the 1 million people that crossed the Atlantic by air in 1960. This was the first time more passengers chose to make their transatlantic crossing by air than sea.Airways – B.O.A.C.'s Rolls-Royce Boeing 707s (Cunard Eagle Airways and BOAC-Cunard), Vol. 17, No. 2, Iss. 170, p. 38, HPC Publishing, St Leonards-on-Sea, April 2010 In June 1961, Cunard Eagle became the first independent airline in the UK to be awarded a licence by the newly constituted Air Transport Licensing Board (ATLB)Aircraft (Gone but not forgotten... British Eagle), p. 35{{citation |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1961/1961%20-%200463.html |title=Britain's New Board – Plain Man's Guide to the Air Transport Licensing Board |work=Flight International |date=13 April 1961 |pages=471–473}} to operate a scheduled service on the prime Heathrow – New York JFK route, but the licence was revoked in November 1961 after main competitor, state-owned BOAC, appealed to Aviation Minister Peter Thorneycroft.{{cite web |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1967/1967%20-%201657.html |title=The Independent Challenge .. |work=Flight International |date=17 August 1967 |page=247}}Aircraft (Gone but not forgotten... British Eagle), pp. 34/5{{citation |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1961/1961%20-%200895.html |title=Cunard Eagle wins |work=Flight International |date=29 June 1961 |page=907}}{{citation |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1961/1961%20-%201733.html |title=Parliament Debates Civil Aviation |work=Flight International |date=30 November 1961 |page=839}}{{citation |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1961/1961%20-%201754.html |title=Cunard Eagle Western – Postscript |work=Flight International |date=30 November 1961 |page=860}}{{citation |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1962/1962%20-%200503.html |title=Cunard Eagle bounces back |work=Flight International |date=5 April 1962 |page=501}}{{citation |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1968/1968%20-%200047.html |title=Eagle's Application Aims |work=Flight International |date=11 January 1968 |page=49}}{{citation |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1970/1970%20-%200409.html |title=Towards a British Aeroflot |work=Flight International |date=12 March 1970 }}Fly me, I'm Freddie!, pp. 99, 148 On 5 May 1962, the airline's first 707 inaugurated scheduled jet services from London Heathrow to Bermuda and Nassau. The new jet service – marketed as the Cunarder Jet in the UK and as the Londoner in the western hemisphereAirways – B.O.A.C.'s Rolls-Royce Boeing 707s (Cunard Eagle Airways and BOAC-Cunard)'', Vol. 17, No. 2, Iss. 170, p. 39, HPC Publishing, St Leonards-on-Sea, April 2010 – replaced the earlier Britannia operation on this route. Cunard Eagle succeeded in extending this service to Miami despite the loss of its original transatlantic scheduled licence and BOAC's claim that there was insufficient traffic to warrant a direct service from the UK. A load factor of 56% was achieved at the outset. Inauguration of the first British through-plane service between London and Miami also helped Cunard Eagle increase utilisation of its 707s.{{citation |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1962/1962%20-%200772.html |title=Cunarder Jet Challenge – Eagle Versus Speedbird |work=Flight International |date=17 May 1962 |pages=770/1}}

File:G-ASGC Vickers Super VC10 Srs1151 (cn 853) BOAC. (5662144246) (cropped).jpg

BOAC countered Eagle's move to establish itself as a full-fledged scheduled transatlantic competitor on its Heathrow–JFK flagship route by forming BOAC-Cunard as a new £30 million joint venture with Cunard. BOAC contributed 70% of the new company's capital and eight Boeing 707s. Cunard Eagle's long-haul scheduled operation{{cite web |url=http://www.britisheagle.net/Routes-Maps-CE.htm |title=The Home of Eagle ... – Cunard Eagle Route Map |publisher=britisheagle.net}} – including the two new 707s – was absorbed into BOAC-Cunard before delivery of the second 707, in June 1962.BOAC-Cunard eventually operated a fleet comprising 11 707-436/465s, two 707-336Cs and four Super VC10sAeroplane – World Transport Affairs: C.E.A. hands over mid-Atlantic service, Vol. 104, No. 2659, p. 12, Temple Press, London, 4 October 1962Airliner Classics (BOAC throughout the 1950s and 1960s – Boeing 707s and Vickers VC-10s), Key Publishing, Stamford, UK, July 2012, p. 97 BOAC-Cunard leased any spare aircraft capacity to BOAC to augment the BOAC mainline fleet at peak times. As part of this deal, BOAC-Cunard also bought flying hours from BOAC for using the latter's aircraft in the event of capacity shortfalls. This maximised combined fleet use. The joint fleet use agreement did not cover Cunard Eagle's European scheduled, trooping and charter operations.Aeroplane – B.O.A.C. buys Cunard off the North Atlantic, Vol. 103, No. 2643, p. 4, Temple Press, London, 14 June 1962 However, the joint venture was not successful for Cunard and lasted only until 1966, when BOAC bought out Cunard's share.{{cite news |first=Granger |last=Blair |title= BOAC buys out Cunard's Share|work=The New York Times |date=16 September 1964 |url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0B16FF3C58117B93C4A81782D85F428685F9&scp=1&sq=boac+buys+out+cunard%27s+share&st=p }} Cunard also sold a majority holding in the remainder of Cunard Eagle back to its founder in 1963.

Within ten years of the introduction of jet airliners in 1958, most of the conventional Atlantic liners were gone. Mauretania was retired in 1965,{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mauretania-ship-1906-1935|title=Mauretania – ship [1906–1935]|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Queen Mary and Caronia in 1967, and Queen Elizabeth in 1968. Two of the new intermediate liners were sold by 1970 and the other two were converted to cruise ships. All Cunard ships flew both the Cunard and White Star Line house flags until 4 November 1968, when the last White Star ship, Nomadic was withdrawn from service. After this, the White Star flag was no longer flown and all remnants of both White Star Line and Cunard-White Star Line were retired.{{harvnb|Anderson|1964|p=183}}{{harvnb|de Kerbrech|2009|p=229}}

File:RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 in Trondheim 2008.jpg of 1969 (70,300 GRT) at Trondheim, Norway, in 2008]]

In 1971, when the line was purchased by the conglomerate Trafalgar House, Cunard operated cargo and passenger ships, hotels and resorts. Its cargo fleet consisted of 42 ships in service, with 20 on order. The flagship of the passenger fleet was the two-year-old Queen Elizabeth 2. The fleet also included the remaining two intermediate liners from the 1950s, plus two purpose-built cruise ships on order. Trafalgar acquired two additional cruise ships and disposed of the intermediate liners and most of the cargo fleet.{{cite book | last = Monopolies and Mergers Commission | title = Trafalgar House plc & Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company: A report on the proposed merger | chapter = Appendix 3: Trafalgar House plc: composition of fleet in 1971 and 1983 | year = 1984 | pages = 77–79 | url = http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/1984/fulltext/178appendices.pdf | access-date = 17 February 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071025230333/http://www.competition-commission.org.uk//rep_pub/reports/1984/fulltext/178appendices.pdf | archive-date = 25 October 2007 | url-status = usurped }} During the Falklands War, QE2 and Cunard Countess were chartered as troopships{{cite news |title= A Full Log of Sailings|work=The New York Times |date=21 November 1982 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/11/21/travel/a-full-log-of-sailings.html?scp=1&sq=a%20full%20log%20of%20sailings&st=cse }} while Cunard's container ship Atlantic Conveyor was sunk by an Exocet missile.{{cite news |title= French Missiles En Route to Argentina|work=The New York Times |date= 19 November 1982 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/11/19/world/around-the-world-french-missiles-en-route-to-argentina.html?scp=1&sq=french%20missiles%20en%20route%20to%20argentina&st=cse }}

Cunard acquired the Norwegian America Line in 1983, with two classic ocean liner/cruise ships.{{cite news |title=Cunard Purchase |work=The New York Times |date=12 May 1983 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/05/12/business/cunard-purchase.html?scp=1&sq=cunard%20purchase&st=cse }} Also in 1983, the Trafalgar attempted a hostile takeover of P&O, another large passenger and cargo shipping line, which was founded three years before Cunard. P&O objected and forced the issue to the British Monopolies and Mergers Commission. In their filing, P&O was critical of Trafalgar's management of Cunard and their failure to correct Queen Elizabeth 2's mechanical problems.{{cite book | last = Monopolies and Mergers Commission | title = Trafalgar House plc & Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company: A report on the proposed merger | year = 1984 | url = http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/1984/178traf_house_plc_peni_ori_steam_navigation_comp.htm | access-date = 17 February 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090903094145/http://www.competition-commission.org.uk//rep_pub/reports/1984/178traf_house_plc_peni_ori_steam_navigation_comp.htm | archive-date = 3 September 2009 | url-status = usurped }} In 1984, the Commission ruled in favour of the merger, but Trafalgar decided against proceeding.{{cite news |title=Trafalgar bid for P&O |work=The New York Times |date=15 March 1984 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/03/15/business/trafalgar-bid-for-p-o.html?scp=1&sq=trafalgar+bid+for+p%26o&st=nyt }} In 1988, Cunard acquired Ellerman Lines and its small fleet of cargo vessels, organising the business as Cunard-Ellerman, however, only a few years later, Cunard decided to abandon the cargo business and focus solely on cruise ships. Cunard's cargo fleet was sold off between 1989 and 1991, with a single container ship, the second Atlantic Conveyor, remaining under Cunard ownership until 1996. In 1993, Cunard entered into a 10-year agreement to handle marketing, sales and reservations for the Crown Cruise Line, and its three vessels joined the Cunard fleet under the Cunard Crown banner.{{cite web| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iS0DAAAAMBAJ&q=cunard+crown+dynasty&pg=PA28| title=Cruise Travel| last1=Co| first1=Lakeside Publishing| date=November 1993}}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} In 1994 Cunard purchased the rights to the name of the Royal Viking Line and its Royal Viking Sun. The rest of Royal Viking Line's fleet stayed with the line's owner, Norwegian Cruise Line.{{cite news |first=Edwin |last=McDowell |title= Cruise lines sail through choppy seas|work=The New York Times |date=19 October 1994 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/09/travel/fall-and-winter-cruises-cruise-lines-sail-through-choppy-seas.html?scp=1&sq=cruise%20lines%20sail%20through%20choppy%20seas&st=cse }}

By the mid-1990s Cunard was ailing. The company was embarrassed in late 1994 when Queen Elizabeth 2 experienced numerous defects during the first voyage of the season because of unfinished renovation work. Claims from passengers cost the company US$13 million. After Cunard reported a US$25 million loss in 1995, Trafalgar assigned a new CEO to the line, who concluded that the company had management issues.

In 1996 the Norwegian conglomerate Kværner acquired Trafalgar House, and attempted to sell Cunard. When there were no takers, Kværner made substantial investments to turn around the company's tarnished reputation.{{cite news |first=Edwin |last=McDowell |title=Chief's Strategy for an Ailing Cruise Line |work=The New York Times |date=6 August 1996 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/08/06/business/chief-s-strategy-for-an-ailing-cruse-line.html?scp=1&sq=chief%27s%20strategy%20for%20an%20ailing%20cruise%20line&st=cse }}

File:Queen Mary 2 Boston July 2015 01 (cropped).jpg of 2004 (151,400 GT), docked in Boston Harbor as part of a tour to mark Cunard's 175th anniversary in 2015]]

In 1998, the cruise line conglomerate Carnival Corporation acquired 62% of Cunard for US$425 million. Coincidently, it was the same percentage that Cunard owned in Cunard-White Star Line{{cite news |title= Carnival in $500 million deal to buy Cunard|work=The New York Times |date=4 April 1998 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/04/business/company-news-carnival-in-500-million-deal-to-buy-cunard.html?pagewanted=1| url-access = subscription }} and the company historian later stated the acquisition was in-part due to the success of James Cameron’s blockbuster 1997 film, Titanic.{{Cite news |last=Krashinsky |first=Susan |date=2012-04-12 |title=White Star name sails on without Titanic |language=en-CA |work=The Globe and Mail |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/industry-news/marketing/white-star-name-sails-on-without-titanic/article4099917/ |access-date=2023-03-29}} The next year Carnival acquired the remaining 38% and stock for US$205 million.{{cite news |title= Carnival to buy remaining share in Cunard|work=The New York Times |date=20 October 1999 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/10/20/business/company-news-carnival-to-buy-remaining-stake-in-cunard-line.html?pagewanted=1| url-access = subscription }} Ultimately, Carnival sued Kværner claiming that the ships were in worse condition than represented and Kværner agreed to refund US$50 million to Carnival.{{cite book | last = Butler | first = Daniel Allen | title = The Age of Cunard | publisher = Lighthouse Press | year = 2003 | isbn= 978-1-57785-348-0}} Each of Carnival's cruise lines is designed to appeal to a different market, and Carnival was interested in rebuilding Cunard as a luxury brand trading on its British traditions. Under the slogan "Advancing Civilization Since 1840", Cunard's advertising campaign sought to emphasise the elegance and mystique of ocean travel.{{cite news |first=Edwin |last=McDowell |title=Carnival's Cunard cruise line plans to spend 12.5 million to stress a touch of class |work=The New York Times |date=19 August 1999 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/08/19/business/media-business-advertising-carnival-s-cunard-cruise-line-plans-spend-12.5.html?pagewanted=1| url-access = subscription }} Only Queen Elizabeth 2 and Caronia continued under the Cunard brand and the company began Project Queen Mary to build a new ocean liner/cruise ship for the transatlantic route.{{cite news |first=Daniel |last=Wakin |title=Restoring the Queen's Glamour |work=The New York Times |date=19 August 2001 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/19/business/private-sector-restoring-the-queens-glamour.html?scp=1&sq=restoring%20the%20queen%27s%20glamour&st=cse | url-access = subscription}}

Following the Carnival acquisition, Cunard Line introduced White Star Service to Queen Elizabeth 2 and Caronia, as a reference to the high standards of customer service expected of the company. The term is still today onboard its newer vessels. The company has also created the White Star Academy, an in-house programme for preparing new crew members for the service standards expected on Cunard ships.{{cite web| url= http://www.cunard.co.uk/cunard-experience/why-cunard/white-star-service/| title=White Star Service – Cunard Cruise Line |work= Cunard.co.uk}}{{cite web| url= https://chrisframe.com.au/post/738732637218340864/what-is-cunard-white-star-service| title=What is Cunard's White Star Service? |work= Chris Frame Maritime Historian}}

By 2001, Carnival was the largest cruise company, followed by Royal Caribbean and P&O Princess Cruises, which had recently separated from its parent, P&O. When Royal Caribbean and P&O Princess agreed to merge, Carnival countered with a hostile takeover bid for P&O Princess. Carnival rejected the idea of selling Cunard to resolve antitrust issues with the acquisition.{{cite news |title=Carnival may sell unit to complete takeover |work=The New York Times |date=28 May 2002 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/28/business/carnival-may-sell-unit-to-complete-takeover.html?pagewanted=1| url-access = subscription }} European and US regulators approved the merger without requiring Cunard's sale.{{cite news |first=Suzanne |last=Kapner |title= End is seen in long battle for cruise line|work=The New York Times|url-access = subscription |date=25 October 2002 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/25/business/end-is-seen-to-long-battle-for-cruise-line.html?scp=2&sq=end%20is%20near%20in%20long%20battle%20for%20cruise%20line&st=cse }} After the merger was completed, Carnival moved Cunard's headquarters to the offices of Princess Cruises in Santa Clarita, California, so that administrative, financial and technology services could be combined.{{cite news |title=Carnival to move Cunard line's operations to California |work=The New York Times |date=12 July 2004 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/17/business/company-news-carnival-to-move-cunard-line-s-operations-to-california.html?pagewanted=1| url-access = subscription }}

Carnival House opened in Southampton in 2009,{{cite web |url=http://www.dailyecho.co.uk/news/4501646.Opening_of_landmark_city_base_for_Carnival_UK/ |title=Carnival UK moves into new Southampton headquarters |author=Keith Hamilton |date=20 July 2009 |access-date=27 August 2010}} and executive control of Cunard Line transferred from Carnival Corporation in the United States, to Carnival UK, the primary operating company of Carnival plc. As the UK-listed holding company of the group, Carnival plc had executive control of all Carnival Group activities in the UK, with the headquarters of all UK-based brands, including Cunard, in offices at Carnival House.

In 2004, the 36-year-old QE2 was replaced on the North Atlantic by the ocean liner RMS Queen Mary 2. Caronia was sold and Queen Elizabeth 2 continued to cruise until she was retired in 2008. In 2007 Cunard added Queen Victoria, a cruise ship of the Vista class originally designed for Holland America Line. To reinforce Cunard traditions, Queen Victoria has a small museum on board. Cunard commissioned a second Vista class cruise ship, Queen Elizabeth, in 2010.{{cite news |first=Fernanda |last=Santos |title=Three Seafaring Queens Spend a Day in New York |work=The New York Times |date= 4 January 2008 }}

In 2010, Cunard appointed its first female commander, Captain Inger Klein Olsen.{{cite news|title=Queen Elizabeth: Cunard liner returns for celebrations|work=BBC News|date=2 July 2016|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-merseyside-36687644|access-date=3 July 2016}} In 2011, Cunard changed the vessel registry of all three of its ships in service to Hamilton, Bermuda, the first time in the 171-year history of the company that it had no ships registered in the United Kingdom.{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2011/oct/28/cunard-leaves-britain-bermuda | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Terry | last=MacAlister | title=Cunard waves goodbye to Britannia after 170 years | date=28 October 2011}} The captains of ships registered in Bermuda can marry couples at sea, whereas those of UK-registered ships cannot, and weddings at sea are a lucrative market.

On 25 May 2015, the three Cunard ships – Queen Mary 2, Queen Elizabeth and Queen Victoria – sailed up the Mersey into Liverpool to commemorate the 175th anniversary of Cunard. The ships performed manoeuvres, including 180-degree turns, as the Red Arrows performed a fly-past.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-merseyside-32836087|title=Cunard liners mark 175th anniversary in Liverpool|work=BBC News|date=25 May 2015}} Just over a year later Queen Elizabeth returned to Liverpool under Captain Olsen to take part in the celebrations of the centenary of the Cunard Building on 2 June 2016.

In September 2017, Cunard announced a fourth ship was ordered for the fleet. It would be a modified hull platform of Holland America's Pinnacle class Koningsdam.{{Cite web |last=Stieghorst |first=Tom |date=September 25, 2017 |title=Cunard getting new ship |url=https://www.travelweekly.com/Cruise-Travel/Cunard-getting-new-ship}} The ship was original supposed to be delivered in 2022, but would eventually be pushed back 2 years.

At the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020, Cunard cut short three world-cruises, with the passengers being flown home.{{Cite news |date=2020-03-16 |title=Coronavirus: Cunard ends its three world cruises |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-hampshire-51904969 |access-date=2023-06-02}}

The White Star Line flag is raised on all current Cunard ships and the Nomadic every 15 April in memory of the Titanic disaster.{{cite news

| last = Krachinsky

| first = Susan

| date = 12 April 2012

| title = White Star name sails on without Titanic

| url = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/industry-news/marketing/white-star-name-sails-on-without-titanic/article4099917/

| url-access = subscription

| work = The Globe and Mail

| location = Toronto, Ontario

| access-date = 14 August 2021

}}

The new ship Queen Anne was delivered to Cunard on 19 April 2024, the first new ship for the line in over 14 years.{{Cite web |title=Fincantieri Delivers Cunard Line's First New Cruise Ship in 14 Years |url=https://maritime-executive.com/article/fincantieri-delivers-cunard-line-s-first-new-cruise-ship-in-14-years |access-date=2024-05-01 |website=The Maritime Executive |language=en}} She arrived in Southampton on 30 April 2024.{{Cite news |date=2024-04-30 |title=Cunard Queen Anne cruise ship arrives in Southampton |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-hampshire-68921943 |access-date=2024-05-01 |language=en-GB}} The ship departed on her maiden cruise from Southampton to the Canary Islands on 3 May 2024, and she will be officially named in Liverpool in June.{{Cite news |date=2024-02-05 |title=Liverpool to host new Cunard ship naming ceremony |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-merseyside-68203622 |access-date=2024-05-01 |language=en-GB}}

After Trafalgar House bought the company in 1971, Cunard operated the former company's existing hotels as Cunard-Trafalgar Hotels. In the 1980s, the chain was restyled as Cunard Hotels & Resorts, before folding in 1995.

The Cunard line has operated numerous ships during its long history.

{{Main|Cunard-White Star Line}}

See also: White Star Line's Olympic, Homeric, Majestic, Doric, and Laurentic.

{{Portal|United Kingdom|Transport|Companies}}

• Cunard Building (New York City)
• Cunard Yanks

{{Reflist|group=nb}}

{{reflist}}

{{Refbegin}}

• {{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Roy Claude|title=White Star|location=Prescot|publisher=T. Stephenson & Sons Ltd|year=1964|oclc=3134809}}
• {{cite book|last1=Bombail|first1=Marc-Antoine|last2=Gallagher|first2=Michael|title=Cunard: The Fleet Book|date=2017|publisher=Ferry Publications|location=Ramsey, Isle of Man|isbn=9781911268062}}
• {{cite book|last=de Kerbrech|first=Richard P.|title=Ships of the White Star Line|location=Hersham|publisher=Ian Allan Publishing|year=2009|isbn=978-0-7110-3366-5|oclc=298597975}}
• Fowler Jr., William M. Steam Titans: Cunard, Collins, and the Epic Battle for Commerce on the North Atlantic (London: Bloomsbury), 2017. 358 pp
• Hyde, Francis E. Cunard and the North Atlantic (London: Macmillan), 1975. ISBN 978-1-349-02392-9.

{{Refend}}

{{Commons category}}

• {{Official website}}
• [http://chriscunard.com/ Cunard History Website on Chriscunard.com]
• [https://www.facebook.com/RMSQueenMary2 Official 'Queen Mary 2' Fan Page]
• [https://www.ggarchives.com/OceanTravel/SteamshipLines/CunardLine.html Cunard Line Ephemera 1880–2004] GG Archives
• [http://www.lastoceanliners.com/cgi/lolline.pl?CUN The Last Ocean Liners – Cunard Line] – trade routes and ships of the Cunard Line since the 1950s
• [http://www.charlesfreemandesign.com/curator-intro Curator Intro] Cunard Sesquicentennial Exhibition – 150 Transatlantic Years – The Ocean Liner Museum, New York
• {{PM20|FID=co/005571|TEXT=Documents and clippings about the|NAME=}}
• [http://www.theshipslist.com/ships/lines/cunard.shtml TheShips List]

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